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WHY IS THIS IMPOrTANT?
Development that occurs during the infancy and childhood
stages builds on the foundations laid down in the prenatal
stage and plays a significant role in the development
that will occur across the rest of the lifespan. Maintaining
adequate health is a key factor in achieving optimal
development and vice versa.
Having an understanding of the health and development
that occurs during these stages of the lifespan allows
informed decisions to be made for the promotion of
optimal wellbeing among children.
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The health and individual
human development of
Australia’s children
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KEY KNOWLEDGE
2.1 physical, social, emotional and intellectual development from birth to
late childhood (pages 235–43)
2.2 the principles of individual human development (pages 232–4)
2.3 the health status of Australia’s children (pages 244–51).
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KEY SKILLS
• describe the characteristics of individual human development from
birth to late childhood
• interpret data on the health status of Australia’s children.
FIgUrE 8.1 Childhood is a time
of significant individual human
development, influenced by a
range of factors.
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KEY TERM DEFINITIONS
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attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a
condition characterised by a pattern of impulsiveness,
inattention and overactivity
autoimmune disease a disease characterised by
the immune system attacking and destroying healthy
body cells
cephalocaudal development development that
occurs from the head downwards
child mortality deaths that occur between the first
birthday and 14 years of age
colostrum a concentrated form of breastmilk that is
also rich in antibodies. Colostrum is produced for the
first few days after birth.
empathy the ability to see events from another
person’s point of view and to understand the emotions
of others
infant mortality deaths that occur between birth and
the first birthday
meconium a dark, sticky, tar-like substance that is
excreted through the bowels shortly after birth. It
includes things ingested while in the uterus, such as
mucous, bile and water.
neonate describes an infant in the first 28 days
after birth
object permanence an awareness that objects
continue to exist even when they are out of sight
perinatal conditions conditions causing death in
the first 28 days of life (e.g. due to complications of
the placenta or umbilical cord, infections, birth injury,
asphyxia and problems relating to premature births)
proximodistal development development that
occurs from the core or centre of the body outwards
(towards the extremities)
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8.1
Principles of individual human development
KEY CONCEPT Understanding the principles of individual human
development
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Development during the prenatal, infancy and childhood stages of the lifespan
establishes a base that will be built upon during youth and adulthood. As explored
in chapter 6, the prenatal stage is the fastest period of growth of all lifespan stages
and is characterised by the development of body systems that will allow the foetus
to survive outside its mother’s uterus after birth. Infancy and childhood are marked
by significant developmental milestones such as learning to walk, talk, read, write
and interact with others. Understanding the development that occurs during these
lifespan stages facilitates analysis of the effects that such development has on the
individual, both now and in the future.
Development in humans, although occurring at different times and at different
rates, has some similarities for all people. A number of principles govern the
development that humans experience and many of these are particularly evident
in the infancy and childhood stages. Any example of development may display a
number of the five principles discussed in the following sections.
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Figure 8.2 Writing is an example
of a skill that, although achieved
in the young years, will be refined
over time as the individual builds on
those initial skills.
1. Development occurs in a
predictable and orderly way
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Many aspects of development occur in predictable, orderly patterns. From
observing many individuals over long periods of time, experts can roughly predict
when certain milestones should occur. For example, most infants learn to walk at
9 to 15 months.
Many aspects of human development require other skills in order to occur. For
example, if a child is to put a sentence together, they need to be able to manipulate
their vocal chords, know the meanings of words and articulate the sentence so it
makes sense. If any of these prior skills are not present, then the child will not be
able to make a sentence that makes sense.
Figure 8.3 The rate and timing
of development are different for
all people.
2. Development is continual
Development starts with conception and ends with death. All skills learnt and
milestones achieved between these two events form part of development. The
foundations laid in one stage (e.g. learning to write in early childhood) will be built
upon in the next (figure 8.2). The decline in body systems and memory over time
are also a part of this principle, indicating that humans never stop developing.
3. T
here are individual variations
in the rate and timing of
development
Many factors influence development such as hormones, genetics, family interaction,
nutrition, physical activity levels and state of health. As a result, there will be
variations in when milestones are reached and how developed one person is
compared to another person of the same age. These factors also influence how
quickly it takes a person to move through a developmental stage (figure 8.3).
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4. Development follows predictable
patterns
Growth and motor skill development follow patterns that are observable in
all people. The cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of development are
particularly evident during the prenatal, infant and childhood stages of the lifespan.
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Cephalocaudal development refers to growth and development that occurs from
the head down. An infant will gain control over their neck muscles first, which
allows them to hold their head steady. Control over their shoulder muscles usually
follows, which allows them to roll over. Finally, control over the muscles in their
torso allows them to sit. The size of the head of an infant in relation to the rest of
the body also illustrates this pattern of development (figure 8.4).
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Cephalocaudal development
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Figure 8.4 The cephalocaudal pattern of development is shown in the changing
proportions of the human body over time.
Proximodistal development
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Proximodistal development occurs from the centre or core of the body in an
outward direction. An example is the way that the spine develops first in the uterus,
followed by the extremities and finally the fingers and toes (figure 8.5). In motor
development, an infant reaches for a toy by using shoulder and torso rotation in
order to move the hand closer to the object. In childhood, the elbow and wrist are
responsible for the main movements.
Developing head
Heart prominent
Upper limb
Tail
Lower limb
Ear
Eye
Nose
Upper limb
Umbilical cord
Lower limb
Figure 8.5 The proximodistal pattern of development is evident in these 32- and 52-dayold embryos. The spine is prominent but the buds that will become the arms and legs are still
underdeveloped.
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8.1 Principles of individual human development
5. Development proceeds from the
simple to the complex
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Thought processes and motor skill development go from simple to complex. Once
the simple aspects have been attained, they can be built upon to make the skills
more complex. For example, infants think in a concrete way but, as they move
through the childhood and youth stages, abstract thought develops. A child usually
learns to crawl before walking and ultimately running.
Case study
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Do you ever compare your child’s behaviour or ­progress
with other children of the same age? If so, you are
causing stress for yourself and your child. Comparing
your child with others is an ultimately useless activity.
But it’s hard to resist, as we tend to assess our
progress in any area of life by checking out how we
compare with our peers.
When you were a child in school you probably
compared yourself to your schoolmates. Your teachers
may not have graded you, but you knew who the
smart kids were and where you ranked in the pecking
order.
Now that you have kids of your own, do you still
keep an eye on your peers? Do you use the progress
and behaviour of their kids as benchmarks to help you
assess your own performance as well as your child’s
progress? This is okay, as long as we don’t lose sight of
three important aspects.
1. Kids develop at different rates. There are early
developers, slow bloomers and steady-as-yougo kids in every group, so comparing your
child’s results or performance can be completely
unrealistic.
What this means for you: focus on your child’s
improvement and effort and use your child’s results as
the benchmark for his or her progress and development.
‘Your spelling is better today than it was a few days,
weeks or months ago.’
2. Kids have different talents, interests and strengths.
Okay, your eight-year-old may not be able to
hit a tennis ball with Rafael Nadal, even though
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Comparing your kids with other children is a recipe
for disaster. By Michael Grose.
your neighbour’s child can. Avoid comparing
the two as your child may not care about tennis
anyway.
What this means for you: help your child identify his or
her own talents and interests. Recognise that his or her
strengths and interests may be completely different to
those of his or her peers and siblings.
3. Parents can have unrealistic expectations for their
kids. We all have hopes and dreams for our kids,
but they may not be in line with their interests
and talents.
What this means for you: keep your expectations for
success in line with their abilities and interests. If
expectations are too high, kids will give up. If they are
too low, they will usually meet them!
Parents should take pride in their children’s
performance at school, sport or leisure activities.
You should also celebrate their achievements and
milestones, such as taking their first steps, scoring their
first goal in a game or getting great marks at school.
However, you shouldn’t have too much personal
stake in your children’s success or in their milestones,
as this close association makes it hard to separate
yourself from your kids. It also causes you to play the
‘compare and compete game’. By comparing kids you
can put pressure on yourself and them to perform for
the wrong reasons.
And certainly, your self-esteem as a parent should
not be explicitly linked to your children’s behaviour or
developmental levels.
‘You are not your child’ is a challenging but essential
parental concept to live by. Doing so takes real maturity
and altruism, but it is the absolute foundation of that
powerful thing known as unconditional love.
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Spare the comparisons
Source: Sunday Herald Sun, 26 April 2009.
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Case study review
FS
1 Why is it not useful for parents to compare their children to other children?
2 How could a child’s interests influence how fast they develop?
3 How could performing ‘for the wrong reasons’ influence future development?
APPLY your knowledge
1 Explain what each of the following principles refers
to and provide examples for each:
(a) predictable and orderly development
(b) continual development
(c) variations in the rate and timing of development
(d) the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of
development
(e) simple to complex development.
2 Consider the following developmental milestones
and explain how three principles of development
are evident in each one:
(a) learning to write
(b) learning to throw a ball
(c) a baby learning to sit up.
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TEST your knowledge
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8.2
Development during infancy
KEY CONCEPT Understanding physical, social, emotional and
intellectual development during infancy
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Infancy is the first stage of the lifespan after birth and lasts until the second
birthday. Newborns are relatively helpless (figure 8.6). They cannot feed, maintain
body warmth, or stay clean or hydrated without the assistance of others. With
interaction and adequate care, the infant will begin to show significant gains in all
areas of development. For the first 28 days after birth, the infant is referred to as
a neonate and undergoes significant changes or adaptations that help it to survive
outside the uterus.
Adaptations of the neonate
Figure 8.6 The newborn is
relatively helpless and relies on
parents/caregivers for almost
everything.
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In the uterus, the foetus relies on its mother for the provision of oxygen, nutrients
and warmth and for the excretion of wastes. After birth, the infant must adapt to
the outside environment and carry out many of these bodily functions itself,
although it is still heavily reliant on help from parents or other caregivers.
In the uterus, the lungs of the foetus are filled with fluid and play no part in
circulation. Instead of travelling to the lungs, the blood must travel to the placenta
to become oxygenated. The foetal heart has two shunts, called the foramen ovale,
that are like valves that allow blood to travel between the chambers of the heart
and cause the blood to be redirected from the lungs to the placenta. After birth,
the foramen ovale close over and allow the blood to travel to the lungs to become
oxygenated. Although the foetus may display a breathing-like motion in the uterus,
there is only amniotic fluid in its immediate environment. As a result, its lungs
are filled with fluid. Once outside the uterus, the infant will take its first breath,
usually within 10 seconds after birth. This prompts the bloodstream to absorb
the fluid from the lungs, so the lungs will fill with air for the first time. A special
substance (called pulmonary surfactant) allows the lungs to expand when inhaling
and prevents them from collapsing when exhaling. Breathing may be shallow and
irregular for minutes or hours before it becomes more rhythmic.
During prenatal development, the foetus receives its nutrients from the mother.
After birth, the infant has some nutrients stored but relies on regular feeding in order
to grow and develop properly. The mother’s breast tissue produces a substance called
colostrum for the first few days after birth and then regular breastmilk after that.
Colostrum is a concentrated form of breastmilk that is also
rich in antibodies, which boosts the infant’s immune function.
At birth, the excretory organs — which include the
kidneys, liver and bowel — become functional and capable
of eliminating waste products. For the first few days after
birth, meconium is passed through the bowels rather than
normal faeces. Meconium is a dark, sticky, tar-like substance
that includes things ingested whilst in the uterus such as
mucous, bile and water. Unlike later faeces, meconium is a
thick liquid that does not have an odour.
The mother’s body temperature maintains the temperature
of the foetus. After birth, temperature must be regulated
in some other manner. Although they have fat stores that
assist with temperature regulation, newborn infants are not
capable of regulating their body temperature and rely on
blankets, clothing, environmental heat and body heat from
Figure 8.7 The foetus relies on its mother for the provision of
oxygen, nutrients and warmth while in the uterus.
others in order to survive.
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The APGAR test
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Table 8.1 The APGAR test is administered to newborns to assess their overall physical condition.
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APGAR is an acronym for Activity, Pulse, Grimace, Appearance and Respiration.
Generally the first test given to newborns, the APGAR test is used to assess the
infant’s adaptation to life outside the uterus. The test is usually administered twice,
at one minute and at five minutes after birth. Judgements are made on the five
aspects of the test and scores given accordingly (table 8.1).
An infant receiving a score of 7 or over one minute after birth is generally
considered to have adapted successfully to life outside the uterus. If the score is
below 7 or after five minutes has not reached 7 (or if there are other concerns),
medical attention may be required.
Score
APGAR sign
2
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Active, spontaneous movement
Arms and legs flexed with little
movement
No movement, ‘floppy’ tone
Pulse (heart rate)
Normal (above 100 beats per
minute)
Below 100 beats per minute
Absent (no pulse)
Grimace (responsiveness or ‘reflex
irritability’)
Pulls away, sneezes or coughs with
stimulation
Facial movement only (grimace)
with stimulation
Absent (no response to
stimulation)
Appearance (skin coloration)
Normal colour all over (hands and
feet are pink)
Normal colour (but hands and feet
are bluish)
Bluish-grey or pale all over
Respiration (rate and effort of
breathing)
Normal rate and effort, good cry
Slow or irregular breathing,
weak cry
Absent (no breathing)
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Activity (muscle tone)
Physical development
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Physically, the infancy stage is the second fastest period of physical
development in the lifespan, second only to the prenatal stage.
Birth weight doubles by six months and triples by 12 months. Body
proportions also start to change, reflecting the cephalocaudal pattern
of development.
The senses continue to develop and, although vision is still largely
blurry, the infant will soon begin to recognise familiar faces and
sounds. Bones continue to ossify during infancy. By the first year, the
infant can support its own weight.
Reflexes that are present at birth (e.g. the grasping reflex) are
gradually replaced by controlled movements as motor skills develop.
A newborn infant does not have much control over its body but will
soon learn to lift its head and roll over. At around six months, infants
start crawling. By the age of one, many infants can stand and walk. By
age two, they can usually throw and kick a large ball.
Social development
The family is the most significant influence on social development at
this stage of the lifespan. The infant is totally dependent on its parents
or other caregivers, and will learn certain social skills by observing
these people.
The infant begins to smile at around six weeks, and after around six
months the infant will begin to recognise facial expressions of others,
such as a smile or a frown.
Figure 8.8 By their first year, many infants can
support their own weight.
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8.2 Development during infancy
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At around six months of age, the infant can enjoy basic games such as peekaboo.
As infants develop, play forms an important part of social develop­ment. They enjoy
games and become increasingly responsive to them. Many social skills are learnt
about sharing and taking turns through play. This may occur with siblings and
parents at home, and also with other children at child-care or playgroups. Through
experiences such as these, the infant also begins to learn culturally acceptable
behaviours such as listening to parents and not hitting others. Social roles are also
imitated such as pushing a pram with a doll in it (figure 8.9).
Figure 8.9 Social roles are often
learned by imitating others.
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As language develops (intellectual develop­ment), infants can interact better with
those around them. They can generally speak a few words at around one year
of age, and understand many more. This allows parents to more easily guide the
social development of their infant.
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Emotional development
Emotional development also revolves around the family at this stage of the lifespan.
One of the first signs of emotional development is when the hurt or distressed
infant can be comforted by its caregivers.
Emotional attachment is formed with the caregivers within months and this helps
the infant to feel secure, safe and loved. It also helps to build trust. The emotional
bond between caregivers and the infant may be so strong that the infant may become
distressed when held by a stranger or when a caregiver leaves the room. Fear may be
shown when confronted by unfamiliar things such as a clown or a dog.
By eight months, the infant can express anger and happiness, and may become
frustrated if interrupted in their activities (e.g. when playing games). This expression
of frustration may result in tantrum-throwing in later months.
By 12 months, the infant becomes sensitive to approval from parents. It may
become upset or distressed if approval is not gained.
Intellectual development
From the time of birth, all senses are working (although they become more
acute over time) and the baby is capable of learning. The senses are the means
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Figure 8.10 The level of intellectual
development experienced during
infancy contributes to the joy many
infants get out of playing peekaboo.
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by which the baby makes sense of the world around it. Many infants
collect information around them by putting objects into their mouth.
This behaviour will often change as the infant develops and starts to use
its other senses.
Within months, the infant will recognise its name and will respond
when called. Over time, this word–object association progresses and the
infant will begin to recognise the names of favourite people, toys, other
objects and basic colours.
Early infancy also signifies an emerging understanding of cause and
effect. Infants will begin to associate certain actions with particular
outcomes. For example, if they cry, they get attention. If they reach for
someone, that person may pick them up. If they kick their legs around,
their caregivers might play with them.
The attention span of an infant is short and may last only a matter of
seconds. The infant may give extra attention to games and objects that it
finds interesting, but only for very short periods of time.
In early infancy, an object that is out of sight no longer exists in the
mind of the infant. So a toy that is placed in a cupboard no longer
exists. As the infant develops intellectually, it begins to understand that,
although an object cannot be seen, it still exists. This concept is known
as object permanence.
By 18 months, the infant can imitate and pretend in play activities. By observing
others, the infant learns a lot about the world around it. Infants may imitate talking
on a phone or having a dinner party.
Language development is rapid during infancy. A three-month-old will make
speech-like sounds (‘goo’ and ‘gaa’), and will be able to say a couple of basic words
by the first birthday (‘dada’ or ‘mumma’). The development of language occurs
very quickly after this point. By the end of infancy the individual can say around
150–300 words, although there is still confusion in context and pronunciation.
APPLY your knowledge
1 When does the infancy stage of the lifespan begin
and end?
2 (a) Briefly describe the APGAR test.
(b) Explain why the test would be administered
twice after birth.
3 (a)Describe the adaptations an infant must make
after birth.
(b) Which adaptations is the neonate particularly
dependent on others for?
4 Describe the pattern of growth during infancy.
5 List three characteristics for each type of
development during the infancy stage.
6 Using the concept of object permanence as the
basis of your answer, discuss why infants may
particularly enjoy a game of peekaboo.
7 An infant scores 4 on the APGAR test one minute
after birth and then scores 8 five minutes after
birth. Discuss two adaptations of the neonate that
may have contributed to this increase in APGAR
score.
8 (a)Brainstorm a list of factors that might affect the
development of an infant.
(b) For each factor, identify the area of human
development concerned and the way it could
impact on an infant’s growth.
9 Explain why the role of parents is particularly
influential during infancy.
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8.3
Development during early childhood
KEY CONCEPT Understanding physical, social, emotional and
intellectual development during early childhood
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Early childhood lasts from the second birthday until six years of age, typically the
preschool years. Although not long in years, significant development occurs during
early childhood.
Physical development
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Early childhood is characterised by slow and steady growth. Although the rate of
growth is variable, height increases by around 6 centimetres per year and weight
by around 2.5 kilograms per year. Bones continue to lengthen and ossify during
early childhood, resulting in the increases in height experienced. Body proportions
change during early childhood, and the limbs and torso become more proportionate
to the head. Body-fat levels also decrease, giving the child a leaner body type.
Children may begin to lose baby teeth as the permanent teeth begin to develop.
While muscle development slows during early childhood, motor skill
development continues at a rapid rate. Gross motor skills increase and the walking
style becomes more fluid and refined. The child can climb stairs but will still
need to place both feet on each step until towards the end of early childhood.
Kicking, catching and throwing skills also develop, and the child might learn how
to skip. Coordination improves, allowing the child to pedal and steer a tricycle
(figure 8.11). Fine motor skills progress, and the child can learn to manipulate
zippers on clothing, hold crayons, use scissors and even tie shoelaces. As a result of
these activities, left- or right-handedness starts to appear in certain activities.
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Figure 8.11 As children gain
greater control over their body, more
complex activities such as riding a
tricycle become possible.
Social development
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The family remains the primary social contact during childhood and is responsible
for many achievements in social development made by the child. The child will
begin participating in a wider range of family routines such as attending social
functions, eating at the table and helping with the shopping. Communication skills
and acceptable social behaviours increase as a result of these experiences.
The child may attend a playgroup, kindergarten or a child-care centre, and this
provides many opportunities to further develop social skills such as sharing and
taking turns. As the child becomes accustomed to spending short periods of time
away from the family, independence starts to develop. The child may start wanting
to do things for themselves such as dressing or washing, although they may not be
completely successful.
Behaviours such as eating with a knife and fork are established during early
childhood but they will be refined over time. Children at this age like to be
accepted by others and may behave in a way that brings attention to them. This
can include showing off or performing for family and friends.
Play is still an important aspect of social development, although it is more
advanced than in infancy (figure 8.12). Children may have a friend to play with
and some will create an imaginary friend. Make-believe play might also be a part of
the child’s playing patterns.
Figure 8.12 Play takes many forms,
and is a great way of increasing social
development.
Emotional development
Emotional development continues to occur at a rather fast pace during early
childhood. The emotional development of a two-year-old is quite different from
that of a six-year-old. A child will begin to develop a sense of empathy and may
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Figure 8.13 Children often show
pride in their achievements.
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care for people who are crying or upset. Yet their way of dealing with emotions
is still in its early stages, and children may use physical violence to express their
frustration. This is particularly common with other children or siblings. Play often
gives children a way of expressing their feelings.
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Children take pride in their achievements and may want to show them off to
everyone. As a result of enjoying positive feedback from others, they may become
jealous when another child receives attention.
Children begin to develop an identity that will continue to form for years to
come. They learn to see themselves as being separate from others, and begin to
associate certain things with themselves such as ownership of a toy.
Mood can change quickly during this stage as children often do not have the
skills required to control their feelings. As a result, they can switch from being
happy to being upset and then happy again in a very short period.
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Intellectual development
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Learning new words and how to use language occurs fairly rapidly during this
stage and is a key part of the child’s intellectual development. By the age of five, a
child knows approximately 1500–2500 words.
As interest in the world around them increases, children begin to question many
aspects of their environment. They ask parents or caregivers ‘why?’ and like to
share their knowledge with others about colours, objects and animals.
As their attention span lengthens and knowledge of language increases, children
can remember and follow basic instructions such as getting a toy from the bedroom,
bringing it back to the lounge room and sitting in a designated place with it.
In the first years of early childhood, the child can classify objects based on one
aspect such as colour. For example, they can separate orange blocks from green
blocks, but find it more difficult to classify items according to multiple aspects
such as colour and size. These more complex skills develop over time.
Children in this lifespan stage may learn to write basic letters and read basic
books. They can also learn to count to 10 or 20, although this is often memorised
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8.3 Development during early childhood
without really understanding the formation of numbers. Abstract thought
and prediction of the outcome of events is still difficult, and children are more
comfortable thinking about objects they have already encountered.
APPLY your knowledge
1 When does the early childhood stage of the lifespan
begin and end?
2 Describe the pattern of growth during the early
childhood stage.
3 List three characteristics for each of the following
types of development during the early childhood
stage:
(a)physical
(b)social
(c)emotional
(d)intellectual.
4 Carolyn is four years old and lives in rural Victoria
with her mother, father and three older brothers.
Her father runs their farm and her mother is a
stay-at-home mother. Her brothers all go to school
so, for most of the day, it is just Carolyn and her
mother at home. Carolyn’s physical development
has been very slow and her mother is worried
because Carolyn is significantly smaller than other
children her age. In order to assist with her social
development, Carolyn’s mother takes her to a local
playgroup once a week.
(a) Describe the physical development Carolyn
would be experiencing at this stage of her life.
(b) i.What is the average growth during this stage
of the lifespan?
ii.Explain why it is important to use these
figures as averages only.
(c) Identify the factors that may affect Carolyn’s
social development.
(d) Explain ways that Carolyn’s slow physical
development might affect other areas of her
development both in the short and long term.
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
PA
G
E
PR
O
O
FS
TEST your knowledge
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8.4
Development during late childhood
KEY CONCEPT Understanding physical, social, emotional and
intellectual development during late childhood
FS
Late childhood starts at the sixth birthday and continues until 12 years of age.
During this time, the child will begin formal schooling while continuing to grow in
a similar fashion to that experienced in early childhood.
TE
D
PA
G
E
PR
O
Physical development in late childhood is slow and steady, as it was in early
childhood. Bones and muscles continue to grow in length and width. Height
continues to increase by 5 to 6 centimetres per year, and weight increases by
around 3 kilograms per year. Both sexes have similar body shapes until the onset
of puberty, although males may be slightly larger. Body proportions continue
to change as the head grows more slowly in comparison to the torso, arms and
legs. A child in the late childhood stage has similar body proportions to an adult.
Permanent teeth continue to develop and, by the end of late childhood, most
permanent teeth will be present (figure 8.14).
The child gains greater control over their body, and motor skills develop as a
result. As size and strength increase, children can perform more complex physical
tasks such as playing basketball or participating in gymnastics. They have also
had years to develop speed, agility and balance, and these skills are used in many
physical activities such as games and sport. More complex gross motor skills such
as skipping are also refined during this time. Fine motor skills are developed,
and a child at the beginning of late childhood can write basic sentences. Writing
might still be illegible at times. By the end of late childhood, writing becomes more
legible and the writing style may also be more established.
O
Physical development
Figure 8.14 Losing teeth is a normal
part of childhood development.
EC
Social development
U
N
C
O
R
R
With the commencement of formal schooling, most children experience a
wide range of social situations during late childhood (figure 8.15). As a result,
relationships with others change and the child will generally have numerous social
contacts outside the family. Social skills such as sharing, communication and
conflict resolution are further developed by this increase in social interaction.
Relationships at school are formed but are generally
limited to members of the same sex. Skills such as
cooperation and sharing are further developed as a result.
The child may still ‘show off’ in front of friends and
family in order to gain attention. Children in this lifespan
stage place increasing importance on being accepted by
others (e.g. parents, teachers and peers) and may modify
their behaviour in order to achieve approval.
Morals further develop during this time, and children
acquire a greater sense of right and wrong as well as a
better understanding of what is acceptable behaviour in
their society. As a result, children can generally make an
informed decision about right and wrong even in new
situations. In contrast, knowledge of right and wrong
in early childhood is largely limited to the instances of
right and wrong that have been taught by parents or Figure 8.15 School provides many opportunities for social
development.
caregivers.
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8.4 Development during late childhood
Emotional development
PR
O
O
FS
Emotional development continues during late childhood, allowing children
to control and recognise their emotions much better than they could in early
childhood. As children develop empathy, they begin to be able to identify emotions
in others.
Having better control of their emotions allows children to better function in a
range of settings including school and at friends’ houses. Tantrums are generally
not a common occurrence in this lifespan stage. Children also become more skilled
at conveying emotions in words, and this may further increase control of their
emotions.
Self-concept is largely established during this time although it will continue
to be modified throughout life. Children will have formed ideas about what they
are and are not good at (e.g. ‘I am a fast runner’ or ‘I am good at school’). As a
result of these feelings, a child may become self-conscious in situations where they
feel inadequate. This might occur around certain people, or in certain activities
(e.g. playing soccer) if they feel they are not good at them.
E
Intellectual development
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
PA
G
Much of a child’s intellectual development takes place at school. The brain continues
to develop during late childhood and intellectual skills develop considerably. At the
beginning of this stage, children can generally follow basic instructions and place
objects in a logical order (e.g. from big to small) or arrange them according to
numerical value. As they develop intellectually, the child can follow instructions
with multiple steps and classify items based on multiple criteria. Problem-solving
skills develop and the child begins to be able to focus on ideas rather than objects.
Knowledge of language increases, allowing the child to complete tasks such as
pluralising words most of the time. By the age of six, children know 2000–3000
words. By the end of late childhood, they might know over 10 000 words. Reading
skills also develop during this stage and, by the age of 12, the individual can read
and make sense of age-appropriate books.
Figure 8.16 A lot of intellectual development occurs through formal education.
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FS
Children in late childhood generally have an increased interest in numbers and
can perform basic mathematical problems. They can also apply logic to equations
and understand that 3 × 6 will produce the same answer as 6 × 3.
Attention span increases and the child can sit quietly in class for longer periods
of time, but concentration will still lapse after a matter of minutes. Long-term
memory develops and the child can more accurately recall stories of things that
happened in the past.
APPLY your knowledge
1 When does the late childhood stage of the lifespan
begin and end?
2 Describe the pattern of growth during the late
childhood stage.
3 List three characteristics for each of the following
types of development during the late childhood
stage:
(a)physical
(b)social
(c)emotional
(d)intellectual.
4 With a partner, brainstorm how inadequate
development in the prenatal, infant and early and
late childhood stages of the lifespan could affect
future development.
5 Discuss how emotional development is different
between those in early and late childhood.
6 Explain how intellectual development could affect
social development during late childhood.
7 Choose a game or toy commonly enjoyed by
children and discuss how it might promote each
type of development.
8 Create a game that may assist in the social
development of children in the late childhood stage
of the lifespan.
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
PA
G
E
PR
O
O
TEST your knowledge
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8.5
The health status of Australia’s children: mortality
KEY CONCEPT Understanding the health status of Australia’s
children — mortality
TE
D
PA
G
E
PR
O
O
FS
Australia’s children have the best health status in the country, and key health
indicators place their health among the best in the world. Improvements are
continually being made with regards to many health indicators and, as a result,
most Australian children in today’s society can expect to live in good health.
Unfortunately, there are some exceptions, particularly among indigenous Australians,
those living in remote areas and those of low socioeconomic backgrounds. Infants
and children in these groups experience higher mortality rates and greater risk of
disease and injury. Many statistics present average figures for all Australian children
and, as a result, may mask the challenges facing some groups within the country.
When examining statistics, it is important to remember that not everyone enjoys
the good health experienced by the majority.
Because many sources of health data group infants and children in their statistics,
infant and child health will generally be considered together.
Infant mortality rates in Australia have fallen considerably over the past two
decades (figure 8.18), but still account for half of all deaths in those aged under
20. Although the rate for all Australians is relatively low by international standards,
the figures mask higher infant mortality rates for Indigenous Australians. In fact,
for the last ten years, the infant mortality rate for Indigenous Australians has been
around three times higher than the rest of the population. As infants get closer to
their first birthday, the risk of death decreases. Particular causes of death in the first
year of life are outlined in figure 8.17.
Foetus and newborn affected by
maternal complications of
pregnancy
All other causes
EC
Other signs, symptoms
and abnormal findings
280
8%
6%
7%
8%
Disorders of short gestation
and low birthweight
20%
Perinatal conditions (46%)
18%
Congenital anomalies (26%)
Other perinatal
conditions
Other congenital anomalies
Signs, symptoms and abnormal
findings (10%)
Other causes (18%)
U
N
C
Source: AIHW, Making progress: the
health, development and wellbeing
of Australia’s children and young
people, 2008.
Foetus and newborn affected by
complications of placenta, cord
and membranes
12%
3%
R
Congenital malformations
of the circulatory system
O
FIgUrE 8.17 Leading
causes of infant mortality,
2008–2010
R
Sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS)
18%
Mortality
Most cases of infant mortality arise from problems associated with the birth or
pregnancy itself. As a result of this, a majority of infant deaths occur in the period
directly prior to or after birth. As shown in figure 8.17, perinatal conditions and
congenital abnormalities account for around 75 per cent of all infant deaths.
Much of the decrease in infant mortality has been due to reductions in deaths
from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). SIDS is the unexplained death of an
apparently healthy infant. It is only diagnosed when other causes are ruled out.
Although the exact causes of SIDS are unknown, there are a number of determinants
that increase the risk of SIDS for an infant. These include being male (70 per cent
of SIDS deaths are usually males) or sleeping on the stomach. Figure 8.19 outlines
the decline in deaths attributable to SIDS over time.
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280
13 July 2015 9:34 PM
Boys
Girls
Children
10
8
6
FS
4
2
O
Figure 8.18 Infant mortality rates
for boys and girls over time
Source: Adapted from ABS data and AIHW 2012,
A picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE
112, Canberra, pp. 13, 140.
PR
O
2013
2012
2011
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
0
1986
Infant deaths per 1000 live births
12
Year
PA
G
E
Child mortality rates refer to deaths occurring in children between the ages of 1
and 14. Child mortality rates have also decreased in recent decades. Awareness of
illness and advances in medicine and technology have been largely responsible for
these decreases. Mortality rates decrease as children get older, as shown in table 8.2.
Although overall rates have decreased, child mortality rates for Indigenous, rural
and remote, and low socioeconomic backgrounds remain higher than the rest of
the population.
Introduction of SIDS
education campaign
TE
D
250
200
150
Boys
Girls
Children
Table 8.2 Mortality rates of those
aged 1–12 years
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
Age
2000
1998
1996
1992
1988
O
R
1986
0
R
50
1994
EC
100
1990
Infant deaths per 100 000
live births
300
Year
Figure 8.19 Infant deaths from SIDS, 1986–2010.
1–4 years
19
5–12 years
10
Source: Based on data from AIHW 2012, A
picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no.
PHE 112, Canberra, p. 14.
U
N
C
Source: Adapted from ABS data and AIHW 2012, A picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE 112, Canberra, p. 14.
Death rate
(per 100 000 population)
The majority of causes of mortality for children are termed ‘injuries’ (which
includes poisoning), and are accidental in nature (figure 8.20). Injuries account for
more deaths in childhood than any other cause. Injuries include falls, drowning,
suffocation, poisoning, transport accidents and burns. According to the Australian
Institute of Health and Welfare in 2008–10, males were 60 per cent more likely
than females to be hospitalised for injuries and Indigenous children were 50 per
cent more likely to be hospitalised than other children.
Inadequate supervision can increase the risk of injury among children, but
they are also more likely to sustain injuries than older people due to their level of
development.
Because children are not as developed intellectually, they may lack knowledge of
how to avoid injuries. Burns, drowning, bike accidents and falls may all occur at
higher rates in children due to lower levels of intellectual development.
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8.5 The health status of Australia’s children: mortality
5–9
Injuries
FS
Age group (years)
1–4
All cancer
Diseases of the nervous system
O
Congenital anomalies
10–14
PR
O
Circulatory conditions
All other causes
0
15
10
Deaths per 100 000 children
5
20
25
E
Figure 8.20 Leading causes of mortality among children aged 1–14 years, 2008–2010 (per
100 000 population)
PA
G
Source: AIHW 2012, A picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE 112, Canberra, p. 15.
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
A child’s physical development can also increase their risk of certain injuries:
• The size of an infant’s head in relation to their body makes it difficult for them
to support the weight of their head. This can prevent them from lifting their
head out of water and increase the risk of drowning.
• Underdeveloped motor skills can also contribute to injuries such as
bike accidents and falls, as children may be more likely to trip over when
running.
• Bones in children are not completely developed and may therefore fracture more
easily than the bones of an adult.
The risk of most cancers increases with age, but cancer remains a leading
cause of death for children. Cancer is characterised by an uncontrolled growth
of abnormal cells that, over time, can prevent normal body cells from carrying
out their functions. Cancers found in children are often different in type
and their response to treatment compared to cancers found in adults. Leukaemia
and brain cancers are the most common cancers in children. Although incidence
rates have remained constant, mortality rates due to cancer have decreased
in children as a result of advancements in medical technology and treatment
options. Table 8.3 outlines the changes in cancer deaths and mortality rates in
children.
Table 8.3 Cancer deaths among children aged 0–14 years, 1997–2010
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Number
140
154
122
106
118
124
102
114
96
90
90
84
74
116
Deaths per 100 000
children
3.6
3.9
3.1
2.7
3.0
3.1
2.5
2.8
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.0
1.8
2.7
Source: AIHW 2012, A picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE 112, Canberra, p. 22.
Diseases of the nervous system are the third leading cause of childhood mortality.
These conditions include a range of diseases that affect the brain, spinal cord and
nerves. Examples include meningitis; cerebral palsy; swelling of the brain; and
malformed brain, skull and spinal cord.
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FS
APPLY your knowledge
E
PR
O
O
8 Write a press release describing the health of
Australia’s children. In your article, include:
(a) the overall level of health of children
(b) mortality rates
(c) leading causes of death.
9 Use the SIDS and Kids links in the
Resources section of your eBookPLUS to
find the weblink and questions for this
activity.
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
1 (a)Using figure 8.18, identify two trends in infant
mortality over time.
(b) What reasons can you think of that would
account for these trends (give specific
examples)?
2 (a)What is the leading category for cause of death
in infants according to figure 8.17?
(b) What causes of death are included in this
category?
3 (a)Describe how the mortality rates for children
have changed over time.
(b) What factors could explain this trend?
4 (a)Using table 8.2, compare the mortality rates for
1–4 year olds and 5–12 year olds.
(b) Suggest reasons for this difference.
5 According to figure 8.20, what are the leading
causes of death for:
(a) i. 1–4 year olds?
ii. 5–9 year olds?
(b) What factors could account for differences
between age groups?
6 Outline two causes that contribute to the relatively
high rates of injury deaths among children.
7 (a)Graph the cancer mortality rates among children
from 1997 to 2010.
(b) Explain the changes in cancer mortality rates
over time and suggest possible reasons for this
change.
PA
G
TEST your knowledge
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8.6
The health status of Australia’s children: morbidity
KEY CONCEPT Understanding the health status of Australia’s
children — morbidity
Morbidity
PR
O
O
FS
Although child mortality rates have decreased over time, there are many
chronic conditions that impact on the health and human development of children.
In the following section, various causes of both infant and child morbidity are
examined.
Birth weight is a good indicator of the health of newborns. Those born with
a low birth weight are more likely to experience ill-health and even premature
death. This is largely due to the underdevelopment of organs and the immune
system, making infants with a low birth weight more susceptible to infections,
other diseases and organ malfunction.
A number of factors contribute to low birth weight, including exposure to
teratogens, the mother’s age (being under 20 or over 40 increases the chances of
low birth weight) and access to antenatal care. Although overall rates of low birth
weight are relatively low in Australia, Indigenous mothers are about twice as likely
to give birth to a low birth-weight baby compared with non-Indigenous mothers,
as shown in table 8.4.
Many chronic conditions have become more common in childhood over recent
decades. According to the AIHW in 2012, 37 per cent of those aged 1–14 had a
long term or chronic condition. The most frequently reported chronic conditions
among children are shown in figure 8.21.
E
Table 8.4 Percentage of low birth
weight babies by Indigenous status,
2012.
Indigenous (%)
PA
G
Low birth
weight
11.8
Non-Indigenous (%)
6.0
Rate ratio
1.9
TE
D
Source: AIHW, Australia’s mothers and babies
2012, cat. no. PER 69, p. 78.
Asthma
U
N
C
Long-term condition
O
R
R
EC
Hayfever and allergic rhinitis
Allergy (undefined)
Short sighted/myopia
Long sighted/hyperopia
Chronic sinusitis
Dermatitis and eczema
Behavioural and emotional problems
Anxiety-related problems
Problems of psychological development
0
2
4
8
6
Percentage
10
12
Note: Long-term condition is defined here as a condition that has lasted, or is expected to last, 6 months or more.
Figure 8.21 Most frequently reported chronic conditions, 2012
Source: AIHW, A picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE 167, Canberra, p. 17.
As children get older, they are more able to communicate their problems. Thus
a child might have suffered from poor eyesight for years but would not have been
able to tell anyone until they learnt to speak. This contributes to the increase in
chronic conditions as children get older.
Asthma, obesity, diabetes and mental health problems all contribute considerably
to the burden of disease among children.
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Asthma
25
Boys
Girls
Children
20
15
10
FS
Percent
0
O
5
0–4
Obesity
PR
O
Australia has one of the highest asthma rates in
the world (figure 8.22). While the exact causes are
not known, a number of factors contribute to its
onset. These include:
• maternal smoking
• exposure to tobacco smoke
• air pollution and exposure to other pollutants.
Asthma is characterised by a narrowing of the
airways that results in wheezing, coughing and
difficulty breathing. Although asthma does not
cause many deaths in children, it is the most
commonly reported chronic condition and one
of the major reasons for hospitalisation among
children.
5–9
Age group (years)
Figure 8.22 Parent-reported
asthma rates in children aged 0–14
years
Source: AIHW, A picture of Australia’s children
2012, cat. no. PHE 167, Canberra, p. 18.
PA
G
E
Rates of overweight and obesity among Australian children have doubled in
recent years. Around one-quarter of all Australian children are now overweight or
obese (ABS, 2014). This increase contributes to the development of other chronic
conditions in children such as asthma and type 2 diabetes. Children who are
overweight or obese are also more likely to be overweight or obese in adulthood,
which puts them at further risk of health complications.
10–14
Diabetes
Incidence per 100 000 children
TE
D
30
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
The rates of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes have
25
increased in children over time, although type 1
cases still account for around 90 per cent of total
20
diabetes cases among children. Both type 1 and
type 2 diabetes are characterised by an inability
15
of the body to effectively transport glucose into
10
the cells to be used for energy. As a result, glucose
stays in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious
5
health problems such as kidney damage, heart
disease, poor circulation and premature death.
0
Type 1 diabetes is generally diagnosed by the
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
age of 15 and is a significant contributor to burden
of disease among children. Type 1 diabetes is an
autoimmune disease characterised by the destruction of the cells in the pancreas
that produce insulin. Insulin is the hormone responsible for transporting glucose
into cells, so a lack of insulin results in high blood-glucose levels. As those with
type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin, it must be administered by injections or
an insulin pump. Insulin is given when blood-glucose levels rise in order to allow
glucose to be used by the cells.
The incidence of type 1 diabetes in children increased from 19 to 24 new cases
per 100 000 population between 2000 and 2004. The incidence rate has been
fairly stable since 2004 (figure 8.23).
While previously considered an older person’s disease, type 2 diabetes is
becoming more common among Australian children, mostly as a result of increasing
rates of obesity. Indigenous and Pacific Islander children, those who live in rural
and remote areas, and those who live in socioeconomic disadvantage, are most
likely to develop the condition. While the effect of type 2 diabetes is similar to
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Figure 8.23 The incidence of type 1
diabetes (0–14 year olds) per 100 000
population
Source: Adapted from ABS data and AIHW, A
picture of Australia’s children 2012, cat. no. PHE
167, Canberra, p. 19.
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8.6 The health status of Australia’s children: morbidity
that of type 1 diabetes, the causes are quite different. Those with type 2 diabetes
experience insulin resistance. Insulin resistance is characterised by an inability
of the body to use the insulin that is produced. Lifestyle changes to dietary and
exercise patterns can often reduce the effects of diabetes. For others, medication
and/or insulin may be required.
Mental health problems
16
14
12
U
N
C
O
R
R
Per cent
EC
10
TE
D
PA
G
E
PR
O
O
FS
Mental health problems (sometimes referred to as psychological, emotional
and behavioural disorders) are also a large contributor to the burden of disease
in childhood, and the rates increase as children get older. Indigenous children,
those in rural and remote areas, and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds
experience higher rates of mental health problems than the rest of the population.
According to the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey
(ABS, 2006), around 13 per cent of Indigenous children experienced a mental or
behavioural disorder compared to 8 per cent of the rest of the population. Access
to health care is essential for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of mental
health problems, and these population groups generally have lower levels of access
to affordable, appropriate care. This contributes to the higher rates of mental health
problems experienced.
The impact of mental health problems will often depend on the type of
condition experienced. Three common mental health issues among children
include conduct problems, emotional symptoms and hyperactivity. The proportion
of Victorian children at high or moderate risk of these issues in 2012 is shown in
figure 8.24.
8
6
4
2
0
Conduct problems
Emotional symptoms
Hyper activity
FIGURE 8.24 Percentage of Victorian children at high or moderate risk of selected mental
health issues, 2012
Source: Adapted from Victorian Department of Education, School Entrant Health Questionnaire (SEHQ),
www.education.vic.gov.au.
Conduct problems can be characterised by aggression, defiance, destruction of
property and deceitfulness. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a childhood
conduct problem characterised by constant disobedience and hostility. Around
one in 10 children under the age of 12 years are thought to have ODD, with boys
outnumbering girls by two to one. Conduct problems can impact on all areas of
health and development. The child may not experience success at school, which
can lead to feelings of low self-esteem. Or other children may not want to interact
with the child, leading to poor social health and development.
Emotional symptoms refer to a range of negative emotions, such as sadness,
fear and worries. Emotional symptoms can indicate an increased risk of conditions
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O
FS
such as depression and anxiety. Emotional symptoms can contribute to low selfesteem and a lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities. Sleeping and eating
patterns may be disrupted, which can contribute to low energy levels and thereby
impact on all areas of health and development.
Hyperactivity relates to a range of behaviours, including restlessness,
impulsiveness and lack of concentration. An example of a common hyperactivity
disorder in Australia is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is
characterised by hyperactivity and an inability to maintain attention on a task.
Some children with ADHD will display only a few signs and may not experience the
same burden that other children with the condition face. Intellectual development
may be affected if the child cannot concentrate on key concepts at school.
PR
O
Dental health
Despite steady improvement from the 1970s onwards, dental health has been
declining in children since the mid-1990s (figure 8.25).
E
Permanent teeth (at age 12)
Baby teeth (at age 6)
PA
G
5
4
U
N
C
Poor dental health has a number of implications for health and development.
Bacteria can travel from the mouth to the lungs and contribute to lung infections
and other respiratory problems. Bacteria found in plaque may also increase the
risk of heart disease and stroke, although this research is still continuing. Children
with poor dental health may experience decreased self esteem, especially if their
appearance is affected. School absences are common, as treatment is administered
or infections take hold. This can impact on social health and intellectual
development in particular. Physical development can be further hindered if the
bones that support teeth are also affected.
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2003–04
2002
2001
2000
1999
1996
R
1994
O
R
1993
1992
1991
1990
0
EC
1
1998
2
1997
TE
D
3
1995
Average number of affected teeth
6
FIGURE 8.25 Trends in decayed,
missing or filled teeth in children,
1990–2010
Source: AIHW 2014, Oral health and dental care
in Australia: key facts and figures trends 2014, cat.
no. DEN 228, Canberra, p. 2.
Hospitalisations
Hospitalisation among children can have a range of impacts on the health and
development, especially if hospital stays are long.
Rates of hospitalisation due to asthma are higher in childhood than other lifespan
stages, although rates have decreased over time (figure 8.26). The average stay in
hospital as a result of asthma is 2.6 days for children.
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8.6 The health status of Australia’s children: morbidity
700
600
500
FS
400
300
O
200
100
PR
O
Hospitalisation rate per 100 000 people
800
0
1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11
Year
FIGURE 8.26 Hospitalisations among
children aged 0–14 years from asthma
E
Injuries are another significant cause of hospitalisation for children. Among
the different types of injuries, falls contributed the most to the hospitalisation of
children (table 8.5). The amount of time spent in hospital as a result of injuries
depends on the severity of the injury sustained, and can vary from hours to months.
PA
G
Source: AIHW 2013, Asthma hospitalisations in
Australia 2010–11, cat. no. ACM 27, Canberra,
p. 11.
TABLE 8.5 Hospitalisations among children aged 1–14 years from selected injuries, 2011–12
1–4
TE
D
Age group
5–9
10–14
Transport
67.2
133.1
237.2
Drowning and submersion
13.0
2.0
2.0
112.6
11.9
10.7
Falls
678.2
700.5
626.4
EC
Accidental poisoning
U
N
C
O
R
R
Source: Pointer S 2014, Hospitalised injury in children and young people 2011–12, Injury research and statistics series
no. 91, cat. no. INJCAT 167, Canberra: AIHW, p. 84.
Chronic conditions can impact on all areas of health and development. The
child may miss out on experiences due to extended periods away from school and,
as a result, may not develop as they otherwise would have. They may develop low
self-esteem and be marginalised by their peers.
The impact on the sufferer will largely depend on the severity of the condition.
Some conditions, such as mild asthma, may be easily managed and not interfere too
much with normal functioning. However, a serious injury may result in extended
periods of hospitalisation and significant rehabilitation after being discharged
from hospital, affecting many aspects of life. Reducing the rate of these conditions
is important to limit the negative impacts on the health and individual human
development of children.
TEST your knowledge
1 (a)Briefly explain why low birth weight babies are
more likely to experience ill-health than those of
normal body weight.
(b) List three factors that increase the chance of
having a low birth weight baby.
2 (a)Identify the most frequently reported chronic
condition according to figure 8.21.
(b) Approximately what percentage of children
suffer from this condition?
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13 July 2015 9:34 PM
FS
O
U
N
C
O
R
R
EC
TE
D
PA
G
7 Using figure 8.22, identify one difference in the
rates of asthma experienced by males and females.
8 Brainstorm reasons why birth weight would be a
good indicator of a newborn baby’s health.
PR
O
APPLY your knowledge
9 Suggest reasons that may account for Indigenous
women having higher rates of low birth weight
babies.
10 Why do you think Australia has a high asthma rate
compared to other countries?
11 Explain how asthma could affect physical, social and
mental health of children.
12 Explain how asthma hospitalisation rates have
changed over time according to figure 8.26.
13 (a)Discuss the differences in hospitalisation rates
for those aged 0–4 compared to those aged
10–14 as a result of:
i.transport
ii. drowning and submersion
iii. accidental poisoning.
(b) Using table 8.5, discuss how changes in
individual human development may contribute
to the differences discussed in part (a).
E
3 (a)Briefly describe the changes in the incidence
of type 1 diabetes over time according to
figure 8.23.
(b) Suggest reasons for this change.
4 Explain the term ‘insulin resistance’.
5 (a)Explain the difference between conduct
problems, emotional symptoms and
hyperactivity.
(b) Explain how each issue identified in part (a)
could impact on health or individual human
development.
6 (a) What factors could lead to poor dental health?
(b) Outline three possible impacts of poor dental
health in children.
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KEY SKILLS The health and individual human development
of Australia’s children
KEY SKILL Describe the characteristics of
development from birth to late childhood
The key requirement for this key skill is to be able to describe the development
that occurs from birth until the 12th birthday. An understanding of the four types
of development (physical, social, emotional and intellectual) and the changes that
occur during the stages of infancy and early and late childhood is essential.
Consider the following example, which is a discussion of the development that
would be taking place for Juni, a six-year-old who is attending primary school.
Physical development:❶
At Juni’s stage of the lifespan, growth would be slow and steady. Fine and gross
motor skills would continue to develop.❷
Her running style would become more fluid and she may now be able to skip.
Juni may be able to write a legible sentence by this stage.❸
Social development:
As she is attending school, Juni would associate with more people outside the
home and would refine social skills such as communication and cooperation. She
may show off in front of friends and family to gain attention.❹
Emotional development:
Juni may be able to identify basic emotions in others and has greater control over
her own emotions, and tantrums are less common.❺
Intellectual development:
Juni will be able to follow basic instructions and may be able to order objects from
big to small.❻
❶ The type of development is identified
FS
and all four areas are covered.
❷ Juni’s lifespan stage is childhood.
PR
O
O
However, as a particular age is
specified, discussion focuses on
children around this age (within
one or two years). Reference to the
milestones for an 11-year-old would
not be relevant, even though an
11-year-old would be placed within
the same lifespan stage.
E
❸ Examples of physical development
PA
G
❹ Examples of social development
❺ Examples of emotional development
❻ Examples of intellectual development
TE
D
PRACTISE the key skills
EC
1Milan is two years old and an only child. He has just started attending child-care
twice a week.
(a) Identify three physical changes that Milan will experience in the next five years.
(b) Explain how attending child-care may affect Milan’s social development.
80
70
60
50
40
30
Boys
Girls
Children
20
10
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
2002–03
0
2001–02
Source: AIHW, A picture of Australia’s children
2012, cat. no. PHE 167, Canberra, p. 20.
90
2000–01
Figure 8.27 Diabetes hospital
separations for children aged
0–14 years, 2000–01 to 2010–11
This key skill requires the analysis of data related to the health of children. Data
can be presented in a number of ways. To revisit this skill, refer to the key skills
section of chapter 2 (pages 66–7) and follow the steps outlined there. A knowledge
of the basic issues concerning the health status of children will be beneficial in
applying this key skill.
Hospital separations per
100 000 children
U
N
C
O
R
R
KEY SKILL Interpret data on the health status of
Australia’s children
Year
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Analyse the data in figure 8.27 and use it to draw conclusions about the
health status of Australia’s children. In describing the trends evident in this
graph, the following three statements can be made. However, there are important
considerations to be taken into account.
• Girls generally❼ have higher rates of hospitalisations due to diabetes❽ than boys.
• Rates for hospitalisations have increased from around 58 per 100 000 female
children in 2000–01 to around 75 per 100 000❾ female children in 2010–11.
• The rates of hospitalisations due to diabetes have increased for both males and
females between 2000–01 and 2010–11.❿
❼ In 2003–04, the rates were very
similar. Including the qualifier
‘generally’ takes this factor into
account.
❽ It is important to clearly state the
trend that is being identified.
❾ This information might also be
FS
presented in a different way. For
example: ‘Female hospitalisations due
to diabetes have increased by around
17 per 100 000 children.’ A similar
trend focusing on ‘males’ or ‘all
children’ could also be used.
O
Key skills exam practice
PR
O
2 Study figure 8.28 and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Identify two trends in the mortality rates as shown in figure 8.28.
❿ Reference is made to the span of
years over which the trend occurred.
Try to avoid making statements like
‘hospitalisations are increasing’ as this
indicates that the trend is currently
occurring when the data do not
support this.
PA
G
E
2 marks
(b) Use your knowledge of children’s health status to list three causes of death that are
common in the 0–4 age group.
3 marks
4 marks
EC
300
250
0–4 years
5–9 years
9–14 years
R
200
R
150
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1989
1988
1987
U
N
1986
0
C
50
1990
O
100
1985
Mortality rates per 100 000
TE
D
(c) Discuss how causes of mortality change between infancy and childhood.
Year
Figure 8.28 Mortality rates over time, per 100 000 for selected age groups
Source: Adapted from AIHW, National mortality database.
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CHAPTER 8 review
Chapter summary
• Development occurs according to a number of principles: it is predictable and
orderly, it is continual, there is individual variation in its rate and timing, it follows the
cephalocaudal and proximodistal laws, and it moves from simple to complex. Many
achievements in development will display more than one of these principles.
Interactivities:
Chapter 8 crossword
Searchlight ID: int-2903
• A neonate is the name given to a newborn from birth to 28 days.
• There are several adaptations that must occur for the neonate to survive outside the
uterus. These include changes to respiration, circulation, nutrition, excretion and control
of body temperature.
FS
Chapter 8 definitions
Searchlight ID: int-2904
• The APGAR test is used to assess how well a newborn has adjusted to life outside the uterus
O
• Infancy is a rapid period of growth. Major milestones such as crawling and walking
occur during this stage.
PR
O
• The family is the most significant influence on social development during infancy.
• Emotional attachment to a significant caregiver occurs during infancy.
• Infants use their senses to learn. By the end of infancy, most infants can associate
names with people and objects. Language development is rapid during infancy.
• Physical development during early and late childhood is described as being slow and steady.
E
• Gradual increases in height and weight are accompanied by increases in bone strength.
PA
G
• As the child grows and gains strength, their motor development progresses and the
child becomes capable of more complex motor skills.
• Social development is facilitated by play and interaction with family members. Children
often imitate the actions of older people as a way of learning social skills and roles.
• By the end of early childhood, the child is usually toilet-trained and can use a knife
and fork.
TE
D
• The child gains an increasing sense of self during the childhood years and may become
self-conscious in certain circumstances.
• Intellectual development continues to progress and, as the child ages, language skills
become increasingly complex.
EC
• By the end of childhood, the child can read, write and complete basic mathematical
problems.
• Thought patterns begin to change and, by the end of late childhood, the child starts to
think in an abstract way.
U
N
C
O
R
R
• Overall, Australian children experience excellent health but some groups, especially
Indigenous, those in rural and remote areas, and those from low socioeconomic
backgrounds, fare far worse than the majority of the population.
• Death rates and life expectancy are continually improving for Australian children.
• The main causes of death in this age group are perinatal conditions for infants and
injuries for children.
• Asthma is the most commonly reported condition for children.
• Hospitalisation rates for asthma and injuries are relatively high for children.
TEST your knowledge
1 Brainstorm a list of factors that have contributed
to lower death rates and higher life expectancy
throughout all the stages of childhood.
APPLY your knowledge
2 How can the family positively or negatively affect
the development of a child?
3 List three milestones of development that require
prior skills in order to be achieved (list the prior skills
as well).
4 Use the Development timeline
links in the Resources section of
your eBookPLUS to find the
weblink and questions for this activity.
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TE
D
EC
R
R
O
C
U
N
E
PA
G
PR
O
O
FS