Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173 – 187
www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Middle to late Pleistocene uplift rate of the Hungarian Mountain
Range at the Danube Bend, (Pannonian Basin) using
in situ produced 3He
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger a,b,*, T.J. Dunai b, G. Bada b,c, L. Fodor d, E. Horváth a
a
b
Eötvös University, Department of Physical Geography, 1/C 1117 Budapest, Pázmány Péter sétány, Hungary
Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Science (ISES) de Boelelaan 1085, HV 1081 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
c
Eötvös University, Department of Geophysics, 1117 Budapest, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C Hungrary
d
Geological Institute of Hungary, 1143 Budapest, Stefánia út 14, Hungary
Received 18 June 2004; received in revised form 24 February 2005; accepted 25 February 2005
Available online 13 October 2005
Abstract
Topography of the terraced Danube Bend area indicates fast incision of the Danube River, which was followed by its tributaries
dissecting deeply the former terrace levels. These surfaces are vertically bended along the river course, indicating antecedent
incision of the Danube into the SW–NE trending Hungarian Mountain Range (HMR). Timing and rate of the incision of the
Danube into the HMR and consequently, the rate of vertical motions have remained unresolved so far. This study aims at
quantifying the landscape evolution and neotectonic deformation of the central part of the HMR. We used terrace levels along the
antecedent section of the Danube River to constrain its incision rate, which is a measure for the uplift rate of the HMR.
Here we use 3He, a terrestrial in situ produced cosmogenic nuclide (TCN), to date uplifted geomorphologic levels along in the
Danube Bend gorge. This method, first applied in the Carpathian–Pannonian system in the framework of present study, proved to
be suitable for the quantification of landscape evolution in this area. Our 3He exposure age data suggest a maximum incision rate of
~2.7 F 0.1 mm/y for the last ~170 ky. Considering likely effect of erosion a more conservative value of ~1.6 mm/y for the last ~270
ky, was obtained. Both rates are significantly higher than the incision rate of 0.41 mm/y of the Danube derived from previous
geologic and geomorphic data for the last 360 ky. The formation of the terrace levels in the Danube Bend probably occurred during
the last two glacial cycles (OIS 1–8). According to the exposure age data, there is no direct relationship between the terrace
formation and climate in the Danube Bend. Incision of the Danube appears to be connected to the uplift of the HMR, obtained
incision rate values can be taken as valid approximations of the uplift rate in the Danube Bend area.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Incision; Uplift; River terraces; Cosmogenic 3He exposure age dating; Neotectonics; Pannonian Basin
1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Eötvös University, Department of Physical
Geography, 1/C 1117 Budapest, Pázmány Péter sétány, Hungary. Fax:
+36 1 381 21 11.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger).
0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2005.02.017
During early to middle Miocene times extensional
deformation took place in the Pannonian Basin behind
the Carpathian subduction zone (Horváth, 1993; Fodor
et al., 1999). In the late Miocene thermal subsidence
phase the thickened crust led to the deposition of up to
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Fig. 1. (A) Neotectonic behaviour of the western part of the Pannonian Basin after Bada et al. (2005). Ongoing northward motion of the Adriatic microplate (bAdria pushQ) results in 1.3 mm/y ENE
directed movement of the western part of the North-Pannonian or ALCAPA (ALpine–CArpathian–PAnnonian) unit towards the relatively stable eastern part (Grenerczy et al., 2000). Our study area
(white rectangle) is within the accommodation zone of the internal shortening between the two parts of the ALCAPA unit. Active deformation takes place mainly in form of accelerated differential
vertical movements. The dT and d+T signs show areas of Quaternary uplift and subsidence. a–a’ indicates the position of the section along the Danube river in (B). V: Vienna, Bp: Budapest, VB:
Vienna Basin, DB: Danube Basin, GHP: Great Hungarian Plain, HMR: Hungarian Mountain Range, MHSZ: Mid-Hungarian Shear Zone, Mur–Mürz-Žilina Line. (B) Elevation of subsequent
terrace levels (from tIIb to tVII) according to the btraditional terrace systemQ of Pécsi (1959) along the Danube River between the DB and the GHP. Modern Danube is indicated with black line. Grey
lines represent the terrace levels: the colour is getting gradually darker towards the higher and older terraces. Position of the section is marked with a–a’ in (A). Upwarping deformation pattern of the
terraces indicates antecedent incision of the Danube during simultaneous uplift of the HMR and subsidence of the DB and GHP. Terrace levels reach their maximum height at the axis of the HMR,
i.e., at the Danube Bend area.
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
6000 m sediments (Rónai, 1985). From Pliocene times
as a consequence of the termination of the subduction
and the continued push of the Adriatic plate, structural
inversion has started. The gradual build up of a compressional stress field has resulted in large-scale folding
of the Pannonian lithosphere, which is the main reason
for the presence of uplifting and subsiding areas in the
Pannonian Basin (Horváth and Cloetingh, 1996, Bada
et al., 1999, Fig. 1).
There are various indications of Quaternary tectonic
motions in the Pannonian Basin. Earthquakes suggest
ongoing deformation of the area (Tóth et al., 2002).
According to high precision GPS measurements, the
northwestern part of the Pannonian Basin (or western
part of ALCAPA unit, widely used name for the north
Pannonian unit, derived from ALpine–CArpathian–
PAnnonian) is moving towards the relatively stable
north-eastern part with a rate of 1.3 mm/y, while its
eastern part shows much smaller differential motion
with respect to the reference European plate (Grenerczy et al., 2000). This movement is accommodated
within a broad zone in the central part of the Pannonian Basin (Fig. 1A). Our study area, the Danube
Bend is situated in this accommodation zone where
differential vertical movements are related to presentday internal shortening. Evidences of vertical neotectonic deformation can be found in the subsiding
lowlands, where ongoing accumulation of alluvial
sediments is indicative of the subsidence. In the mountainous and hilly areas several offset geomorphic levels
refer to the uplift of these areas (e.g., terrace horizons,
Fig. 1B, see details and references in RuszkiczayRüdiger et al., 2005—this volume). Although, the
uplifting and subsiding areas are well defined, there
are only estimates for the timing and rate of vertical
motions.
Uplifting basement units of the Hungarian Mountain
Range (HMR) separate the subsiding sub-basins of the
Danube Basin (DB) and the Great Hungarian Plain
(GHP) from each other. The modern Danube is the
only river, which cuts through the HMR (Fig. 1A.).
The incision of the Danube is a consequence of the
uplift of the HMR. During the formation of the antecedent section of its valley at the Danube Bend the river
kept pace with the vertical motion of the HMR (Kéz,
1933; Bulla, 1941; Pécsi, 1959; Gábris, 1994). Accordingly, the quantification of the incision rate of the
Danube is indicative for the rate and time of uplift of
the HMR. We calculate the incision rate by the age
determination of the river terraces. This rate is a good
approximation of the uplift rate of the HMR, thence
both terms are used throughout this study. The de-
175
termination of the role and importance of different,
climate-related landscape forming processes and neotectonic deformation leads to a better understanding of
the landscape evolution and stability of the central part
of the Pannonian Basin system.
Absolute chronologic studies were carried out in
other parts of the Danube valley to date river terraces
and other landforms, like travertine surfaces and hydrothermal cave systems (e.g., Pécsi, 1973; Kretzoi and
Pécsi, 1982; Schwarcz and Skoflek, 1982; Hennig et
al., 1983; Latham and Schwarcz, 1990; Frechen et al.,
1997; Leél-Össy, 1997; Leél-Össy and Surányi, 2003).
Terrace remnants, if stable since their formation, are
time-marks of the incision of the Danube River. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. (2005—this volume) carried out a
thorough revision of earlier chronological data of the
terraces in three sections of the Danube valley across
the HMR, which resulted in a minimum incision rate of
~0.41 mm/y for the Danube Bend area during the last
360 ky. This revision made evident that results of
different dating techniques are uncertain and controversial especially concerning the Danube Bend terraces.
Geodetic levelling data indicate present-day uplift rates
of N 1 mm/y for the Danube Bend region (Mike, 1969;
Joó, 1993). Although precision of geodetic data for the
determination of tectonic deformation rates is limited
(Demoulin, 2004), regional trends of the vertical motion are clearly expressed by these data.
Application of new dating methods was necessary to
quantify the age and evolution of the geomorphic
levels, which remained undated so far. In this study
we use the combination of geomorphology and terrestrial in situ produced cosmogenic 3He analysis, yielding
exposure ages of terrace abandonment. Our aim is to
constrain the rate of river incision and, consequently,
rate of tectonic uplift. These results are of key importance for the quantification of the neotectonic deformation of the area.
2. Geologic and geomorphic overview
At the Danube Bend, situated ~40 km northwest of
Budapest, the Danube cuts through the NE–SW trending Hungarian Mountain Range. In this area the
Danube has formed a narrow, deeply incised gorge
with steep slopes and several terrace horizons. The
age and formation of this segment of the Danube valley
has been a longstanding problem of Hungarian geography. Until recently, reconstructions of the evolution of
the Danube valley relied on geomorphologic and volcanologic observations, and correlation of erosion surfaces over large distances (e.g., Cholnoky, 1925; Kéz,
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Fig. 2. (A) Shaded relief map of the Danube Bend area between the Börzsöny and Visegrád Hills. Steep slopes and deeply incised valleys indicate fast incision and young uplift. (B) Fluvial terrace
horizons (mapped after Pécsi, 1959) and geologic–geomorphic factors controlling the evolution of the Danube valley: faults (after Korpás and Teplánszky, 1999) and original volcanic structure (after
Karátson et al., 2001). The Szt. Mihály Hill volcanologically belongs to the Visegrád Hills volcanic edifice (Karátson et al., 2001). In the normal-fault-bounded Szob depression the mid-Miocene
limestone and marl cover of the volcanites are in downfaulted position.
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
177
usually missing from the higher horizons. Scattered
remnants of a former pebble mantle were found on
the wider tV–tVII surfaces north of the Szt. Mihály
Hill. Pécsi (1959) and Kretzoi and Pécsi (1982) suggested that the sixth horizon (tVI) developed during the
early Pleistocene, and was considered to be the first
horizon of Danubian origin. The highest levels (tVII–
VIII) were assumed to be remnants of pre-Danubian,
pediment surfaces of Pliocene age. Quantification of
btraditionalQ terrace ages of the terrace horizons appear
in Table 1 (more detailed description, and references in
Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005—this volume).
The terrace system is mainly based on geomorphic
considerations. Because of the lack of datable material,
chronologic data are scarce in the Danube Bend area.
Steep slopes of deeply incised tributaries indicate fast
incision in relatively recent times. The terraces in the
Danube Bend have higher altitude than the coeval
terrace levels upstream and downstream. The terraces
are gradually lowering toward the subsiding lowland
areas of the DB and GHP (Fig. 1B) and are upwarped
relative to the modern river profile. This observation led
Noszky (1935) and Pécsi (1959) to suggest folding of
the terraces with faster uplift rate in the Danube Bend
area. The incision rate of the Danube had to keep pace
with the uplift rate of the surrounding mountains and
the present valley is considered as antecedent. Terraces
tI–tV can be traced in the neighbouring Danube tributary (Ipoly/Ipel’ valley, Fig. 2) at the same altitude as in
the main valley. Further upstream in Ipoly valley the
terraces have lower height (Gábris et al., 1993), supporting faster differential uplift localized in the Danube
Bend area.
There are several other factors that may have played
important role in the formation of the Danube Bend. By
1933; Bulla, 1941; Láng, 1955; Noszky, 1935; Pécsi,
1959; Gábris, 1994; Karátson et al., 2001).
The Danube Bend has developed between the areas
of the Börzsöny and Visegrád Hills (Fig. 2) composed
of mid-Miocene volcanic successions. The altitude of
this hilly area varies between 300 to 700 m asl, the
elevation of the modern Danube is at ~101 m asl.
Despite the moderate elevation, the topography of the
area is spectacular (Fig. 2A). The valleys are deeply
incised and their slopes are steep. The Visegrád Hills
represent a volcanic centre south of the Danube valley
characterised by a wide, eroded caldera open to the
north. On the northern side of the Danube, the block
of the Szt. Mihály Hill emerges. Subsequent incision of
the Danube has separated these units, however, they
belong to the same volcanic complex (Karátson et al.,
2001).
Pécsi (1959) and Kretzoi and Pécsi (1982) identified
6–8 terrace horizons in the Danube Bend area (Fig. 2B).
The conservation of the terraces along this narrow
segment of the valley is poor, because the incising
river has destroyed most of its previous strath surfaces.
Mainly isolated sub-horizontal or gently dipping slope
segments forming small plateaus in the overall steep
topography represent terrace remnants. In the Visegrád
Hills larger flat-topped ridges also may correspond to
terrace surfaces.
According to the so-called btraditionalQ terrace system in Hungary, described by Pécsi (1959), the lowest
and youngest horizon is tI, its suggested age is early
Holocene. The second terrace was subdivided into two
levels (tIIa, latest Pleistocene and tIIb, beginning of the
last glaciation). These horizons are well developed
along the Danube. The tIIb is frequently covered by
several meters of loessy sediments. Alluvial material is
Table 1
Topographic data of the sample sites
Sample
number
Lat. N
Long. E
DB 20b
DB 21
DB 22
DB 23
DB 23a
DB 24
DB 25
DB 26
VS 11
VS 12
VS 13
478
478
478
478
478
478
478
478
478
478
478
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
188
46.2V
46.3V
46.3V
46.5V
46.5V
46.7V
46.3V
46.2V
45.4V
44.8V
45.0V
55.2V
55.2V
55.2V
55.4V
55.4V
55.9V
55.5V
55.4V
55.2V
55.0V
55.0V
Elevation
(m, asl)
Slope angle
of the site
Length of the
ridge (m)
Width of the
ridge (m)
Terrace nr. according
to the traditional system
Age according to
previous data (ka)
215
308
305
403
403
477
300
218
275
530
570
308
108
108
28
28
58
68
308
08
38
08
–
230
230
340
340
306
140
–
605
508
330
–
24
24
60
60
21
28
–
50
20
25
~tIV
tV
tV
~tVII
~tVII
tVIII
tV
~tIV
~tV
tVIIIb
tVIIIb
360b
780 b
780 b
2400 b ?
2400 b ?
2400 b ?
780 b
360 b
780 b
5400 b ?–
5400 b ?
The TCN production rate is influenced by the latitude and elevation of the sample sites. Length, width and dip of the terrace remnants may affect
erosion. Height above the modern Danube defines the position and age of terraces in the traditional Hungarian terrace chronology (for details and
references refer to Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005—this volume).
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the end of the Miocene, the study area was buried under
several hundred meters of sediments (Dunkl and Frisch,
2002). Kádár (1955) suggested that curved shape of the
river-channel, may be inherited from an ancient river
meander, which could have developed on the late Miocene sedimentary cover of the volcanites. Volcanologic
investigations suggest that the shape of the Danube
Bend is possibly linked to the wide erosionally exhumed caldera open to the north (Karátson et al.,
2001). Its more resistant rocks form an embayment,
which probably helped to control the location of the
incision of the ancient Danube into the HMR. The
highest part of the caldera rim is the Prédikálószék
(Pulpit). It is ~540 m above the modern Danube (639
m asl), within a distance of 3 km (Fig. 2). Presence and
possible activity of faults control the formation of
subsided and emerged blocks like e.g., Szob Depression
and the Szt. Mihály Hill (Fodor et al., 1999; Korpás and
Teplánszky, 1999, Fig. 2).
3. Climate or tectonic triggered incision?
Present climate of the study area is temperate continental. The annual rainfall is around 600–650 mm the
mean temperature is 9–10 8C (Marosi and Somogyi,
1990), the natural vegetation is deciduous forest, which
is covering the whole area, except for the steep and
southerly exposed slopes. Today the main landscape
forming process is fluvial erosion. As present climate
is comparable to the interglacials, similar conditions are
suggested for these periods as well. During glacials
precipitation decreased to a 180–200 mm, and the
mean annual temperature was around 3 8C (Kordos
and Ringer, 1991; Járainé Komlódi, 1966, 1969). Under
this cool and dry climate the deciduous forest vegetation in the mountainous areas gave place to pine (Picea,
Larix) forest and subalpine meadows. The snow-line
was at an elevation between 1500–1900 m. In the
lowlands treeless loess steppes were characteristic
(Zólyomi, 1952; Willis et al., 2000). Fluvial erosion
and incision decreased or even ceased; periglacial surface sculpturing (e.g., creeping, frost weathering, slope
movements) became the main geomorphologic process.
This clearly had a pronounced affect on river hydrology
and availability of sediment, via switching form a
transport limited system to a weathering limited system.
During full interglacials, in absence of tectonic forces,
meandering rivers are widening their valley. During full
glacials the sediment accumulation is fast and the rivers
of decreased water discharge are not able to transport
their sediment load. Therefore these are periods of sediment accumulation within the valley. The transitional
periods between glacials and interglacials have the most
important role in carving the terrace levels (Vandenberghe, 2003). The weather of the transitional periods
is unstable, and characterized by larger extremities, like
very intense rainfall events after periods of drought. As a
result of the changing environment the vegetation is also
changing, therefore the land cover is dissected which
also favours the acceleration of erosional processes.
Comparable responses to changes in hydrological regime are observed in other northern hemisphere river
systems (e.g., Nováki, 1991; Tucker and Slingerland,
1997; Repka et al., 1997; Bogaart and Van Balen,
2000; Coulthard et al., 2000; Mol et al., 2000; Vandenberghe, 2003; Veldcamp and van Dijke, 2000).
Humidity conditions have direct influence on the
hydrology of the river, thus under certain circumstances
climatic change can induce river incision or aggradation
in absence of vertical motions. However, climate has a
regional effect, which can be modified by local tectonic
movements (Cholnoky, 1925; Gábris, 1997; Vandenberghe, 2003). Consequently, the presence of mountains
with incised river valleys (HMR) and sediment-filled
lowlands (DB and GHP) within the same climate-zone,
and along the same river (Danube) indicates differential
vertical movements. Upwarped pattern of the Danube
terraces verifies that river incision has been triggered by
the uplift of the HMR, meanwhile in the adjacent lowlands the subsidence caused quasi-continuous sediment
accumulation. Accordingly, in the antecedent Danube
valley climatic forces could play secondary role in river
incision and terrace formation by modulating the river
incision into the uplifting region. Our study is aiming at
a quantification of the uplift rate of the HMR and
attempts to reveal the relative importance of climatic
forcing during terrace formation in the antecedent
Danube Bend gorge.
4. Terrestrial in situ produced cosmogenic 3He and
landscape evolution
The study of terrestrial in situ produced cosmogenic
nuclides (TCN) provides possibility to date exposure
age or erosion rate of certain landforms. Concentration
of TCN accumulated in the surface layers of the rock is
proportional to the time elapsed since it has been exposed to cosmic irradiation (e.g., Kurz, 1986; Lal,
1991; Cerling and Craig, 1994; Wagner, 1998). With
the measurement of the TCN concentration accumulated in the rock surface, the exposure age or the erosion
rate can be calculated (Lal, 1991).
TCN are produced mostly by secondary cosmic
radiation in the uppermost few meters of the litho-
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
sphere. At 3 m depth in rock surfaces less than 1% of
the surface flux remains (Lal, 1991). Consequently,
similar decrease of the production of cosmogenic
nuclides is observable, and TCN exposure ages are
valid only for stable surfaces. Any erosion or intermittent cover of the surface will decrease the measured age
as compared to the age of the process that created the
surface. The process leading to the surface planation
has to be short compared to the time elapsed since its
formation.
Cosmogenic 3He is suitable to determine the exposure age of surfaces developed on volcanic rocks. It is a
stable nuclide and a noble gas. Minerals of low ion
porosity, like pyroxene and hornblende, are able to
retain this nuclide quantitatively. Therefore, 3He has
been selected for the age determination of the andesitic
strath surfaces in the Danube Bend. The age of uncovered rivercut surfaces equals with the time when they
were subsequently cut and abandoned by the river. On
the basis of the exposure age of the terraces the quantification of the incision rate of the Danube, thus the
uplift rate of the HMR is possible.
For stable cosmogenic nuclides, such as 3He, the
exposure age t is expressed as:
t ¼ N 4S=P:
ð1Þ
Where N is the measured concentration of the cosmogenic nuclide (atoms/g), P is the production rate at
sea level and high latitude (103 3He atoms/g/y, Dunai,
179
2001) and S is a scaling factor describing changes of
the cosmic ray flux as a function of altitude and latitude
(Lal, 1991; Dunai, 2000, 2001). In the case of the
Danube Bend the uplift of the area resulted in an
alteration of production rates through time. Disregarding these changes the production rates for the highest
samples would be underestimated by 15–18%. Accordingly, the production rates were calculated assuming
constant uplift since formation of the sampled surfaces
(Table 2).
Shielding effect of temporary soil or snow cover is
usually not traceable after its disappearance, but may
reduce the concentration of TCN within the rocks.
During glacials in the central part of the Pannonian
Basin cold and dry periglacial conditions prevailed,
with no permanent snow or ice cover. Therefore, the
effect of partial snow- or ice-shielding has been
neglected.
The effect of erosion decreases TCN concentration
similarly to temporary burial. Even if surfaces of the
sampling sites do not indicate evidence of erosion
since their abandonment by the river, the possibility
of erosion cannot always be excluded. Erosion
removes layers of irradiated rock from the surface
exposing material, which was in shielded position
till then. Therefore, 3He exposure ages of present
study are minimum ages (Niedermann, 2002) and
the incision rates derived thereof are maximum incision rates.
Table 2
Results of cosmogenic 3He measurements
Sample Sample 3He
Corrected
Production rate Exposure
number weight concentration concentration (atoms/g/y)
age (ka)
(g)
(106 atoms/g) (106 atoms/g)
With no change of elevation
DB 20b
DB 21
DB 22
DB 23
DB 23a
DB 24
DB 25
DB 26
VS 11
VS 12
VS 13
0.425
0.521
0.571
0.209
0.125
0.219
0.561
0.470
0.506
0.518
0.533
3.98 F 0.12
8.50 F 0.26
9.29 F 0.28
9.78 F 0.29
10.80 F 0.32
14.60 F 0.43
8.55 F 0.26
3.66 F 0.11
12.60 F 0.38
21.70 F 0.65
9.23 F 0.28
–
–
–
10.8 F 0.86
11.9 F 0.95
16.1 F1.28
–
–
–
–
–
119
129
129
141
141
151
129
119
126
158
164
Erosion rate Production
Exposure age
(mm/ky)
rate (atoms/g/y) (ka)
33.50 F 1.01 16.42 F 0.49
65.69 F 1.97 8.37 F 0.25
71.96 F 2.16 7.64 F 0.23
76.54 F 6.12 7.19 F 0.57
84.34 F 6.75 6.52 F 0.52
106.69 F 8.53 5.15 F 0.41
66.54 F 1.99 8.27 F 0.25
30.70 F 0.92 17.91 F 0.54
100.32 F 3.01 5.48 F 0.16
137.17 F 4.12 4.01 F 0.12
56.31 F1.68 9.77 F 0.29
Erosion rate
(mm/ky)
Assuming constant uplift
113
118
118
123
123
127
117
113
116
130
133
35.31 F1.05 15.57 F 0.47
72.22 F 2.16
7.62 F 0.23
79.06 F 2.37
6.96 F 0.21
87.88 F 7.03
6.26 F 0.50
96.83 F 7.75
5.68 F 0.45
126.57 F 10.13 4.35 F 0.35
72.95 F 2.18
7.54 F 0.23
32.42 F 0.97 16.97 F 0.51
108.71 F 3.26
5.06 F 0.15
166.54 F 4.99
3.30 F 0.10
69.56 F 2.09
7.91 F 0.24
The indicated error values represent the 3% analytical uncertainty of the measurement (F 1r). Samples corrected for effects of weathering and
plagioclase intergrowth have an estimated additional uncertainty of ~5% introduced by the correction. As uplift of the HMR is a presumption of
present study, production rates calculated assuming constant uplift rate since terrace formation have been used for age determination. The uplift
reduces the production rates by up to 18% for the highest sample as compared to production rates calculated assuming a constant present-day
elevation. This effect decreases with smaller time-integrated uplift, thus it is smaller for lower samples. Systematic uncertainties of production rates
and scaling factors, that can be as high as 10–15% are not included here. Production rate for high latitude and sea level of 103 atoms of 3He/g/y of
Dunai (2001) was used. The rate was scaled to the elevation and latitude of the samples using Dunai (2000). Changes in geomagnetic field intensity
affect local production rates by F 2.5% (Dunai, 2001). Given that a correction, in this case, would introduce an uncertainty in the order of the
correction itself, thus we did not correct production rates for intensity changes of the Earth’s magnetic field.
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If several meters of material have been removed
since the surface formation, the measured 3He concentrations can be used for the calculation of the erosion
rate q (cm/y, Lal, 1991):
P0 4z4
e¼
N
dipping ridges are possible remnants of older geomorphic horizons. Sample sites appear on Fig. 3, topographic data of the sample sites are in Table 1.
5.1. The northern valley-side (Szt. Mihály Hill)
ð2Þ
where z* is the e-folding length of cosmic ray attenuation, which depends of the attenuation coefficient (or
adsorption mean-free path; for andesites K i 155 g/
cm2) and of the rock density (q i 2.8 g/cm3). The
corresponding value of z* for andesites is ~55 cm
(Kurz, 1986; Sarda et al., 1993). P 0 is the production
rate of cosmogenic helium at the surface (atoms/g/y)
and N is the measured concentration of 3He [atoms/g].
The slower is the erosion, the longer is the period,
during which the rock stays within the zone with significant cosmic irradiation. Consequently, the erosion
rate is inversely proportional to the accumulated 3He
concentration, and has to be taken as maximum rate
(Niedermann, 2002).
The measured abundances of 3He have to be corrected for any contributions of non-cosmogenic origin.
Atmospherically derived 3He is usually insignificant. In
the case of magmatic and volcanic rocks the presence of
trapped mantle 3He is possible. If there is a significant
unrecognised non-cosmogenic component, calculated
ages are older (or erosion rates are slower) than the
real values (Niedermann, 2002). Trapped noble gas
components originated from the mantle reside in fluid
inclusions. This component can be identified and quantified by measuring the gas fraction released by crushing the aliquot of certain sample. Therefore, in our
study two samples, VS 12 and DB 22, where crushed
for detection of an eventual mantle component. These
experiments revealed that for the sample suite of the
present study less than 1% of the noble gases reside in
fluid inclusions, thus we conclude that mantle helium is
not a significant source of 3He in our samples.
5. Sampling
First step of sampling is the identification of
boriginalQ rivercut surfaces. Sampling sites ideally
should be uncovered horizontal or subhorizontal surfaces. Slopes of the main valley and of the tributaries
are steep on both sides of the Danube, with undissected
triangular facets at the end of the ridges facing the
Danube valley. In the overall steep morphology of the
Danube Bend only small remnants of terrace-like horizons are present. At higher levels of the Visegrád Hills
(southern side of the valley) large flat topped, or gently
Steep slopes of the Szt. Mihály Hill block represent the
slip-off slope of the Danube valley. The relief between the
Danube and the hilltop is 380 m and this difference of
altitude is consumed within a distance of 1 km. Valleys
and ridges of the Szt. Mihály Hill are short and the relief is
not deeply dissected. Longer flat or gently dipping ridges
are only present on the northern side of the top level
(around 460–480 m). Ridges and terrace-like horizons
are small or absent on the slopes facing to the river (see
Fig. 2 and cross-sections on Fig. 3).
Eight samples from four subsequent levels at ~100,
200, 300 and 380 m above the Danube, were sampled
along two adjacent ridges on the northern side of the
Danube valley. Topography and properties of the sites
are plotted in Table 1, (see also Figs. 3 and 4). Geometry of the sampled ridges and hillslopes are similar: the
steepening and gentling segments are at the same altitude on both ridges. This indicates that the sampled
surfaces are not randomly formed planation surfaces of
e.g., periglacial origin, but remnants of rivercut surfaces. There is no discernible lithologic control,
which could account for the presence of these levels.
According to their position and shape described
above, we interpret these surfaces as being subsequently cut during the incision of the Danube. Although there
are no signs of significant erosion or landsliding since
their abandonment by the river, their small extent,
sporadic occurrence and dip angle makes possible
some erosional lowering of the original surfaces.
The lowest samples (samples DB 20b and DB 26)
were collected from the first segment of the hillslopes
with moderate slope at a height of ~115 m above the
Danube level (215 and 218 m asl., Figs. 3 and 4). This
altitude corresponds the ~tIV terrace level in the
btraditionalQ system (Pécsi, 1959). Thus this level is
supposed to be of middle Pleistocene age (N 360 ka, see
details in Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005—this volume). Below this level there are no appropriate surfaces
for sampling. Fresh hornblendes were separated from
the amphibole–pyroxene-bearing andesite lava breccias
of these sites.
Samples DB 21, DB 22 and DB 25 were taken from
a pyroxene-bearing andesite lava flow with abundant,
fresh pyroxenes. These sites are on rather flat segments
of the ridges about 200 m above the present day
Danube (300–308 m asl, Figs. 3 and 4). This approx-
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
Fig. 3. Sampling sites of cosmogenic 3He exposure age dating of Quaternary rivercut surfaces in the Danube Bend. Topographic and TCN data are indicated in Tables 1 and 2. For location see Fig. 2.
Cross-sections demonstrate that more terrace remnants are observable on the northern valley side, however their areal extent is very limited. In the Visegrád Hills flat-topped, large but narrow ridges
are characteristic.
181
182
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
Fig. 4. Field view of the southern slopes of the Szt. Mihály Hill with location of sample sites DB 25 and 26, view from site DB 21 on the adjacent
ridge. For location see Figs. 2 and 3.
imately corresponds to the tV horizon, which is traditionally supposed to be older than 780 ka.
Samples DB 23 and DB 23a were taken from a small
plateau-like part of a ridge ~300 m above the Danube
(403 m asl). The uppermost sample (DB 24) was
obtained on the top level of the Szt. Mihály Hill
block, at the elevation of almost 380 m relative to the
Danube (477 m asl). These samples correspond to the
tVIII level, which is btraditionallyQ assumed to be a
remnant of a Pliocene pediment surface.
The three uppermost samples (DB 23, 23a, 24) are
pyroxene andesites from a younger lava unit of the Szt.
Mihály Hill (Karátson, 2001). Pyroxenes separated from
these rocks were partly weathered and intergrown with
plagioclase. The weathered material and the plagioclase
do not retain cosmogenic 3He (Bruno et al., 1997), thus
the measured isotope concentrations are lower than it
would be in pure pyroxene. The proportion of the weathered and non-retentive minerals is approximately 10%
(F 5%), thus the cosmogenic isotope concentrations for
these samples were corrected by this amount (Table 2).
5.2. The southern valley-side (Visegrád Hills)
The Visegrád Hills area is deeply dissected. Deep Vshaped valleys are running between long, horizontal or
Fig. 5. Field view of the narrow ridge of sample site VS 12. For location refer to Figs. 2 and 3.
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
gently dipping ridges. Towards the Danube the ridges
terminate with steep triangular facets (Figs. 2A, 3).
These features indicate fast incision of the Danube,
which forced its tributaries to incise at a similar rate
into the Miocene volcanites. The lowermost terrace
horizons are well preserved on this side of the Danube
valley, and remnants of the higher levels are also present (Fig. 2B). The ridges of the Visegrád Hills are long
and narrow with a flat or gently dipping top level.
These are possible remnants of pre-Danubian geomorphic horizons or planation surfaces.
Samples were collected from three horizons in the
Visegrád Hills (Figs. 3 and 5). The lowest site (VS 11)
is ~175 m above the modern Danube (275 m asl.),
where amphibole–pyroxene andesite was sampled.
The site is on a local high of a 2–3 m mound on a
long, horizontal and relatively wide ridge (Fig. 3, Table
1). In the traditional chronology this level corresponds
the lower part of the tV, thus its suggested age is around
or older than 780 ka. At lower elevations there are no
surfaces suitable for exposure age dating as these slopes
are steep and covered by slope debris and weathered
rock regolith.
The second site (VS 12) is on a long but narrow
ridge ~430 m above the Danube or at 530 m asl. that is
above the oldest (tVIII) terrace level of the btraditionalQ
system (Fig. 5). The sample was taken from the horizontal top of a large boulder standing out by 2 m above
the crest. The highest site (VS 13) is on a higher
segment of the former ridge, ~470 m above the Danube
(570 m asl). The site is a smooth horizontal rock surface
on a saddle-like segment of the ridge, forming a local
low of ~5 m (Fig. 3). This saddle is located between
two valley-heads, thus the elevation and exposure history of this site was probably governed by the evolution
of these valleys. From both sites (VS 12 and 13)
amphibole-bearing andesite was collected.
6. Results and discussion
In the following we discuss the results in the
context of exposure ages and constrain the effects of
erosion that probably affected most of our sampling
sites. After we consider possibilities of climatic forcing of terrace formation in the area. Finally we discuss
validity of our data in the light of the btraditionalQ
terrace ages.
6.1. Terrace ages and river incision
By dating several subsequent terrace horizons the
incision rate can be calculated, if the sampling sites
183
represent stable surfaces since abandonment by the
river:
I ¼ h=t
ð3Þ
where I is the incision rate of the river, t is the age and
h is the relative height of the horizon (Burbank and
Anderson, 2001).
According to our presumption that the Danube has
incised into the uplifting HMR, we use for the calculation of exposure ages the 3He production rates assuming constant uplift rates. Analytical data and results are
presented in Table 2. The age of the highest surface of
the northern side (Szt. Mihály Hill, DB 24, Figs. 2 and
3), at the height of 477 m asl. (376 m above the
Danube) is 127 F 4 ky. The ages of the samples from
~300 m (DB 23, 23a) and ~205 m (DB 21, 22, 25)
above the modern Danube are between 72 F 2 and
97 F 3 ky. The formation of the lowest datable horizon
~115 m above the river (DB 20b and 26, 215 m asl),
took place between 32 F 1 and 35 F 1 ky. These samples were obtained from two independent ridges, and
show a positive linear correlation on the age–elevation
plot of Fig. 6A.
On the southern side of the Danube we obtained two
exposure ages that constrain the incision. The sample at
275 m asl. (VS 11, 174 m above the Danube) yields an
age of 109 F 3 ky, and the sample at 530 m asl. (VS 12,
429 m above the Danube) is 167 F 5 ky old. The highest sample (570 m asl, VS 13), from a ridge saddle
between two valley heads, give an apparent age of
70 F 2 ky. Due to its topographic setting (see also
description of the sample site above) it may be safely
concluded that the 3He concentration of this sample is
unrelated to the age of terrace formation, as significant
erosion has affected this site. Therefore this sample was
excluded from further age considerations.
Sample VS 12 fits perfectly the age–elevation trend
defined by samples above the northern bank of the
Danube (Fig. 6A). Sample VS 11 however, has a
higher age than would be expected from this age–
elevation trend, a feature that will be discussed further
below. The extrapolation of the age–elevation trend to
zero-age for all remaining samples yields an elevation
of ~120 m asl. (Fig. 6A) which, within uncertainties
of such an extrapolation, is almost indiscernible from
the present day river level (101 m). This indicates that
the age information obtained from the samples is
consistent with a constant incision rate of the Danube
since at least ~170 ka. If the rivercut surfaces we
sampled were not subsequently lowered by erosion
this would translate into an incision rate of
~2.7 F 0.1 mm/y (slope of the trendline according to
184
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
Fig. 6. (A) Dependence of 3He exposure ages on the elevation of the terraces. Level of the modern Danube is marked with a black square. Black
linear is the trendline fitted to the dataset with likely effect of erosion. Samples VS 13 and VS 11 were excluded from this calculation because of
their different morphologic position. Slope of the trendline yields an incision rate of ~2.7 mm/y (R 2 = 0.96) for the last 170 ky. Slope of the tie-line
between the present river level and the sample VS 11, with minor expected effect of erosion (dashed line), yields a more conservative estimate of
~1.6 mm/y for the incision rate of the Danube River that can be extrapolated for the last 270 ky. Utilizing the extrapolation from sample VS11 to
other altitudes has admittedly a significant uncertainty, which we estimate to be in the order of F 10%. The incision of the Danube kept pace with
the uplift of the area, thus its incision rate is a valid approximation of the uplift rate (see details in the text). (B) Correlation between terrace horizons
and the d 18O proxy of the site ODP 677 (Shackleton et al., 1990). Marine oxygen isotope stages appear as numbers within a circle. Grey
background indicate interglacials and interstadials, glacials appear with white background. Alpine and Western European glacial nomenclature is
also indicated. Apparently terraces in the Danube Bend could have formed under various climatic conditions, including glacial minimums and
interglacial maximums.
Eq. (3)). However, as mentioned earlier, we cannot rule
out some erosion.
A possible indication that at least some erosional
surface-lowering took place is the higher than predicted
age of sample VS 11. This sample comes from a horizontal ridge segment that is twice as wide, and two to
four times longer than the terrace remnants at the
corresponding elevation above the northern bank
(Table 1). Allowing for the lack of gradient at a horizontal sampling site erosion is probably negligible for
VS 11. Similarly, diffusive land surface lowering of site
VS 11 will be much lower than at the other sites.
Consequently, the calculated age of VS 11 will be closer,
if not identical, to the age of the process that created the
bulk form of the surfaces (i.e., riverine erosion).
Considering the above discussion, sample VS 11
provides a more realistic estimate of the age–elevation
trend unaffected by erosion. The slope of the tie-line
between the present day river level and the datum point
of sample VS 11 yields a more conservative incision
rate of ~1.6 mm/y. Assuming significant and for the rest
of the terraces similar erosion rates since creation,
dagesT of older sites will be further decreased by erosion
than dagesT of the younger sites. The result is a virtual
steepening of the age-elevation trend while maintaining
its origin at zero-age. This is demonstrated by the
trendline of 2.7 slope fitted to the erosionally affected
sites (Fig. 6A).
The incision rate of ~1.6 mm/y is considerably lower
than the previously derived ~2.7 mm/y. However, it is
about four times higher than the values derived from
the btraditionalQ Hungarian terrace chronology. Calculations on the basis of these data yielded an incision rate
of ~0.41 mm/y for the last 360 ky (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger
et al., 2005—this volume). The uplift rate of ~2.7 mm/y
is representative for the last ~170 ky, minimum age of
the highest dated horizon (VS 12). The more conservative incision rate of ~1.6 mm/y accounts for some
erosion of the sampling sites. This value is valid for
the last ~270 ky, the extrapolated age of sample VS 12.
Geodetic levelling data suggest present day uplift rates
of the same order of magnitude (N 1 mm/y) for the
Danube Bend region (Mike, 1969; Joó, 1993).
6.2. Climatic or tectonic control on terrace formation in
the Danube Bend?
Following the above discussion, a tentative extrapolation using the incision rate of ~1.6 mm/y gives older
age estimates for the other terrace horizons. Utilizing the
above extrapolation to other altitudes has admittedly a
significant uncertainty, which we estimate to be in the
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
order of 10% (Fig. 6A). These terrace ages are compared
to the marine oxygen isotope record of ODP site 677
(Shackleton et al., 1990), and also to the Alpine and
Western European glacial chronology (Fig. 6B).
According to the cosmogenic 3He measurements, carving of the Danube Bend gorge occurred during the last
two glacials (Würm and Riss, OIS 8-1). The age of
sample VS 11, ~109 ky, corresponds to a cold phase
of the last interglacial (Riss-Würm or Eem), oxygen
isotope stage (OIS) 5d. The prominent ~480 m level
(Szt. Mihály Hill, ~tVIII; Figs. 3 and 6) is assumed to
have developed ~237 ky ago, in the first maximum of
the OIS 7, the preceding warm period. Along the same
lines the formation of the highest dated level at 530 m
occurred at ~268 ka, in the first minimum of the OIS 8.
The correlation chart of the terrace ages and OIS
stages (Fig. 6A,B) implies that terrace formation cannot
be connected to certain climate spells: age of three or four
terrace levels seem to coincide (within limits of uncertainty) with the climatically unstable transitional periods.
However, there are horizons that seem to fall into full
glacial and full interglacial conditions as well. Therefore,
we conclude that joint effect of tectonic and climatic
forces led to terrace formation in the Danube Bend.
6.3. bTraditional Q ages and 3He concentrations as erosion rates: possibility of another scenario?
In case we accept the age estimates based on the
btraditionalQ terrace chronology (Table 1) the terraces
would be at least four times older. Accordingly, no age
information would be retained in the 3He signatures we
measured, and 3He concentrations could enable calculation of erosion rates. Taking the lowest model erosion
rate calculated for our sampling sites (~3.3 mm/ky;
Table 2), more than ~2.6 m of rock would have been
removed from the tV level since its formation 780 ky
ago and more than ~7.9 m from the tVIII level (N 2.4
Ma age). Taking the second lowest erosion rate (4.3
mm/y), the above values are ~3.4 m and ~10.4 m,
respectively. By the removal of this thickness of surface
material the measured 3He concentration could not
retain any information about the age of the terraces.
Accordingly, any memory of the timing of creation of
the macroform would be obliterated. In this case the
entire age–elevation trend we obtained would be fortuitous and the 3He concentrations would exclusively be a
function of the local erosion rate Eq. (2). Considering
the fact that sampling sites of three independent ridges
constrain the rather tight trend of Fig. 6A, we judge that
our interpretation, in which the 3He-concentrations mirror an exposure age modified by erosion, is valid.
185
7. Conclusions
Exposure age dating using in situ produced cosmogenic 3He allowed to determine the minimum
exposure ages of strath terraces and ancient planation
surfaces in the Danube Bend area. We used these
ages to constrain the incision of the antecedent
Danube and comparable uplift of the Transdanubian
Range.
The maximum incision or uplift rate that is compatible with our results is as high as 2.7 F 0.1 mm/y for at
least the last 167 ky. Considering the likely effects of
erosion we obtain a lower, estimate of ~1.6 mm/y for at
least the last ~110 ky. This value can be extrapolated to
the highest geomorphic horizon of the area, yielding a
time span of ~270 ky for the formation of the Danube
Bend gorge. Therefore we tentatively place the onset of
the formation of the antecedent Danube Bend not later
then in the oxygen isotope stage 8, or the first phase of
the penultimate glacial (Fig. 6).
The uplift rate of ~1.6 mm/y agrees favourably with
geodetic levelling data indicating fast (N 1 mm/y) present day uplift rate for the Danube Bend region (Mike,
1969; Joó, 1993). However this rate is about four times
higher than values calculated on the basis of previous
chronological data sets (0.41 mm/y, Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al., 2005—this volume).
Our age estimates suggest that the terraces of the
Danube Bend were subsequently formed during the
last two glacial cycles. It was not possible to link
directly these terraces to certain climatic phases. The
climatically stable periods of the interglacials and
glacials would be characterized by hard rock terrace
planation and fluvial aggradation. Periods of climatic
change would be responsible for the carving of the
horizons by the incising river (Gábris, 1997; Vandenberghe, 2003). However, uplift of the area modified
the regional effect of the climate. Terraces in the
Danube Bend could have formed under various climatic conditions, including glacial minimums and interglacial maximums.
Acknowledgements
The EUROBASIN Marie Curie Fellowship of the
EU, the Hungarian National Scientific Found (OTKA
T029798, OTKA F043715), and the Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Science (ISES)
are thanked for the financial support of this research.
The Bolyai Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences supported L. Fodor. Comments of Ronald van
Balen helped to improve the manuscript. Jerome M.
186
Zs. Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 173–187
van der Woerd and Ulrich A. Glasmacher are thanked
for the review of the manuscript.
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