MEDIAEVAL MEDICINE AND
ARCITE’S LOVE SICKNESS
M. Ciavolella
In The Allegory of Love C.S. Lewis, commenting upon the tendency
of critics to read their own ideas into the works of Chaucer, wrote:
The stupidest contemporary, w e ma y depend upon it, k n e w ce r ­
tain things about Chaucer's poetry wh ic h mod e r n scholarship
w i l l never know; and doubtless the be s t of us m i s u n d e r s t a n d
Chaucer in man y places whe r e the veriest fool among his au d ­
ience could no t h a v e m i s u n d e r s t o o d . ^
Such a statement holds especially true w h e n the interpretation of
a passage or a concept rests upon the correct i n t e r pretation of one wo r d
misunderstood or forgotten, as is in the case of the w o r d "Hereos" in
Chaucer's description of Arcite's love for Emilye in The K n i g h t ’
s Tale:
W h a n that Arcite to Thebes comen was,
Ful o f te a day he swelte and seyde "Allas!"
For seen his lady shal h e n e ve r e mo.
A n d shortly to concluden al his wo,
So muche sorwe hadde nevere creature
That is, or shal, w h i l that the w o r l d ma y dure.
His slep, his mete, his drynke, is h y m biraft,
That lene he w e x and drye as is a shaft;
His e ye n holwe, and grisly to biholde,
His h e w e f alow and pale as a sshen colde,
A nd solitarie h e was and evere allone,
A n d w a i l l y n g e al the nyght, m a k y n g e h i s mone;
A n d if he h e rd e song o r i n s t r u m e n t ,
Thanne w o l d e h e wepe, h e m y g h t e nat b e stent.
So feble e e k w e r e his spiritz, and so lowe,
And cha u n g e d so, that no m a n koude knowe
His speche n o r his voys, though m e n it herde.
And i n his geere for al the w o r l d h e ferde,
N a t oonly l i k the loveris maladye
Of Hereos, b u t rather lyk manye,
Engend r e d of h u m o u r malencolik,
Biforen, in his celle fantastik.
A n d shortly, turned was al up so doun
Bothe h a b i t and eek disposicioun
Of hym, this w o f u l lovere daun Arcite.
2
The w o r d "Hereos" is the key to the i n t e r pretation of the whole
p assage and to the c o ncept underlying the na t u r e of Arcite's love.
Its
m e a n i n g has b e e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d from the v er y first comment m a d e u p o n it
until 1914, w h e n a p p e a r e d an article on the subject by J.L. Lowes, "The
3
L overes Ma l a d y of H e r e o s . "
Studying the etymology of "Hereos," Lowes
d e m o n strated that it was n o t to be considered, as it h a d until then, a
m i s r e a d i n g of "Eros" or "heroes," that the d e scription of Arcite's love
symptoms is parallel, a lmost w o r k for word, w i t h descriptions found in
the chapters on love in all mediaeval m e d i c a l treatises, a n d that "Her­
eos" is the scient i f i c name given to the sickness of love.
Even so,
Lowes seemed content to state that in all probab i l i t y "Chaucer found
m any of the signa a l r e a d y in the T e s e i d a , a n d p r o c eeded to rearrange
and combine them in the light of his k n o w ledge of the m a l a d y . " 4
In
fact, had he compared m o r e closely Chaucer's descri p t i o n w i t h the corres­
p onding pas s a g e in Boccaccio's Teseida, h e m i g h t have come to the con­
clusion that the two authors rely on independent sources a n d that Chau­
cer's d e s c r iption of Arcite's symptoms is m uc h m o r e "scientific" than
Boccaccio's.
The purpose of this study is to re consider the concept of
"Hereos" according to m ediaeval med i c a l texts, and to re-read Chaucer's
and Boccaccio's descriptions in the light of this doctrine.
The passage corr esponding to that of The Knight's Tale occurs in
the fourth bo o k of the Teseida wh e r e Arcita, b e l i e v i n g he will ne v e r be
able to see Emilia again, is overwhelmed by grief;
E ben che di pi ù cose e'fosse afflitto
e che di viver gli giovasse poco,
sopra ogn'altra cosa era trafitto
d'amor nel core, e non trovava loco;
e giorno e notte sanza alcun respitto
sospir gittava caldi come foco,
e b e n nel viso il suo dolor pareasi.
Egli era tutto quanto divenuto
si magro, che assai agevolmente
ciascun suo osso si saria veduto;
né credo ch'Erisitone altramente
fosse nel viso che esso paruto
nel tempo della sua fame dolente;
e non pur solamente palido era,
ma la sua pelle parea quasi nera.
E nella testa appena si vedeano
gli occhi dolenti; e le guance, lanute
di folto pelo e nuovo, non pareano;
e le sue ciglia pelose e acute
a riguardar o rribile il faceano;
le come tutte rigide e irsute;
e si era del tutto tramutato,
che nullo non l'avria raffigurato.
La voce similmente era fuggita
e ancora la forza corporale;
per che a tutti una cosa reddita
qua su di sopra dal chiostro infernale
parea, p i ù tosto ch'altra stata in vita;
né la cag i o n onde va n i a tal male
giannnai da lui n e s s u n saputa avea,
m a una pe r un'a l t r a ne dicea.^
At first glance the two descriptions seem to reveal certain obvious simi­
larities.
Both poets depict Arcite as be in g anorexic, unable to drink,
suffering f r o m insomnia.
and feeble.
weak.
He has lost weight an d his bo d y is dehydrated
His eyes are hollow, his complexion is pale, his voice
At a secon d and m o r e careful reading, however, we realize that
the similarities stop there.
No doubt both poets rely upon the same con­
cept of love, as w e shall determine shortly, yet the descriptions are
quite dissimilar.
"scientific."
Boccaccio's description is mo r e vague, Chaucer's more
To clarify the similarities and differences in these pa s ­
sages we must go ba c k to medi a ev a l science and refer to those med i c a l
texts known, in all likelihood, to both Boccaccio and Chaucer.
Love, in its essence, is not a sickness.
throughout classical and medi a e v a l times.
can lead m a n to a state of sickness.
This was wel l u n derstood
Love, however, bei n g a passio,
Love for God or for one's family,
for example, can n e v e r be deleterious to the hu m a n organism.
It can be
harmful, however, if its causes are "dispositiones corporis inclinantes
ad talem concup i s c e n t i a m propter ali q u a m util i t a t e m sive necessitatem,
sicut est inter v i r u m et m u l i e r e m complexio vene r e a vel h umiditas titillans in organis generationis . . . .
Love is a desire that arises
when there is an excess of humours (especially blood) or of pneuma, when,
that is to say, the bo d y is in a ho t and hum i d condition.
Blood, in fact,
produces semen, and a n excessive quantity of bl o o d wi l l produce excess
semen, a a o m ple xi o venerea responsible for the a t traction and the un i o n
of the sexes.
Since an excess of bl o o d arouses sexual desire, those wh o possess
a sanguine complexion are mo r e prone to sexual stimuli.
An d since such
a c o mplexion can be acqu i r e d through a diet of rich, fat food, or through
a sedentary life, those m o r e liable to the passion of love are the w e a l ­
thy and the nobles.
The p h ysician B e m a r d u s Gordonius explains that
"Nobiles propter affl u e n t i a m deliciarum i s t a m p as s ionem consueverunt incurrere; quoniam sicut dicit Viaticum:^
'sicut félicitas est u l t i m u m
g
. . .
dilectionis, ita hereos u l timum dilectionis'
These are the physiological causes of desire, yet the m a i n cause
is extrinsic, namely, the form of a person of the opposite sex seized
by the external senses and judged especially pleasing:
"Passio que est
amor causatur ex apprehensione alicuius forme visibilis, que q u i d e m comprehenditur . . . sub ratione complacentie . . . ,
tl
writes the Florentine
physician Dino del Garbo, adding, "nam amor est passio q u e d a m appetitus,
qui appetitus consequitur formam rei apprehense per s ensum primo exteriorem et deinde per virtutes sensitivas interiores . . . unde in amore
concurrit duplex passio sensitive, scilicet cognoscitiva et appetitiva,
9
quia omnis appetitus qui est in nobis insequitur cognitionem."
Amaldus
V i l l a n o v a n u s , the mos t famous physician of the School of Montpellier,
writes in his treatise on love sickness that the love called "hereos" is
"vehemens et assidua cogitatio supra rem deside ra t a m cum c o nfidentia obtinendi delectabile appreh e n s u m ex e a . " 10
If one can reach the desired
object and fulfil the sexual appetites, the o r g an i s m w i l l return immed­
iately to a state of normality.
If, however, the desire is not fulfilled,
yet the lover continues to go on in the c o nfidentia obtinendi delectabile
ap p r e h e n s u m , then his state of sexual tension produces results that can
be ruinous.
When someone falls in love, Bernardus Gordonius writes,
ita fortiter concipit formam et figuram et m o d u m q u o n i a m c r e ­
dit et opina t u r hanc esse m e l i o r e m p u l c h r i o r e m et magis venerabilem, magis speciosam et melius d o tatam in n a turalibus et
moralibus q u a m a l i q u a m aliarum.
Et ideo a r d enter concupiscit
earn, et sine modo et mensura, opinans si posset finem attingere, quod haec esset sua félicitas et beatitudo.
Et intantum
corruptum est iudicium rationis, quod continue cogitât de ea,
et dimittit omnes suas operationes ita quod, si aliquis loquatur cum eo, vix intelligit aliqua a l i a . 11
The corruption of the judgement of reason is due to the corrup t i o n of
the faculty of estimation, one of the animal faculties of the soul
(virtutes animales).
"Causa huius passionis est corruptio a e s t i m a t i v a e : "
t h e c a u s e o f " h e r e o s " is the d e r a n g e m e n t o f e s t i m a t i o n .
T h e soul, a c c o r d i n g to t h e a c c e p t e d m e d i a e v a l view, c o n s i s t s of
t h r e e sect i o n s ,
e a c h o n e c o n t r o l l i n g o n e o f the t h r e e n e u r a l g i c c e n t r e s
of the h u m a n organism:
t h e r a t i o n a l soul, p l a c e d in the e n c e p h a l o n ;
p a r t that c o n t r o l s p a s s i o n s , l o c a t e d i n the heart;
a t e s the a p p e t i t e s , s e a t e d i n the liver.
the
t h e p a r t that r e g u l ­
E a c h o n e o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s of
the soul carries out different operations,
t h a t is, it h a s c e r t a i n
p o w e r s o r f a c u l t i e s that m a r k t h e a c t i v i t i e s p r o p e r to that part.
Con­
sequently,
t h r e e t y p e s o f f a c u l t i e s c o r r e s p o n d to the t h r e e s e c t i o n s of
the soul:
the a n i m a l f a c u l t y , s e a t e d in the enc e p h a l o n ;
ulty, l o c a t e d i n t h e h e a r t ;
parts,
the vital fac­
the n a t u r a l f a c u l t y c o n s i s t i n g of two m a i n
t h e p o w e r o f n u t r i t i o n i n the l i v e r a n d that o f g e n e r a t i o n i n the
testicles.
The animal faculties control our apprehension of external stimuli
( c o g n i t i v e p o w e r s ) a n d a r e in r e l a t i o n to t h e e x t e r n a l s e n s e s
(one f o r
e a c h s e n s e ) a n d to the i n t e r n a l senses:
H i c a u t e m e s t o r d o in a p p r e h e n s i o n e h u m a n a , s i c u t d e c l a r a t u m
es t i n s c i e n t i a n a t u r a l i :
quod primo species rei pervenit ad
sensus exteriores, ut a d v i s u m vel a u d i t u m vel t a c t u m vel gustum vel olphatum,
d e i n d e ab i l l i s p e r v e n i t ad v i r t u t e s s e n s i -
t l vas i n t e r i o r e s ,
sicut pervenit ad fantasiam primo, deinde
p e r venit ad c o g i t a t i v a m et ultimo ad memorialem.
Ab istis
a u t e m virtut i b u s procedit postea ista species ad v i r t u t e m
nobiliorem, que v irtus in h o mine est altissima inter virtutes
adprehensivas,
et ista est virtus possibilis
. . . .
Intellec-
tus p o s s i b i l i s e s t i l l e q u i r e c i p i t s p e c i e s rei, e t r e c i p i e n d o
s p e c i e m rei c o g n o s c i t r e m . . . .
T h e f i r s t p o w e r o f t h e i n t e r n a l s e n s e s is, i n the G r e e k term, phantasia,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e L a t i n imaginatio,
that is, r e t e n t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n .
L o c a t e d i n t h e d o r s a l l o b e o f t h e a n t e r i o r v e n t r i c l e of the e n c e p h a l o n ,
it p r e s e r v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e e x t e r n a l senses.
The frontal lobe
o f t h e a n t e r i o r v e n t r i c l e o f the b r a i n is o c c u p i e d b y sensus communis,
The n e x t p o w e r is the virtue
the r e c i p i e n t of e x t e r n a l s e n s a t i o n s .
cogitativa, s e a t e d in the m i d d l e v e n t r i c l e o f the e n c e p h a l o n , c l o s e to
the v e r m i f o r m proce s s ,
the phantasia.
a n d it c o m b i n e s a n d s e p a r a t e s the i m p r e s s i o n s in
N e x t is the virtus aestimativa.
This power,
l o c a t e d in
the d o r s a l s e c t i o n o f the brain, p e r c e i v e s the n o n - s e n s i t i v e i n t e n t i o n s
i n the s i n g l e o b j e c t s o f s e n s a t i o n .
T h e virtue memorialis, f o u n d in the
p o s t e r i o r v e n t r i c l e of the e n c e p h a l o n , p r e s e r v e s the n o n - s e n s i t i v e i m ­
p r e s s i o n s o f the s i n g l e o b j e c t s o f s e n s a t i o n .
To s u m up, t h e v i t a l f a ­
c u l t y p r e p a r e s the h u m a n o r g a n i s m to r e c e i v e t h e s e n s o r y a n d m o v i n g
powers,
t h a t is to say,
the v i t a l a c t i v i t i e s of man.
The operation of
t h i s f a c u l t y is t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l i n o r d e r that the a n i m a l f a c u l t i e s
m a y c a r r y o u t t heir f u n c t i o n s p r o p e r l y .
A c c o r d i n g to the p h y s i c i a n s ,
this f a c u l t y is m a d e b o t h of p u l s a t o r y p o w e r s s e a t e d i n the h e a r t w h i c h
r e g u l a t e the m o v e m e n t of the s p i r i t s
(pneuma ) a n d the b l o o d b y m e a n s of
the d i l a t i o n a n d c o n s t r i c t i o n o f the h e a r t , a n d o f a m o t i v e p o w e r (elea14
ttva) w h i c h d r i v e s m a n to p u r s u e o r a v o i d the o b j e c t of p e r c e p t i o n .
T h e n a t u r a l f a c u l t i e s r e g u l a t e the p h y s i o l o g y of man, d e t e r m i n i n g
b i r t h a n d growth.
They are divided into several sub-powers according
to t h e i r f u nctions.
i sm consumes;
T h e virtus nutritiva r e p l a c e s that w h i c h the o r g a n ­
it is s e r v e d by f o u r q u a l i t i e s s t r i c t l y b o u n d to life:
dryness.
T h e virtus attraativa d raws the n o u r i s h ­
heat,
cold, m o i s t u r e ,
ment;
t h e retentiva r e t a i n s it; t h e digestiva m o u l d s the n o u r i s h m e n t i n ­
to a s u b s t a n c e p r o p e r to the o r g a n i s m ;
residues.
the expulsiva f rees the b o d y of
I n a d d i t i o n to t h e virtus nutritiva t h e r e e x i s t s a virtus
crescitiva t h a t c o n t r o l s the d i m e n s i o n s of t h e b o d y a n d a virtus genera­
tive. t h a t d e t e r m i n e s b i r t h b y g e n e r a t i n g s e m e n in m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s a n d
b y s e p a r a t i n g a n d u n i t i n g the p o w e r s o f t h e s e m e n i n o r d e r to f o r m n e r v e s ,
bones and limbs.^
A c c o r d i n g to the m e d i c a l s o u r c e s the f i r s t s t a g e o f l o v e s i c k n e s s
is d u e to the c o r r u p t i o n o f the f a c u l t y of e s t i m a t i o n .
T h i s faculty,
l o c a t e d at t h e s u m m i t o f the m i d d l e c a v i t y of the b r ain, p e r c e i v e s the
n o n - s e n s i t i v e intentions of the objects of sensation and judges w h e t h e r
those intentions will produce good or harm.
j e c t is o v e r w h e l m i n g ,
If the d e s i r e for t h e o b ­
it c a n o f f s e t the j u d g m e n t of the e s t i m a t i v e f a c u l ­
ty, a n d w i l l c a u s e the s u b j e c t to b e l i e v e t h a t it is a n a t t a i n a b l e good.
It n e c e s s a r i l y foll o w s ,
t h e m e d i c a l s o u r c e s explain,
q u o d p r o p t e r h u i u s m o d i r e i d e s i d e r i u m v e h e m e n s eius f o r m a m
i m p r essam phanta s m a t e fortiter retinet, et m e m o r i a m faciendo
d e re c o n t i n u e r e c o r d a t u r .
E x h i s v e r o d u a b u s n a s c i t u r ter-
t i u m c o n s e q u e n t e r , o r i t u r e t e n i m e x v e h e m e n t ! d e s i d e r i o et
r e c o r d a t i o n e a s s i d u a e c o g i t a t i o n i s impu l s u s ; c o g i t a t n a m q u e
tails , q u a l i t e r e t q u i b u s i n g e n i i s v a l e a t r e m a d l i b i t u m obtinere, u t n o c i v i s d e l e c t a b i l i s c u l t u m p o s s i t a s s e q u i ,
.
c onc i p i t .
quod
16
T h e o b j e c t o f d e s i r e b e c o m e s a n o b s e s s i v e i d e a t h a t p o l a r i z e s a l l the
c o g i t a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s u b j e c t , a n d the c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e f a c u l t y
i n v o l v e s a l l the o t h e r f a c u l t i e s o f the soul:
Cum igitur quasi ad imperium aestimativae caeterae inclinent
virtutes, patet quod . . . rationis imperium sensibilium virtutum delusionibus subiungatur erroneis, c u m decre t u m aestimat i o n i s s u s t i n e a t , ut i n f o r m e t .
A t length,
this o b s e s s i v e i d e a c a n d a r k e n a n d o v e r p o w e r r e a s o n itself,
a n d c a n d r i v e t h e l o v e r to s e e k t h e g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f h i s s e x u a l i n s t i n c t s
r a t h e r t h a n l i s t e n to t h e v o i c e o f reason:
Hie a u t e m amor furiosus,
c u m p a r t i c u l a r e rei exemplo lucidius
pateat inter v i r u m et mulierem, v i d e t u r imperio subiugato ra­
t i o n i s ince n d i , p r o p t e r s i n g u l a r e m c o y t u s d e l e c t a t i o n e m .
Actually,
erro r ,
it is n o t c o r r e c t to s a y t h a t t h e e s t i m a t i v e f a c u l t y is i n
i n a s m u c h as f a c u l t i e s c a n n o t u n d e r g o a n y chan g e .
T h e c a u s e s of
a n y e r r o r h a v e to b e f o u n d i n the i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t the f a c u l t y u s e s in
c a r r y i n g o u t its f u n c t i o n s ,
that is to say,
the m i d d l e c a v i t y o f the
b r a i n a n d the s p i r i t s h e r e cont a i n e d :
C a u s a v e r o p r o p t e r q u a m a e s t i m a t i v a v i r t u s in o p e r e v e l in
i u d i c i o s u o c l a u d i c a t s i c et e r rat, n e c e s s a r i o s u m e n d a v i d e ­
tur e x p a r t e i n s t r u m e n t o r u m q u i b u s d i c t a v i r t u s s u a s p e r f i c i t
ac t i o n e s , m e d i a e s c i l i c e t c o n c a v i t a s c e r e b r i et s p i r i t u m rec e p t o r u m i n eas; v i r t u t e s n a m q u e n o n s e n e s c u n t , n e c i n o p e r a t i o n i b u s v i t i u m p a t i u n t u r s u i rati o n i ,
sed organi recepti
spiritus vel e t i a m apparentis.
A c c o r d i n g to m e d i a e v a l p s y c h o l o g y the w e l l - b e i n g o f the e n t i r e o r g a n i s m
is c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s p i r i t s (pneuma ) , a n d s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e i n s t r u ­
m e n t s o f the f a c u l t i e s t h e y are o f t h r e e types:
animal.^
natural, v i t a l , a n d
T h e n a t u r a l s p i r i t is g e n e r a t e d in the l i v e r f r o m p u r e b l o o d
a n d is i n s t i l l e d t h r o u g h o u t the b o d y f r o m the l i v e r v i a the v e i n s .
Its
f u n c t i o n is to c a r r y out a l l t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l faculty.
v i t a l spirit,
The
i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e v i t a l faculty, c o m p r i s e s two e l e m e n t s ,
i n h a l e d a i r a n d the e x h a l a t i o n s o f t h e b l o o d .
T h e s e two e l e m e n t s a r e
b l e n d e d in the h e a r t as s o o n as the i n h a l e d a i r h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d a n d
p u r i f i e d i n t h e l u n g s t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h e d i g e s t i v e
one; t h e r e s u l t is the v i t a l s p i rit.
T h i s is s u b s e q u e n t l y p a s s e d f r o m
the l e f t v e n t r i c l e o f the h e a r t to the a r t e r i e s a n d to the r e t i f o r m
p l e x u s , at the b a s e o f the b r ain, w h e r e it u n d e r g o e s a f u r t h e r t r a n s f o r ­
mation.
F i n a l l y it e n t e r s the l a t e r a l v e n t r i c l e s o f the b r a i n , w h e r e it
is b l e n d e d w i t h the a i r i n h a l e d t h r o u g h t h e n o s t r i l s a n d b e c o m e s a n i m a l
spir i t .
T h i s s p i r i t o c c u p i e s the m a j o r v e n t r i c l e o f the b r a i n ,
rencephalon.
cont r o l s ,
t h e pa-
It p e r f o r m s a l l the o p e r a t i o n s of the r a t i o n a l s o u l a n d
t h r o u g h the n e r ves,
the sensory activities of m a n and v o l u ntary
m oti o n .
To summarize, in e very h u m a n b e i n g there are three v i t a l centres,
the liver,
the heart,
the b r ain.
F r o m these centres an interl a c i n g n e t ­
w o r k o f v i t a l c u r r e n t s b r a n c h e s o u t a c r o s s the o r g a n i s m b y m e a n s o f
v e ins,
arte r i e s , a n d nerv e s .
The w e l l - b e i n g of m a n depends upon these
curr e n t s .
These, b e i n g f o r m e d b y i n h a l e d a i r a n d b y the e x h a l a t i o n s of
the blood,
c a n e a s i l y b e p e r t u r b e d b y c h a n g e s in a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s
a n d in the i n t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e body,
for inst a n c e , b y t h e g r o w t h
o f m a l i g n a n t h u m o u r s a n d b y the r e s u l t i n g a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
o f t h e i n n a t e h e a t t h a t r e g u l a t e s t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of the h e a r t .
W h e n a p l e a s i n g f o r m r e a c h e s the i n t e r n a l f a c u l t i e s o f t h e soul,
the s u d d e n p l e a s u r e c a u s e s a s u d d e n m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f the v i t a l s p i r i t s ,
w h i c h o v e r h e a t a n d s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t the body:
Cum enim animae gratum seu delectabile praesentatur, ex gaudio
delectabilis apprehensi spiritus in corde m u l t i p l i c a t i subito
calefiunt, et calefacti subito . . . d elegantur ad m e m b r a cor­
poris u n i v e r s a l 8
S i n c e t h e v i t a l s p i r i t s g e n e r a t e the a n i m a l s p i r i t s ,
the o v e r h e a t i n g of
the f o r m e r w i l l c a u s e a n o v e r h e a t i n g of the latt e r .
T h e r e c e p t a c l e of
the e s t i m a t i v e faculty,
the d o r s a l s e c t i o n o f t h e m i d d l e v e n t r i c l e of
t h e b r a i n , b e i n g i n c o n t a c t w i t h the b u r n i n g s p i r i t s c o m i n g f r o m the
h e a r t , b e c o m e s i n f l a m e d a n d is u n a b l e to w i t h s t a n d the e x c e s s i v e heat.
T h i s a b n o r m a l s t a t e o f the m i n d does n o t d i s a p p e a r , h o w e v e r , o n c e
the o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n d i s a p p e a r s .
T h e e s t i m a t i v e facu l t y ,
i n fact,
c o n t r o l s the imaginativa, a n d t h e p e r m a n e n c y o f the phantasmata i n the
imaginativa d e p e n d s u p o n i t s d e g r e e of d r y n e s s .
The o verheating of the
estimativa c a u s e s a n e x c e s s i v e d r y n e s s i n t h e imaginativa a n d i n its
e n c e p h a l i c area:
C u m i t a q u e f i r m a r e t e n t i o f o r m a r u m in m u l t i s q u i b u s l i b e t n e q u a q u a m e f f i c i v a l e a t s i n e sicco, n e c e s s a r i o s e q u i t u r c e r e b e l l a r e m p a r t e m imaginativae virtutis a l i q u a l i t e r exsiccari.
H o c v e r o e x p r a e t a c t i s sic o s t e n d i t u r :
videtur tamen etiam
f o r t i s et f r e q u e n s s i t t r a n s i t u s c a l o r i s s p i r i t u u m a d c e l l a m
aestimativae,
fluentium a d i u d i c i u m celebrandum, pars anterior,
i n q u a i m a g i n a t i v a residet, p r o p t e r h u m o r i s c o n s u m p t i o n e m a
c a l o r e s p i r i t u u m relicta, r e m a n e t n e c e s s a r i o s i c c i u s s e u m i n u s
h u m i d a q u a m fuerit.
T h e r e f o r e t h e phantasma r e m a i n s f i r m l y i m p r i n t e d i n t h e o r g a n o f m e m o r y ,
p o l a r i z i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f thought, a n d it r e m a i n s t h e o n l y d a t u m p r e ­
s e n t to the c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the l o ver.
It is this o b s e s s i v e p r e s e n c e
o f t h e phantasma t h a t c a u s e s t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n k n o w n as amor
hereos :
" e x h o c i g i t u r i m p e t u c o g i t a t i o n i s inte n s o ,
accidentia patiuntur amantes heroyci."
gravia quamplurimum
F i r s t o f a l l t h e r e is inso m n i a ,
w h i c h w e a r s o u t t h e b o d y b y p r o d u c i n g a n e x c e s s i v e e v a p o r a t i o n o f the
v i t a l humo u r :
Assidua namque cogitationis tempestas continuas parit vigili a r u m i n s t a n t i a s , q u i b u s sic e x s i c c a t i s v i g i l i i s ,
induuntur
c o n s e q u e n t e r o m n e s e o r u n d e m e ffectue; h u m o r e t e n i m n u t r i m e n t o
devotus,
insensibili consumptione vaporat, seu evaporatione
vigilando consumitur.
The h e a l t h o f the b o d y d e p e n d s u p o n the b a l a n c e d c o m b i n a t i o n o f the f o u r
hu m o u r s .
T h e e v a p o r a t i o n o f the v i t a l h u m o u r b r e a k s this t e n u o u s b a l ­
a nce, w i t h d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s :
Q u a m o b r e m s p i r i t u s et c a l o r a c u t i o r e s effe c t i , q u o d n u t r i b i l e
humidum profundiori non etiam fortiori actione dévastant hoc
et c a l i d u m a t q u e s i c cum, h u m i d u m v i d e l i c e t c o p i o s u m s u s c i p i t
nutrimentum.
H i s i g i t u r c a u s i s ad e x s i c c a t i o n e m i n s t a n t i b u s
habitudo corporis extenuata relinquitur.
Th e s p i r i t s a n d the h e a t that h a v e i n v a d e d the b o d y p r e v e n t t h e i n s t r u ­
m e n t s o f the n a t u r a l facu l t y ,
that is, t h e n a t u r a l s p i r i t a n d the liver,
f r o m p e r f o r m i n g p r o p e r l y t h e i r v i t a l func t i o n s .
becomes anorexic
As a result the lover
(anorexia nervosa ) :
V i r t u t e s n a m q u e n a t u r a l e s n e q u e u n t s u b l a t o r u m fund e r e ,
e a r u m i n s t r u m e n t a s p i r i t u s s e u e t c a lor,
exercent,
cum
quibus suas actiones
ad e x p l e t i o n e m o p e r u m a n i m a l i u m fortiter detrahuntur
i n tantum, v i d e l i c e t u t a p p e t i t u m t a l e s c o m e n d i p o s t p o n u n t ,
et
u s u m n e g l igunt comestionis, et potius macerantur.
The b o d y b e c o m e s g r a d u a l l y t h i n n e r a n d drier, t h e e y e s b e c o m e h o l l o w
a n d tearless.
T h e m e d i c a l w r i t e r s e x p l a i n i n g r e a t d e t a i l a l l the s y m ­
ptoms of this fearful sickness:
w h y l o v e r s a r e pale, w h y t h e y sigh,
w h y th e p u l s e s l o w s d o w n in m o m e n t s o f s o r r o w a n d b e c o m e s s t r o n g a n d
19
r a p i d i n m o m e n t s o f joy.
T h e y expl a i n , a l s o i n g r e a t d e t a i l , t h e
r e q u i r e d therapy:
intercourse,
l i g h t diet, sleep,
frequent baths, blood-letting,
p s y c h o l o g i c a l c ures s u c h a s l i s t e n i n g to m u s i c , w a l k i n g
in gardens scented by flowers and crossed b y slow-r u n n i n g streams,
c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h frien d s .
If t h e s e c u r e s do n o t succ e e d ,
the continu­
ous overhe a t i n g o f the b o d y will produce an excessive quantity of m e l a n ­
cholic humours
(melancholia adusta ) t h a t w i l l d r y the b o d y c o m p l e t e l y ,
t u r n i n g t h e s k i n d a r k a n d c a u s i n g u l t i m a t e l y u t t e r f o l l y a n d death:
N i s i h u i c f u r i a e c e l e r i t e r o b v i e t u r , m e l a n c o l i a m p a r i t in
p o s t e r u m , et ut s a e p e c o n t i n g i t , p r a e p a r a t i n m a n i a m et, q u o d
g r a v i u s est, l a n g u e n t i n d e q u a m p l u r i m i m o r t i s p e r i c u l u m incurr e r e .
20
L e t u s r e t u r n to B o c c a c c i o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of A r c i t a ' s sorrow.
The
s y m p t o m s i n Teseida c o r r e s p o n d to t h o s e g i v e n b y the p h y s i c i a n s b u t go
fa r b e y o n d them.
A r c i t a p r o d u c e s b u r n i n g sighs, d u e to t h e i n c r e a s e of
t h e i n n e r heat:
E giorno e notte senza alcun respitto
s o s p i r g i t t a v a c a l d i c o m e foco . . . .
H e is lean, b e i n g a n o r e x i c :
Egli era tutto quanto divenuto
si m a g r o ,
che assai a g evolmente
c i a s c u n s u o o s s o si s a r i a v e d u t o . . . .
H i s p a l e s k i n h a s b e c o m e a l m o s t b l a c k , d u e to melancholia adusta:
E n o n p u r s o l a m e n t e p a l i d o era,
m a l a s u a p e l l e p a r e a q u a s i nera.
His eyes are hollow:
E n e l l a testa a p pena si vedeano
gli o c c h i d o l e n t i
. . . .
I n fact, h i s a s p e c t h a s so c h a n g e d t h a t h e l o oks m o r e l i k e a w i l d b e a s t
t h a n a y o u n g man:
E la guance lanute
di f o l t o p e l o e n u o v o , n o n p a r e a n o ;
e le s u e c i g l i a p e l o s e e a c u t e
a r i g u a r d a r o r r i b l e il faceano;
le come t u t t e r i g i d e e irsute;
e s i e r a del t utto t r a m u t a t o ,
ch e n u l l o n o n l ' a v r i a r a f f i g u r a t o .
The p r o b l e m w e f a c e is w h e t h e r t h e s e s y m p t o m s a r e t a k e n as a w h o l e f r o m
a t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e o f love,
that of t h e t r o u b a d o u r s a n d o f the p o e t s
of D a n t e ' s circle, o r w h e t h e r B o c c a c c i o r e t r i e v e s t h e m a f t e r v e r i f y i n g
t h e m a g a i n s t the m e d i c a l d o c t r i n e of amor hereos.
one.
O u r s e a r c h is a s h o r t
I n the Chiose to the Teseida, B o c c a c c i o c o m m e n t s u p o n h i s o w n v e r ­
ses, d e s c r i b i n g A r c i t a ' s s o r r o w i n t h e s e w o rds:
A m o r e v o l e r e m o s t r a r e c o m e p e r le s o p r a d e t t e c o s e si g e n e r i
i n noi, q u a n t u n q u e a l i a p r e s e n t e o p e r a f o r s e si c o n v e r r e b b e di
d i c h i a r a r e , n o n è m i o i n t e n d i m e n t o di farlo, p e r c i o c h e t r o p p o
s a r e b b e l u n g a l a storia:
c h i d i s i d e r a di v i d e r l o ,
l e g g a la
c a n z o n e di G u i d o C a v a l c a n t i "Donna mi priega e t c . , " e le
c h i o s e c h e s o p r a v i f e c e M a e s t r o D i n o d e l Garbo.
21
T h e r e f e r e n c e s a r e to t h e d i f f i c u l t c a n z o n e b y G u i d o C a v a l c a n t i ,
the
" f i r s t f r i e n d " of D a nte, w h i c h c e n t r e s o n the p r o b l e m o f the c a u s e s a n d
s y m p t o m s o f love, a n d to the c o m m e n t a r y o n the p o e m w r i t t e n b y a c o n ­
temporary physician,
t h e f a m o u s D i n o d e l Garbo.
f o u n d in o n l y o n e m a n u s c r i p t ,
T h i s c o m m e n t a r y is
in Boccaccio's own hand-writing, and
B o c c a c c i o r e f e r s to it a g a i n i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f l o v e i n the Genealogia
(IX, 4 ) , a n d i n h i s e x e g e s i s of t h e e p i s o d e o f P a o l o a n d F r a n c e s c a in
D a n t e ' s f i f t h c a n t o o f Inferno.
22
B u t w e c a n a d d a f e w m o r e points.
B o c c a c c i o g o e s f u r t h e r t h a n h i s s o u r c e s , a d d i n g a r e f e r e n c e to D a n t e
(Erisitone,
t a k e n p r o b a b l y f r o m Purgatory, X X III,
25-27:
" N o n c r edo
c h e c o s i a b u c c i a s t r e m a / E r i s i t o n e f o s s e f a t t o s e cco, / P e r digi u n a r ,
q u a n d o p i u n ' e b b e tema.")
H e a l s o a d d s a r e f e r e n c e to a l i t e r a r y t r a d i 23
t i o n o f l o v e s i c k n e s s t h a t g o e s b a c k to E r a s i s t r a t u s
and w h i c h he uses
a g a i n i n the Deaameron,
I I . 8 (Arc i t a ' s d e s i r e n o t to r e v e a l the c a u s e s
o f h i s s i c k n e s s ) a n d a r e f e r e n c e to a n e x t r e m e c a s e o f l o v e m e l a n c h o l y
th a t c a u s e s the l o v e r to be c o m e ,
24
to a l y c a n t h r o p u s .
in hi s a s p e c t a n d b e h a v i o u r , s i m i l a r
C h a u c e r , o n the o t h e r hand, is m o r e c o n c i s e a n d less i n c l i n e d to
e n l a r g e u p o n the m e d i c a l d e t a i l s t h a n is B o c c a c c i o .
H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of
t h e s y m p t o m s o f l o v e c l o s e l y f o l l o w s t h o s e o f the p h y s i c i a n s i n s t r u c ­
ture a n d wording:
H i s slep, h i s me t e , h i s d r y n k e , is h y m b i raft.
S i g n a a u t e m s u n t q u a n d o a m i t t u n t s onmum, cibum, p o t u m .
T h a t l e n e h e wex.
E t m a c e r a t u r t o t u m corpus.
H i s e y e n ho l w e .
Et oculi concavantur.
H i s h e w e falow.
E t e o r u m f a c i e s s u n t c r o c e a e p r o p t e r vi g i l i a s .
A n d w a i l l y n g e a l the n y g h t , m a k y n g e h i s mone.
P a c i e n t e s . . . ereos i n c e d u n t s t r i d e n t o
. . . et clamando
to t a n o c t e .
A n d if he h e r d e song or instrument,
T h a n n e w o l d e h e wepe.
A l t e r a t u r d i s p o s i t i o ei u s . . . a d t r i s t i t i a m et fletum,
25
c u m a m o r i s c a n t i l e n a audit.
It w i l l b e c l e a r n o w th a t B o c c a c c i o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s
v i s i b l e i n the l o v e r a r e m o r e p o e t i c a l l y i m a g i n a t i v e a n d l e s s s c i e n t i f i ­
cally p r e c i s e than Chaucer's.
Y e t w e c a n go further.
Both poets refer
i n d i r e c t l y to that f o r m o f l o v e m e l a n c h o l y c a l l e d l y c a n t h r o p y , b u t w h i l e
B o c c a c c i o d e s c r i b e s the p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e l y c a n t h r o p i c l o v e r s
(the d a r k c o l o u r o f t h e s k i n a n d the o v e r g r o w t h o f ha i r ) , C h a u c e r e m p h a ­
sizes their habit of w a n d e r i n g all ni g h t long wailing and moaning.
More
i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E n g l i s h p o e t r e f e r s to the s i c k ­
n e s s w i t h its p r o p e r s c i e n t i f i c n a m e " H e r e o s " a n d a l s o the f a c t th a t h e
states quite correctly that madness can arise from love because excessive
d e s i r e c a u s e s a n o v e r f l o w o f the m e l a n c h o l i c h u m o u r in the f r o n t a l l o b e
of t h e b r a i n , w h e r e phantasia ha s its seat.
C h a u c e r is c l e a r l y a w a r e o f
t he p h a n t a s m a t i c n a t u r e of l o v e a n d o f th e f a c t that th e p o l a r i z a t i o n
o f t h o u g h t u p o n the phantasma is t h e c a u s e o f t h e m e n t a l d e r a n g e m e n t
called "Hereos."
In o r d e r to f i n d C h a u c e r ' s s o u r c e w e s h o u l d turn,
Boccaccio,
r a t h e r t h a n to
to a m e d i c a l w r i t e r , B e r n a r d of G ordon, p r o f e s s o r o f m e d i c i n e
i n M o n t p e l l i e r f r o m 1 2 8 5 a n d a u t h o r o f a f a m o u s t r e a t i s e Lilium medici-
nae, w h o is m e n t i o n e d b y t h e D o c t o u r o f P h y s i c in the G e n e r a l P r o l o g u e
to The Canterbury Tales.
O n e f a c t s e e m s ob v i o u s :
b y k e e p i n g v e r y c l o s e to the m e d i c a l d o c ­
tr i n e of love, C h a u c e r is p u r p o s e l y a d h e r i n g to t r a d i t i o n a l topoi, w h e r e
26
B o t h p o e t s c e r t a i n l y l i k e to
B o c c a c c i o s e e m s to v e n t u r e b e y o n d them.
demonstrate their erudition, and whe n e v e r p ossible they i ntegrate their
m a i n s o u r c e w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n d r a w n f r o m s e c o n d a r y so u r c e s .
Yet their
a p p r o a c h to a g i v e n m o d e l a n d to s t o r y - t e l l i n g is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , b e ­
cause their aims are different.
B o c c a c c i o is n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s e t t i n g
c h a r a c t e r s o r s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p e r i m e t e r of a n y c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t r a ­
d i t i o n b e c a u s e h e is m a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d in the n a r r a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
a f f o r d e d b y h i s s o urces.
His sources are manipulated,
o r d e r to h e i g h t e n the d r a m a t i c e f f e c t s o f the e p isode:
played with,
in
Arcita, like all
u n h a p p y l o v e r s , sighs; y e t h i s a r e n o t n o r m a l sighs, f o r t h e y a r e " a s
h o t as fire."
A v e r y e f f e c t i v e detail, y e t i n l i n e w i t h m e d i c a l s c i ence:
e r o t i c m e l a n c h o l y i n c r e a s e s the i n n a t e h e a t a n d t h e r e f o r e the t e m p e r a t u r e
of b r e a t h i n g .
L o v e r s s u f f e r f r o m in s o m n i a ,
help but sigh continuously, day an d night.
f a c t A r c i t a h a s no a p p e t i t e .
a n d so does A r c i t a ; h e c a n n o t
L o v e r s a r e a n o r e x i c , a n d in
Boccaccio, however,
is n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h
a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t t h a t "he h a d b e c o m e so t h i n that e v e r y o n e o f h i s
b o n e s w a s e a s i l y v i s i b l e , " b u t b r i n g s i n a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c si m i l e :
Ar­
c i t a h a d b e c o m e t h i n n e r t h a n E r y s i c h t h o n who, w e m a y r e call, w a s p u n i s h ­
e d w i t h s u c h a n i n s a t i a b l e h u n g e r , h a v i n g d e s t r o y e d t h e tr e e s o f a f o r e s t
s a c r e d to D e m e t e r ,
that,
in o r d e r to s a t i s f y h i s h u n g e r , h e s o l d a l l h i s
possessions, eve n his own daughter, an d finally devoured himself.
sick lovers undergo a change in their physical appearance.
Love
Again Boccac­
c i o is n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h g i v i n g a l i s t o f the o b v i o u s signs, p a l e n e s s ,
d a r k e n i n g of t h e o v e r a l l c o m p l e x i o n , h o l l o w i n g o f the eyes.
H e offers
t h e d r a m a t i c v i s i o n o f a m a n w h o h a s b e e n c h a n g e d in t o a s a v a g e l o o k i n g
creature.
F o r b e s i d e s b e i n g r e d u c e d a l m o s t to a s k e l e t o n , A r c i t a ' s
c h e e k s a r e s u n k e n a n d c o v e r e d b y h air, h i s b r o w s a r e f r i g h t f u l l y t h i c k
a n d s h arp, h i s h a i r is s t i f f a n d shaggy.
fact,
t h a t h e d o e s n o t r e s e m b l e a man:
come b a c k f r o m the p r i s o n of hell."
H e h a s so m u c h chan g e d ,
Y e t the u s e o f m e d i c a l a n d l i t e r ­
a r y m o d e l s a n d t h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n of t h e epis o d e ,
tous, s e r v e s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p u r p o s e .
o f the Teseida b e g i n s ,
in
" H e s e e m e d to e v e r y o n e to h a v e
far from b e i n g g ratui­
J u s t b e f o r e the c e n t r a l a c t i o n
t h e p o e t c l e a r l y s e t s o u t l o v e as the m a i n t heme
o f t h e r o m a n c e a n d d e f i n e s its n a t u r e as a n o v e r w h e l m i n g force.
Hence
t h e u s e o f m e d i c a l s y m p t o m s o f l o v e s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d s i m p l y as a
r e s t a t e m e n t o f a l o n g k n o w n truth:
love, i n its e x c e s s i v e m a n i f e s t a ­
tions, l e a d s m a n to g r i e f a n d u l t i m a t e l y to m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l d e r a n g e ­
ment.
T h e r e f e r e n c e to D i n o del G a r b o is s i m p l y a v e r i f i c a t i o n of this
truth, a f o o t n o t e f o r the c u r i o u s r e a d e r a n d a f u r t h e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n of
the poet's culture.
C h a u c e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a nd, c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f the i n t e r p r e t e r of
amour oourtois i n E n g l a n d , a n d t h e r e f o r e h i s m a i n a i m is to r e c r e a t e in
h i s w o r k a n i d e a l w o r l d o f chiv a l r y ,
to g i v e n e w l i f e to a p o e t i c w o r l d
The
t h a t w a s d i s a p p e a r i n g w i t h the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the f e u d a l s y s tem.
Legend o f Good Women, The Knight's Tale, Troilus and Criseyde, r e m a r k s
M a r i o P r a z , " a r e t h e r e s u l t of this r e f i n i n g of c h i v a l r i c ideals,
of this
final,
f l a m b o y a n t c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of a c o d e o f l i f e i n t h e m o m e n t of its
27
disintegration."
C h a u c e r is n o t i n t e r e s t e d s i m p l y i n t e l l i n g a story,
n o r is h e i n t e r e s t e d s i m p l y i n e x p l o i t i n g the n a r r a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
i n h e r e n t i n a s t o r y o f u n r e c i p r o c a t e d love.
H e w a n t s to o f f e r a d o c t r i n e
o f l o v e f a i t h f u l to the c o u r t l y t r a d i t i o n d o w n to the l a s t detail.
v i e w o f this a i m C h a u c e r s u b j e c t s h i s s o u r c e s to a c a r e f u l anal y s i s .
In
He
p u r g e s t h e m o f a l l the e r r o r s h e b e l i e v e s h a v e b e e n c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t the
c o d e o f c h i v a l r i c love, a n d a p a r t f r o m t h e a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n
o f i n f u s i n g B o e t h i a n i d e a s into the story,
C h a u c e r t r i e s to d r a w u p o n o n ­
ly t h o s e e l e m e n t s b e l o n g i n g to the p u r e s t c o u r t l y t r adition.
Carleton University
NOTES
C.S. L e wis, The Allegory o f Love (New Y o r k 1958) 163.
2
The Works o f Geoffrey Chaucer, ed. F.N. R o b i n s o n , 2 n d e d i t i o n
( C a mbr idge, Mass. 1957) I, 1355-79.
3
M o d e m Philology 2 (1914) 4 9 1 - 5 4 6 .
Beside a brief note by Lowes
i n The Nation 97 (Sept. 11, 1913) 233, a n d a f u r t h e r n o t e i n MLN, 31
(1916) 185- 8 7 ,
the p r o b l e m o f hereos h a s b e e n s t u d i e d b r i e f l y b y L a w ­
r e n c e B a b b in his s t u d y o f m e l a n c h o l y i n E l i z a b e t h a n E n g l a n d , The Eliza­
bethan Malady (East L a n s i n g , Mich. 1951), a n d b y B. N a r d i , " L ' a m o r e e i
m e d i c i m e d i e v a l i , " i n Studi in onore di Aiigelo Monteverdi ( M o d e n a 1959) .
M o r e d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s a r e t h o s e b y H.J.
Crohns, " Z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e r
L i e b e als K r a n k e i t " , i n Arahiv fur Kulturgeschichte 3 (1905) 66 - 8 6 , a n d
b y M. C i a v o l e l l a , La malattia d'amore d a l l 1antichitâ al medioevo (Rome
1976).
4
L o w e s , p. 525
n. 1.
Ed. L. L i m e n t a n i
( M i l a n 1964) 361-63.
trans. B e r n a d e t t e M a r i e M c C o y
See The Book o f Theseus,
(New Y o r k 1974) 101-2:
"Since he was
affli c t e d by many sorrows, h e took small delight in b e i n g alive.
all, h i s h e a r t w a s p i e r c e d b y L o v e a n d h e f o u n d n o rest.
w i t h o u t resp i t e , h e p o u r e d f o r t h s i g h s as h o t as fire.
h i s g r i e f b y tears,
Above
D a y a n d nigh t ,
He often expressed
a n d h i s s o r r o w s h o w e d c l e a r l y i n h i s face.
b e c o m e so t h i n that e v e r y o n e of h i s b o n e s w a s e a s i l y v i s i b l e .
He had
I do
n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e f a c e of E r y s i c h t h o n d u r i n g the time o f h i s s e v e r e
pangs of h unger was any different.
H e w a s n o t o n l y p a le, b u t h i s s k i n
l o o k e d a l m o s t black; a n d h i s m e l a n c h o l y e y e s w e r e b a r e l y v i s i b l e i n h i s
head.
H i s cheeks,
c o v e r e d w i t h t h e d o w n o f t h e i r n e w growth, w e r e s u n ­
ken, a n d h i s t h i c k a n d s h a r p b r o w s g a v e h i m a f e a r s o m e a p p e a r a n c e , w h i l e
his l o c k s w e r e s t i f f a n d shaggy.
anyone could have imagined.
He was m o re completely changed, than
His voice had diminished,
too, a n d so h a d
h i s p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , so t h a t h e s e e m e d to e v e r y o n e to h a v e c o m e b a c k
to t h e u p p e r r e g i o n s f r o m the p r i s o n o f h e l l m o r e t h a n f r o m a n y p l a c e
in this life.
The cause f r o m w h i c h his a ffliction sprang was n e v e r
k n o w n b y anyone,
for h e s a i d o n e t h i n g f o r a n o t h e r . "
^ De parte operativa,
i n Opera ( V e n i c e 1505 ) , fol. 146v.
The
a u t h o r , A r n a l d u s V i l l a n o v a n u s , w a s o n e o f the m o s t f a m o u s p h y s i c i a n s o f
the School of Montpellier.
B o r n ca. 1 2 3 8 p r o b a b l y in V a l e n c i a , e d u c a t e d
i n a D o m i n i c a n s c h o o l , h e f i r s t s t u d i e d m e d i c i n e w i t h the A r a b s i n Spain,
then in Montpellier and Paris
(ca. 1260).
o f m e d i c i n e in t h e s a m e U n i v e r s i t y .
I n 1 2 9 0 h e w a s g i v e n the c h a i r
As h i s fame g r e w h e w a s c a l l e d to
the c o u r t o f P e t e r III a n d J a m e s II o f A r a g o n ,
e r i c k II.
t h e n to the c o u r t o f F r e d ­
F i n a l l y h e b e c a m e the p e r s o n a l p h y s i c i a n o f P o p e B e n e d i c t XI
a n d l a t e r o f C l e m e n t V.
H e d i e d i n 1311.
^ T r a d i t i o n a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to I s a a c Judeus,
G h e r a r d o f Berry,
G h e r a r d of C r e m o n a , o r
the Viaticum is a b r i e f e n c y c l o p e d i a for the t r a v e l l e r ,
the Zad al-Musafir b y A b u J a f a r A h m e d I b n I b r a h i m I b n A l i K h a l i d ,
trans­
l ated into L a t i n b y Constantinus Africanus.
g
B e m a r d u s G o r d o n i u s , Lilium medicinae ( L u g d o n e n s i s 1491) fol. 31v.
9
D i n o del G a r b o , Scriptum super cantilena Guidonis de Cavalcanti-
bus, i n G. Favati, Rime di Guido Cavalaanti ( M i l a n 1957) 364, 367-68.
^
De amove heroyco i n Opera ( V e nice 1505), fol. 249r.
11 T
Loc.
12
13
cit.
D i n o del Garb o , p. 364 f.
S e e e.g. A v i c e n n a , Risalah fi al-Nafs,
translated into German
a n d e d i t e d b y S. L a n d a u e r u n d e r the t i t l e " D i e P s y c h o l o g i e des I b n S i n â , "
i n Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellsohaft 29 (1875)
335 ff.
S e e a l s o the e x c e l l e n t s t u d y b y H.A. W o l f s o n , " T h e I n t e r n a l
Senses in Latin, Arabic,
a n d H e b r e w P h i l o s o p h i c T e x t s , " Harvard Theolo­
gical Review 28 (1935) .
14
S e e A v i c e n n a , Canon ( V e nice 1606), F e n I, d o c t r . vi, ch. 5, p.
75 f.
^
V i n c e n t o f B e a u v a i s , Speculum doctrinale , lib.
XIII, ch. x l v i i i
(rpt. G r a z 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 ) 1 2 0 0 f.
^
See Arnaldus Villanovanus,
fol. 249v, a n d f o r the f o l l o w i n g
citations.
^
F o r this s e c t i o n s e e V i n c e n t o f B e a u v a i s , Speculum doctrinale,
"D e m e d i c i n a t h e o r i c a , " ed. cit., p. 1199.
18
S e e A r n a l d u s V i l l a n o v a n u s , fol. 249v, a n d f o r the f o l l o w i n g
citations.
19
S e e the Problemata a t t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e M i d d l e A g e s to
A l e x a n d e r of A p h r o d i s i a , A n g e l o P o l i t i a n o int.
n. 87.
( A m s t e r d a m 1655)
214 f.,
See a l s o I.L. Ideler, Physioi et Medici Graeci, 2 v o l s .
(Ber l i n
1 8 4 1 - 4 2 ) I, 28, n. 87:
" e a m q u e [i.e. t h e b e l o v e d ] se d e s p e r a n t p o t i t u r o s ,
i n s i t u s c a l o r u n a c u m n a t u r a in i n t i m a p é n é t r â t , q u o fit ut e x t r e m a e
p a r t e s f r i g e s c a n t , o b q u e id i p s u m et p a l l e n t et t r i s t e s e v a d u n t .
Contra
v e r o c u m aut b o n a s p e ab a m i c o sunt affe c t i , a u t c u m v e h e m e n t e r i r a s cunt u r ,
turn i n n a t u s c a l o r ad c u t e m v e r g i t u n a c u m n a t u r a ,
d o r e s et r u b i c o n d i o r e s ."
I, 10, n.
21):
ibid. p. 190, n.
22,
(Ideler,
" C u r d o l e n t e s et a m a n t e s et i r a s c e n t e s s u s p i r a n t a d -
m o d u m e t fre q u e n t e r ?
c o n v e r s a est;
F o r the sighs,
fiuntque cali-
Q u o n i a m d o l e ntium anima ad ipsam d o loris c ausam
c u p i e n t i u m a d id q u o d c u p i u n t
. . . .
Igitur intenta
a n i m a ad id q u o d m o v e t u r , n e g l e g i t et q u o d a m m o d u m o b l i v i s c i t u r m o t i v a m
p e c t o r i s m u s c u l i s v i r t u t e m prae b e r e .
dilatatione aerem accipiens,
Cor itaque ipsum n eque pectoris
ideoque neque p e r f l a t u m atque refrigeratum,
n e q u e i t e m c o n t r a c t i o n e e x c e r n e n t e m s i n g u l t i f i c a e x c r e m e n t a , q u a e de
sanguinis exustione gignuntur, dum
suffocationem metuit, a n i m a m cogit
a t q u e a d m o n e t ut q u a m p l u r i m u m m u s c u l i s m o t u m p r a e b e a t , m a j o r e m q u e ins p i r a t i o n e m a t q u e e x p i r a t i o n e m e f ficiat, u t m a j o r e m q u o q u e v i m f r i g i d i
a e r i s a c c i p i a t , m a j o r e m q u e v i m e x c r e m e n t o r u m e f f l u v i a t , ut q u o d e x i g u a e
c r e b r a e q u e r e s p i r a t i o n e s f a c t u r a e fuerant,
the p u l s e s ,
i d e m m a j o r u n a e f f i c i a t . " For
s e e E. Rohd e , Dev griechische Roman und seine Vorldufer
( H e i d e l b e r g 1960) 57 ff., a n d C i a v o l e l l a , op. cit., p. 81 a n d p. 92,
nn. 108 - 1 1 0 .
20
Arnaldus Villanovanus,
fol.
fol.
249 v - 2 5 0 r ,
and Bernardus Gordonius,
32r.
21
B o c c a c c i o , Teseida, p. 464.
22
B o c c a c c i o , Esposizione sopra la Comedia di Dante, ed.
( M i l a n 1965) 318 ff.
23
See C i a v o l e l l a , pp. 23-27.
24
Se e Galen, De locis affectis (Kilhn, V I I I ,
ially Rhazes
G. P a d o a n
176 f f.), a n d e s p e c ­
(Abu B a k r M u h a m m a d Ibn Z a k a r i y y a a r - R a z i ,
8 5 0 ca. - 9 2 3 or
932), Diber Continens (Al-Haui) (Venice 1505), lib. I, tr. 20, fol. 23r.
25
Fo r t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s , see L o wes, pp. 525-26.
26
Co m p a r e , for e x a m p l e , the c o m m e n t b y C.S. L e w i s o n C h a u c e r ' s
t r e a t m e n t of the T r o i l u s s t o r y in c o n t r a s t w i t h B o c c a c c i o ' s :
"The p r o c e s s
w h i c h II Filostrato u n d e r w e n t a t C h a u c e r ' s h a n d s w a s f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t
a p r o c e s s o f medievalization·,"
s e e " What C h a u c e r R e a l l y D i d to II Filo­
strato " in Essays and Studies by Members o f the English Association X V I I
(1932) 56.
27
C h a u c e r , The Canterbury Tales, s c e l t a i n t r o d u z i o n e et c o m m e n t o
di M. P r a z
(Bari 1 961) 31.