A SWIMMING TEST FOR PREDICTION
OF MAXIMUM OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
by
David Mario Santeusanio
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty o f the
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
In P a r t i a l
F u l f i l l m e n t o f the Requirements
For the Degree o f
Master of Science
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
19 8 0
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of re ­
quirements f o r an advanced degree a t The U n iv e r s it y o f Arizona and is
deposited in the U n iv e r s it y Li br ar y to be made a v a i l a b l e to borrowers
under rules of the L i b r a r y .
B r i e f quotations from t h is th esi s ar e a llo w ab le without special
permission, provided t h a t accurate acknowledgment of source is made.
Requests f o r permission f o r extended quotation from or reproduction o f
t h is manuscript in whole or in pa rt may be granted by the head of the
major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judg­
ment the proposed use of the mat er ial is in the i n t e r e s t s o f sch olar­
ship.
In a l l ot her instances, however, permission must be obtained
from the author.
SIGNED
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
"3
JACK H. WILMORE
ProfeA&or o f Physical Education
Date
DEDICATION
This thesis
is dedicated to the physical educators who
c o n t i n u a l l y s t r i v e to expand the boundaries of our f i e l d
arid education.
in research
With the Lord's help may t h i s the si s serve as a
constant reminder of my commitment to excellence in the f i e l d .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It
Is w ith my si nce re a p p re c ia ti o n th at
I extend thanks to
Dr. Jack H. Wilmore f o r his help in advising and d i r e c t i n g the w r i t i n g
of t h is t h e s i s .
His continuous encouragement and expert knowledge in
t h i s area of i n v e s t i g a t i o n was a tremendous advantage.
Because of his
loyal endeavors toward excellen ce and his impeccable honesty I hold
him in the highest regard as a professional
and a man.
I would l i k e
to thank my committee members, Dr. Margaret B. Anderson and Dr. Fred
B. Roby, f o r t h e i r v al u ab le time and a d d i t i o n a l assis ta nc e.
A sincere
thanks is extended to my f e l l o w graduate students f o r t h e i r help in
the c o l l e c t i o n o f the data.
Also, a special
thanks Is extended to
P r i s c i l l a G i l l i a m without whose i n s p i r a t i o n and support the w r i t i n g of
t h is thesis might have lagged on i n d e f i n i t e l y .
And f i n a l l y ,
I wish to
acknowledge t h a t wit hou t the t a l e n t s given me by the Lord t h i s endeavor
would never have reached i t s completion.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
..........................
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
. .
ABSTRACT
vi
.
...vi i
..........................
vi i i
............................
i
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION . . .
Statement o f the Purpose . . . . . . .
2 , REVIEW OF LITERATURE
..........................................
Running/Walking Tests
......................................................
Cycling Tests
.................................................
Bench Stepping T e s t s ...............................
3
k
..............................
EXPERIMENTAL D E S I G N .............................
. . . . .
.. .
.
Subjects . . . . .
..................
Determination o f VO2 .
.....................................
800 Meter S w i m ................................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l Analysis . . . ...............................................
5
5
8
9
10
10
13
18
19
h
RESULTS
..................................................................................
20
5
DISCUSSION..................................... .... ................................................................
28
6
SUMMARY
35
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
..................................................................................
APPENDIX A:
SUBJECT CONSENTFORM
APPENDIX B:
METHOD USED TO CALCULATE STANDARD LOAD
PROGRESSIONS FOR ESTIMATED MAXIMUM LOADS
= 4. 0 0 KG
.................................................
39
APPENDIX C:
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTCHARACTERISTICS
. . . . . .
40
APPENDIX D:
PREDICTED VO2 MAX CALCULATED FROM THE REGRES­
SION EQUATIONANDCONVERTED TO ML/KG X MIN. . .
44
LIST OF REFERENCES . . . .
.........................
37
.......................................................
v
46
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Page
Mean Subject Data f o r
According to T r a i n i n g
Total Group andf o r Each Group
Level......................................................................
11
C o r r e l a t io n M a t r i x (N
= 50)
21
.....................................
Commonality Analysis o f P r e d ic t o r Vari abl es w ith VO- max
in L i t e r s / M i n ...................................................................................................
V a l i d i t y o f Fi e l d Tests f o r Pr e d ic t i n g Vo^ Max. . . . . . .
vi
26
33
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
F ig u re
Page
1.
Swimming Ergometer, Side View . . . . . . . . .
2.
Swimming Ergometer, Overhead View .......................
15
3.
Breathing Apparatus ..........................................................
17
4.
S c a tt e r Diagram o f Performance Time and VO. max in
ml / kg x mi n ...............................
22
S c a t t e r Diagram o f Performance Time and VO max in
1 i te rs/mi n . . . . . . .
.................................... .... . . . . . .
23
5.
vi i
........................
14
ABSTRACT
The p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) from
performance time in an a l l - o u t 800 meter f r o n t crawl swim and selected
physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s was evaluated in 50 males, 15-25 years o f
age.
VO2 max was determined v i a the open-ci rcui t method during
te thered swimming and compared w ith age, body weight, t r a i n i n g l e v e l ,
and performance time in the 800 meter swim.
Regression ana lys is
revealed t h a t body weight and performance time were the most s i g n i f i e
cant p r ed ic to r s o f VO2 max.
A m u l t i p l e regression equation was con­
str uct ed using these two v a r i a b l e s to p r e d i c t \10^ max in 1 i t e r s / m i n .
The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was R = 0. 84 (p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
R e lia b ilitie s
f o r te s t s of VO2 max and 800 meter swim times were r = 0.9 6 and r =
0.99,
respectively.
The high r e l i a b i l i t y of the f i e l d t e s t and the
strong r e l a t i o n s h i p between VO2 max w ith body weight and performance.
time in dicates t h a t the 800 meter swim t e s t is a good p r e d i c t o r of
VO2 max.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Swimming Is recognized as one of America's most popular a c t i v e
sports.
In a study conducted by P e r r i e r (1 97 9 ), swimming was found to
be the second l a r g e s t p a r t i c i p a t o r y sport in the United St a t e s , second
only to walking.
Twenty-six m i l l i o n people are involved in some form
of swimming a c t i v i t y ,
competition.
of a l l
including r e c r e a t i o n , physical con dit io nin g and
Swimming is one of the best physical a c t i v i t i e s f o r people
ages, as well as f o r those who have various physical d i s a b i l i t i e s
or i n c a p a c it a t in g i n j u r i e s .
Vigorous,
rhythmic a c t i v i t y performed in
the water has been shown to r e s u l t in s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n s
b ility ,
in f l e x i ­
strength and c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance (Andrew e t a l . 1972;
Clarke 1973; Stewart and Gut In 1976).
Improving the general he al th and f i t n e s s o f the p a r t i c i p a n t
one of the most important b e n e fi t s derived from swimming.
lar,
is
In p a r t i c u ­
swimming improves c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance c a p a c i t y , the most
important hea lth r e l a t e d component o f physical f i t n e s s
and Henschel
Newton 1963).
1955; Astrand 1956; M i t c h e l l ,
( T a y l o r , Buskirk,
Sproule, and Chapman 1958;
C a r d io r e s p ir a t o r y endurance capacity is best represented
p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y by the i n d i v i d u a l ' s maximal oxygen uptake (VO^ max)
(Astrand 1956; M it c h e l l
e t a l . 1958; Newton 1963; Astrand 1973) •
max has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been used to represent the i n d i v i d u a l ' s
VC^
level
of f i t n e s s as well as to q u a n ti f y changes in f i t n e s s w it h endurance
co n d it io n in g .
The a c t u a l measurement o f oxygen consumption t o de t e r m in e VO^
max, a v e r y c o s t l y and t im e consuming l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e ,
im p ra ctica l
is v e r y
f o r use by coaches and t ea c he r s on a r e g u l a r b a s i s .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , methods, have been de vi se d t o p r e d i c t o r e s t i m a t e
max by e v a l u a t i n g performance on a p a r t i c u l a r work t a s k w i t h e s t a b ­
l i s h e d norms (Brouha 1943; As t r a n d and Rhyming 1954; Ba lke 1963;
Cooper 1968).
These methods have proven val uab le f o r f i e l d
testing
where many in d iv id u a ls are to be tested in a short period of time.
It
is the major purpose o f the present study to devise such a f i e l d t e s t
t h a t uses swimming as the work task.
In the la bo ra to ry determination of VO^ max, the r e s u l t s of a
number of i n v e s t i g a t io n s have indic ate d t h a t the r e s u l t i n g value is
hi gh ly dependent on the mode of t e s t i n g
(Carey, Stensland, and Ha rt l e y
1974; Cunningham, Goode, and C r i t z 1975; Str^mme,
I n g j e r , and Meen
1977; W?1more 1979; Secher and Oddershede 1975).
Research in t h i s
area has shown t h a t the various ph ys iolog ica l
are s p e c i f i c to the type o f a c t i v i t y ,
swimming.
i.e .,
responses to exercise
running, c y c l i n g , and
I f v a l i d and useful data are to be obtained when t e s t i n g ,
a t h l e t e s must be tested in a way t h a t most clo se ly resembles t h e i r
performance during actual competition.
Distance runners do not
achieve maximal endurance performance when tested on a b i c y c l e ergometer when compared to t h e i r maximal performance on a motorized
treadm ill.
In swimming, swimmers should be tested in the water under
3
conditions most s i m i l a r to actual competition.
In t h i s study tethered
swimming was used to simulate the most optimal conditions f o r t e s t in g
VO^ max of swimmers.
A recent study by Bonen et a l .
th at VO^ max during f r e e ,
(1980)
revealed
tethered and flume swimming was not s i g n i ­
ficantly differen t.
The l i t e r a t u r e also provides evidence to support the theory
that a s p e c if ic it y of tra in in g results
in phy sio logical adaptations
in the body, which are s p e c i f i c to the type o f t r a i n i n g
each p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y
et a l .
(Hartung 1973; Pechar et a l .
1975; Wilmore 1979).
the physiological a l t e r a t i o n s
involved in
1974; Magel
T h e re fo r e, when eva lu a tin g and monitoring
in a t r a i n i n g program the mode of t e s t ­
ing used should c l o s e l y resemble the t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t y
i f the appro­
p r i a t e responses are to be e l i c i t e d .
With t h is
participants
in mind, when p r e d i c t i n g the VO^ max of a t h l e t e s or
in selected sports or a c t i v i t i e s ,
the mode of t e s t in g
should be used which is most s p e c i f i c to the p a r t i c u l a r type of a c t i v i t y
used in t r a i n i n g f o r t h a t sport or a c t i v i t y .
For example, a running
t e s t should be used to p r e d i c t VO^ max in runners, a b i c y c l e t e s t to
p r e d i c t VOg max in c y c l i s t s , and a swimming t e s t to p r e d i c t VO^ max in
swimmers.
This would maximize the accuracy of p r e d i c t io n s f o r each
i ndi vi du al
in t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y .
There have been methods of f i e l d t e s t i n g est ab li sh ed which
p r e d i c t VO^ max by using running, c yc lin g and bench stepping as the
mode of ex e rc is e (Cooper 1968; Astrand and Rhyming 1954; Brouha 1943).
L i t t l e or no research, however, has been reported which has est abl is hed
a method of p r e d i c t in g the VO^ max of swimmers during swimming.
Obviously, since ph ys iolog ica l demands are s p e c i f i c to the task,
it
would be highl y d e s ir a b l e to devise a method of t e s t i n g the ca r d i o ­
r e s p i r a t o r y endurance cap acity o f swimmers which is more s p e c i f i c to
the act io n o f swimming.
Statement of the Purpose
The general purpose of t h i s study was to develop a f i e l d t e s t
f o r es ti ma tin g c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance ca p a c i ty ,
i.e .,
maximal
oxygen uptake (VOg max), f o r swimmers t h a t could be used by coaches,
i n s t r u c to r s and others w ith an i n t e r e s t
in swimming.
Specifically,
t h i s study was designed to determine the r e l a t i o n s h i p between VO^ max,
as assessed during te th ere d swimming, and maximum performance in an
a l l - o u t 800 meter swim f o r time.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Past research has est abl ish ed the v a l i d i t y o f u t i l i z i n g f i e l d
tes ts as p r ed ic to r s o f VO^ max.
Most of these studies have been
conducted w ith running, s t a t i o n a r y cyc lin g and bench stepping as the
mode of ex e r ci s e.
A review of past research ind ica tes t h a t no f i e l d
has been devised which uses swimming as the mode o f e x e r c is e .
Run nin g/Wa lkin g Tests
Balke (1963) and Cooper (1968)
in itia lly
developed w a l k - r u n
t e s t s t o e s t i m a t e VO^ max on th e b a s i s o f t h e d i s t a n c e covered in a
g i v e n t im e p e r i o d , o r the t im e r e q u i r e d t o run a g i v e n d i s t a n c e .
Cooper (19 68 ),
using a m o d i fi c a t i o n o f the Balke f i e l d
(Balke 1963), developed the 12-minute walk-run t e s t .
test for fitness
In studying 115
A i r Force o f f i c e r s , age 17-52 y e a r s , he reported a c o r r e l a t i o n of
r = 0.897 between the distance covered in 12 minutes and VOg max.
Ri b i s l and Kachadorian (1969)
reported a c o r r e l a t i o n of
r = - 0 . 7 9 between VO^ max and 1- m ile run time, and an r = - 0 . 8 5
between V0^ max and 2 - m i l e run time in co ll ege -a ge males.
Katch and
Henry (1972) conducted a study which d e a l t w ith the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between running performance and VO^ max in col le ge -a ge males.
In
t h is study they reported a c o r r e l a t i o n of r = 0.5 4 in the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between 12-minute run performance and VO^ max.
5
Using the same sub jec ts.
an r = - 0 . 5 5 c o r r e l a t i o n was found in comparing 2- m il e time and VO^ max.
Gregory (19 70 ),
age males,
in comparing the 12-minute run and VO^ max of c o l l e g e -
reported an r = 0 . 6 6 .
Custer and Chaloupka (1977) determined the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
predicted V0^ max, as determined by the Astrand b i c y c l e ergometer t e s t
(Astrand and Rhyming 1954) and performance in the 6, 9, and 12-minute
runs f o r co l l e g e women between the ages of 18 and 21 years (N = 4 0 ) .
C o rre la tio ns o f r = 0 . 4 5 ,
r = 0 .3 7 and r = 0.49 were found f o r the 6,
9 and 12-minute runs, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The use of such a design, however,
jeopard ize s the accuracy o f any c o r r e l a t i o n when a r e l a t i o n s h i p is
est abl is hed using one predict ed v a r i a b l e aga inst a second predicted
variable.
D o o l i t t l e and Bigbee ( l 968) administered the 12-minute walkrun t e s t to 153 ninth grade males.
Using the rank order c o r r e l a t i o n
technique, VO^ max and 12-minute run performance e x h ib i t e d a c o r r e l a ­
t io n of r = 0. 90 using only nine of these boys.
The t e s t - r e t e s t
c o e f f i c i e n t of r e l i a b i l i t y f o r the 12-minute walk-run t e s t
was r = 0. 9 7 6 .
Maksud and Coutts (1971)
(N = 153)
reported a c o r r e l a t i o n o f
r = 0. 65 between 12-minute walk-run performance and VO^ max using 17
male su b jec ts, age 11 to 14 years.
R e l i a b i l i t y , es t a b li s h e d on a
population of 80 male su b jec ts, was r = 0 . 9 2 .
Jackson and Coleman (1976)
i nv est ig at ed the v a l i d i t y of distance
run te s t s to p r e d i c t c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance cap ac ity f o r elemen­
t a r y school c h i l d r e n , f o u r th through s i x t h grade.
A f a c t o r analysis
e st abl is hed the construct v a l i d i t y of the distance runs and gave
credence to the 9 and 12-minute runs.
VO^ max and the 9-minute run
c o r r e l a t e d r = 0. 8 2 f o r boys (N = 2 2 ) , and r = 0.71 f o r g i r l s
(N = 2 5 ) .
VO^ max and the 12-minute run als o c o r r e l a t e d r = 0. 82 and r = 0 . 7 1 ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r boys and g i r l s .
Krahenbuhl e t a l . (1 9 7 8 ),
studying 69 males and 48 females, f i r s t through t h i r d grades,
in
reported
m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s whose c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a 1600 meter run were
s l i g h t l y higher than r = - 0 . 6 0 when r e l a t e d to V0^ max expressed as a
f unc tio n of
body weight.
The t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s
ranged from a low of r = 0.824 f o r f i r s t grade females to a high of
r = 0.918 f o r t h i r d grade males.
Several
i n v e s t i g a t o r s have examined the v a l i d i t y of the 600
yard walk-run t e s t as an index o f c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance cap aci ty
and reported r a t h e r low c o r r e l a t i o n s w it h VOg max.
reported a v a l i d i t y
Falls,
o f r = - 0 . 5 3 f o r 76 males,
Is m a il , and McLeod (1966)
Olree e t a l .
16-17 years o f age.
reported a v a l i d i t y o f r = - 0 . 6 4 in
87 a d u l t s , 23 to 58
years of age. D o o l i t t l e and Bigbee (1968)
reported a v a l i d i t y
o f r = - 0 . 6 2 using only 9, nin th grade boys.
and Wilmore (1975)
Vodak
i nv es ti ga te d the v a l i d i t y , of the 600 yard walk-run
t e s t and the 6-minute walk-run t e s t
in 69 young males, 9 to 12 years
o f age, and found c o r r e l a t i o n s of r = - 0 . 5 0 and r = 0 . 5 0 ,
It
(1965)
is evident t h a t f i e l d
respectively.
te s t s of running distance g r e a t e r than 1 m ile
(1600 meters) or o f a durati on longer than 9 minutes have been success­
ful with populations ranging from o l d e r adults to younger c h i l d r e n .
8
Cycli ng Tests
Attempts a t p r e d i c t in g VO^ max from te s t s conducted with
s t a t i o n a r y cyc ling have also been reported in the l i t e r a t u r e .
Astrand
and Rhyming (1954) devised a t e s t of submaximal e f f o r t , which included
stationary cycling,
to p r e d i c t maximal endurance c a p a c i ty .
They
reported t h a t during the higher workloads of 1200 kpm f o r men and 900
kpm f o r women, the percent e r r o r of VO^ max p r e d i c t i o n was only 6.7%
f o r men and 9.4% f o r women.
U n fo r t u n a t e l y , c o e f f i c i e n t s of v a l i d i t y
were not recorded in the o r i g i n a l
DeVries and Klafs (1965)
study.
included the Astrand-Rhyming t e s t in
t h e i r ev a lu a ti o n o f several submaxima 1 te s t s which are commonly used
f o r p r e d i c t io n of maximal physical working c a p a c i ty .
They reported
a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of r = 0.736 between actual and predicted
V02 max in 16 c o l l e g e age men using a b i c y c l e ergometer.
et a l . (1965)
• Glassford
reported an r = 0. 77 between actual VO2 max and predicted
VO2 max expressed in ml/kg x min from the Astrand-Rhyming bike t e s t
24 males, ages 17-33 years.
in
In a study conducted on 24 males, ages
16-28 yea rs , Wojtczak-Jarosowa and Banaszkiewicz (1974)
reported th a t
there was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between actual V02 max and VO2 max
predicted from the Astrand-Rhymi ng Tes t.
DeVries and Klafs
(1965) also examined the r e l a t i o n s h i p of
actual VO2 max and VO2 max pr edicted from the Sjostrand bike t e s t , as
modified by Adams, Linde, and Miyake (19 61 ).
In t h i s study they
reported a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t of r = 0.877 between actual and
9
predict ed VO^ max.
From the above st u d ie s ,
appear to be very successful
s t a t i o n a r y cy cl in g tests
in p r e d i c t i n g VO^ max.
Bench Stepping Tests
Several of the o r i g i n a l
field
te s t s o f physical
f i t n e s s were
based on the recovery he a rt r a t e responses f ol lo w in g a standardized work
task o f bench stepping.
Among the e a r l i e r , more popular te s t s are the
T u t t l e Pu lse-R atio Te s t, developed by T u t t l e (1 93 1 ), and the Harvard
Step Te s t, developed by Brouha (19^3).
attempt to p r e d i c t VO^ max but r a t h e r ,
These o r i g i n a l
rated physical
studies did not
f i t n e s s on an
a r b i t r a r y scoring index r e l a t i v e to recovery heart r a t e s .
In the ev a lu a ti o n of submaxima 1 te s t s commonly used f o r pre­
d i c t i o n of V02 max by deVries and Klafs
(19 65 ), the Harvard Step Test
and the Progressive Pu ls e -R at io Test (Waxman 1959) were among those
t e s t s examined.
The t e s t s were c o r r e l a t e d wit h the actual VO^ max of
a group of 16 c ol le ge age males w i t h c o r r e l a t i o n s o f r = 0.766 and
r = 0.7U
reported f o r each t e s t ,
respectively.
It
is evi den t from
these r e s u l t s and the r e s u l t s of ot he r in ve s t i g a t io n s reported in the
literatu re,
t h a t p r e d i c t i v e methods o f determining VO^ max have proven
to be very s uc ce ss fu l.
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
This chapter shall
provide information concerning s u b j e c t s ,
determination of VO^ max, the 800 meter swim, and f i n a l l y a s t a t i s t i c a l
ana lys is o f the study.
Subjects
F i f t y male su b jec ts, ages 15*25 years, volunteered to p a r t i c i ­
pate in t h is study.
Table 1.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h is group can be found in
Due to the nature of the study, subjects had to have pre­
vious swimming experience to be e l i g i b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in the study.
A large degree of v a r i a t i o n
in swimming a b i l i t y was noted in the sub­
j e c t population ranging from moderately s k i l l e d r e c r e a t i o n a l
swimmers
to 1976 Olympic champions.
Subjects from t h i s age group were selected based upon the
following.
First,
i t was decided to examine a population t h a t con­
tained subjects w ith a wide v a r i a t i o n
in swimming a b i l i t y and VO^ max,
t h e r e f o r e , subjects who were c u r r e n t l y engaged in a swim t r a i n i n g
program, as well as subjects who were not , were s e l e c t e d .
The age range
of 15 to 25 years is where most h i g h l y - t r a i n e d swimmers are found and
also includes many l o w -t ra in e d swimmers.
Secondly, t h i s age category
would include a wide range of VO^ max values independent of age.
t r a i n i n g level of each subject was determined fo r the purpose of
10
The
Table I .
Mean S u b je c t Data f o r T o t a l Group and f o r Each Group Ac cording t o T r a i n i n g Le v e l.
'
High-Trained (n = 24)
Trained
(n = 16)
Total
(n = 10)
V02 max
(ml/kg x mi n)
VO2 max
( l i ters/min)
Age ( y r )
Weight (kg)
18.7
72.4
624.8
55.8
4. 0
3.1
11.3
68.9
4. 7
0 .6
42.8-64.6
15-25
48.7-94.6
21.7
72.5
692.1
51.5
3.7
2.9
5.8
78.9
3.8
0. 4
16-25
Low-Trained
800 Meter
Performance
Time (sec)
60.9-84.3
5 07 .3 - 793.7
600. 2- 937.2
44.2- 57. 1
2.94-5.14
2.90-4.36
23.5
71.1
928.9
46.3
3-3
2 .2
5.3
136.5
5. 9
0. 4
3 8 . 6- 60.0
18-25
62.2-78.4
Mean
20.6
72.2
707.2
52.5
3.8
Sigma
3.4
8.6
145.5
6.0
0. 6
Range
15-25
797.7-11 77. 3
2.67-3.93
(n = 50)
48.7-94.6
507.3 -1 17 7. 3
38.6-64.6
2.67-5.14
12
-
i d e n t i f y i n g possible s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h ip s w i t h i n s p e c i f i c a b i l i t y
groups.
Each subject was assigned to one of the f o llo w in g three
training le v e ls :
Hi g h - t ra in e d
(n = 24) — those swimmers who were c u r r e n t l y
competing and had been t r a i n i n g f o r more than 3 months at
over 30,000 meters/week.
Trained (n = 16) — those swimmers who may have competed
w i t h i n the previous year and
had been t r a i n i n g between
3,000 and 30,000 meters/week
f o r the previous s i x months.
Low-trained (n = 10) — those swimmers who had not com­
peted w i t h i n the past ye a r , or who had never competed,
and who had been t r a i n i n g less than 3,000 meters/week f o r
the previous s i x months.
The subjects were informed as to the nature of the study and the
ex te nt o f involvement requ ir ed.
Each subject was then allowed to observe
a l l t e s t i n g procedures and to experience
prior
to consenting to p a r t i c i p a t e .
the tethered swimming task
The subjects indic ate d t h e i r
w il li n g n e s s to p a r t i c i p a t e by signing the form of informed consent
(Appendix A) which had been pr evi ous ly read and explained to them.
The experimental protocol and informed consent form had been previously
reviewed and approved by the U n i v e r s i t y o f Arizona Human Subjects
Committee.
13
-
Determination o f V0„ Max
Each subject had his VO^ max determined during performance of
the f r o n t crawl stroke w h il e tethe red to a cable and p u l l e y system
which allowed resi st anc e to be app lied s y s te m a ti c a l ly
(Figures 1 and 2 ) .
This tethe red swimming apparatus is s i m i l a r to t h a t developed by C o s t i l l
(1966).
A continuous work task was used to e l i c i t a maximum e f f o r t
from the swimmer.
This work task was developed by Curry e t a l . (1979)
and was designed to evoke maximum values w i t h i n 4% to 5 i minutes of
ex e r c is e .
Standard work protocols were estab lish ed based on a short
p r e t e s t to determine, the maximum r e s i s t a n c e ” t h a t an in d iv id u al could
support f o r 30 seconds.
Using t h i s p r e t e s t value as an estimate of
the maximum resi st an ce to be supported in the t e s t i t s e l f ,
f o r weight increments was determined f o r each subject
In divid ua l
d i ff e r e n c e s
a progression
(Appendix B ) .
in swimming a b i l i t y were accounted f o r by
ad ju st in g the workload acc ord in gly .
The p r e t e s t consisted o f having the subject swim w h il e attached
to the tethe red swimming apparatus to determine the g r e a t e s t amount o f
resi st anc e in kilograms the swimmer could maintain f o r approximately
30 seconds.
The actual
t e s t f o r determination of V0^ max began with a
f i v e minute warm-up period o f tethe red swimming a t a base workload which
was es ta bl is hed as a percentage of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s predetermined work­
load as pr evi ous ly described above.
s y s te m a ti c a l ly u n t i l
achieved.
The resistance was then increased
the maximum r es is ta nc e f o r each in di v id u al was
Toward the end of the t e s t , the subject experienced d i f f i ­
c u l t y maintaining the o r i g i n a l
forward p o s iti on in the water and began
14
eys
Weight Pan
Ru11ey
Pool Deck
Rubber B r ick
on Bottom
Figure 1.
Swimming Ergometer, Side View.
15
Bel
P l a s t i c Coated
Cable
Wooden Dowel
Main Cable
Figure 2.
Swimming Ergometer, Overhead View.
to be pul 1ed backward as the resi st an ce was increased.
When the weights
came to r e s t on the ground, the swimmer was i nst ru cte d to give a f i n a l
a l l - o u t e f f o r t to move forward to the o r i g i n a l
This a l l - o u t e f f o r t was maintained u n t i l
po s it io n
in the w ater.
VO^ max was reached, as
evidenced, by c r i t e r i a est abli she d below or u n t i l
the subject volun­
t a r i l y terminated the t e s t .
Throughout the t e s t ,
the subject breathed through a Hans
Rudolph Respiratory Valve, Series #2700, which was attached to i n h a l a ­
t i o n and e x h al a tio n tubing (Figure 3) •
This breathing arrangement
allowed the swimmer to maintain a h or iz on ta l po s it io n
in the water
and perform the crawl st roke in a manner as s i m i l a r as possible to
f r e e swimming. . Expired gases were c o l l e c t e d and analyzed a t 30 second
i n t e r v a l s during the t e s t using a Beckman Metabolic Measurment Cart.
This instrument has been v a l i d a t e d by Wilmore, Davis, and Norton ( 1 97 6 ).
Before and a f t e r each t e s t ,
the 0M-11 oxygen and LB-2 carbon dioxide
analyzers were c a l i b r a t e d w ith gases of known con ce nt ra tio n.
The con­
c e n t r a t i o n of the c a l i b r a t i o n gases was v e r i f i e d by the Scholander
microtechnique p r i o r to and during the study.
Gas volumes were measured
w ith a biased flow t u r b in e which was c a l i b r a t e d d a i l y ,
before and dur­
ing t e s t i n g ,
a t the flow r a t e
using a c a l i b r a t e d syringe (1.020 l i t e r s )
estimated f o r t ha t day's t e s t i n g .
Max VO^ was i d e n t i f i e d f o r each subject a f t e r c a r e fu l adherence
to predetermined c r i t e r i a .
Subjects performed a second maximum teth er ed
swimming t e s t w i t h i n 1k days of the f i r s t
between t e s t s ,
t e s t , w ith a t le a s t one day re st
to determine t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y .
Subjects whose maximum
17
Hans Rudolph Valve
Series #2700
Exhalation
Tubing
# ■uuiiiiiiiiiniiiiiimiHiinimmmuiimuiinuuiiiaiiim!}
Mouthpiece
In h al at io n
Tubing
'iiijiiniiinniniinniim ilL
Flexible
Lightweight
Tubing
Figure 3.
Breathing Apparatus.
Adjustable
Headgear
values on these i n i t i a l
two te s t s d i f f e r e d by more than 2 . 5 ml/kg x min
were rete ste d a t h i r d time, w ith the two cl ose st values being averaged
to provide the c r i t e r i o n VO^ max value (Appendix C ) .
For some subje ct s, a second (n = 4) or a t h i r d
could not be obtained.
In these cases, as with a l l
(n = 5) t e s t
ot h e r subjects,
the incomplete data was accepted only i„f they met the f o llo w in g c r i t e r i a
1) an R value equal to or g r e a t e r than 1.1;
2) a sharp increase in
v e n t i l a t i o n without an accompanying r i s e in oxygen uptake;
3) a peak
or plateau of oxygen uptake in the f i n a l minutes o f the t e s t .
800 Meter Swim
Following the i n i t i a l
t e s t to determine VO^ max, subjects
performed an a l l - o u t 800 meter swim, timed to the nearest 0. 1 0 second,
using the f r o n t crawl st rok e.
They were i nst ru cte d to swim the 800
meters as qu i c k l y as pos si b le , stopping only i f necessary.
s t a r t e d in the water and f l i p
ducted in a 50 meter p o o l .
turns were allowed.
In several
Al l
subjects
The swims were con­
instances (n = 6 ) ,
t e s t in g
schedules forced subjects to perform both the 800 meter swim and the
VO^ max t e s t on the same day.
administered f i r s t .
In these cases, the 800 meter swim was
A minimum of one hour was then allowed before the
V0g max t e s t was administered.
The 800 meter swim was administered
twice and the best time was used in the a n a l y s i s .
19
S ta tis tic a l
T est-retest r e l i a b i l i t y
Analysis
co e ffic ie n ts ,
usi ng t h e Pearson c o r r e l a ­
t i o n method, f o r the VO^ max d e t e r m i n a t i o n and th e 800 meter swim were
c a l c u l a t e d t o assur e r e p e a t a b i l i t y
data on a l l
in o b t a i n i n g tho se measures.
50 s u b j e c t s were then s u b m it t e d t o r e g r e s s i o n analyses t o
d e te r m in e th e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f VO^ max from s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s ,
age, body w e i g h t ,
swim.
The
tra in in g
i.e . ,
l e v e l , and performance t im e i n t h e 800 meter
Those v a r i a b l e s which were shown t o be s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t o r s
t o th e p r e d i c t i o n o f VO^ max were then used t o c o n s t r u c t a m u l t i p l e
regression e q u a tio n .
mined on a l l
Le v e ls o f s t a t i s t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e were d e t e r ­
t e s t s w i t h acceptance e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e 0. 05 l e v e l .
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
The subjects in t h is study formed a heterogeneous group char­
a c t e r i z e d by a wide range of v a r i a b i l i t y
in. tethe red swimming VC^ max
(38.6 to 64.6 ml/kg x min), performance in the 800 meter swim (507.3 to
1, 177 .3 s e c ) , and selected physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(Table t ) .
values f o r oxygen uptake and the performance swim fo r
j e c t s are displayed in Appendix C (n = 5 0 ) .
Maximal
in di v id u al
sub­
The t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t f o r VO^ max, as determined by tethered swimming (n = 4 5 ) ,
was r = 0. 96 and the r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the times in the 800
meter swim (n = 33) was r = 0 . 9 9 .
The m at ri x o f c o r r e l a t i o n s between
VO2 max, performance time and the various physical
characteristics
appears in Table I I .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , oxygen consumption has been expressed r e l a t i v e
to body we ight,
bearing a c t i v i t y
i.e.
ml/kg x min and since swimming is a non-weight
i t was decided to examine the VOg max r e l a t i o n s h i p
with 800 meter swim performance time w ith VO. max expressed both in
ml/kg x min and in l i t e r s / m i n .
Figures 4 and 5 are s c a t t e r diagrams
r e l a t i n g the swimming performance times w it h VO2 max expressed in
ml/kg x min and l i t e r s / m i n ,
respectively,
f o r each su b je c t.
The simple c o r r e l a t i o n between performance time and VO^ max
f o r the t o t a l
sample (n = 50) was r = - O .63 (p < 0. 001) when expressed
in ml/kg x min, and r = - 0 . 5 7
(p < 0. 001 ) when expressed in l i t e r s / m i n .
20
21
Table I I .
C o r r e l a t io n M a tr i x (N = 50)
Age
Weight
T ra in in g
Level
Performance
Time
Age, y r s .
Weight, kg.
0,40
T r ai ni ng
Level
0.56
-0.05
Performance
Time
0.33
-0.12
0.7 4
0.11
0.68
-0.47
" 0 .56
- 0.31
-0.16
- 0 . 6l
- O .63
VO^ max,
1i t e r s / m i n
V02 max,
ml/kg x mi n
1200. 00
O
n o z > x x 3 o " n z i « i T 3
1120. 00
O
1040. 00
0 - HIGH -T R A IN E D
A -T R A IN E D
D - L O W -T R A IN E D
960. 00
080. 00
0
0
0
0
€>
ms
— -*
Q
000. 00
0
A
A
'
A©
z —
720. 00
A
t/i o z <=} n m <st
640. 00
0
o
° %
560. 00
o
e
400. 00
400. 00
I
30. 00
I
I
30. 00
34. 00
I
I
46. 00
42. 00
50. 00
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
ure 4.
t
54. 00
1
L
70. 00
62. 00
50. 00
66. 00
ML/KG X MIN
S c at te r Diagram of Performance Time and VO^ max i n
ml/kg x mi n .
23
1200 . 00
moz»s^Jo"n3)mTJ
1 120. 00
O- h ig h - t r a in ed
A - TRAI NED
O- LOW-TRAINED
9 6 0 . 00
8 80. 00
rn
k
—■ -i
□D
8 00. 00
Z —
7 2 0 . 00
□ z o o m </)
6 4 0 . 00
560. 00
400. 00
2 . 00
1. 00
1. 50
4. 00
3. 00
2 .5 0
3. 50
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
Figure 5.
6 . 00
5. 00
4. 50
5. 50
LITERS/M 1N
S c at te r Diagram of Performance Time and VO^ max in
Liters/M in. .
24
These c o r r e l a t i o n s were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .
diagrams and c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s
Both the s c a t t e r
i n d ic a t e t h a t l i n e a r i t y of
regression can be s a f e l y assumed between the performance swim and VOg
max, t h e r e f o r e , strengthening any p r e d i c t i v e value f u r t h e r obtained
from t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Ad dition al
statistical
those v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l
v a r i a b l e s were se l e c t e d ,
analyses were conducted to e s t a b l i s h
suc ces sf ul ly p r e d i c t VO^ max.
i.e .,
age, body we igh t, t r a i n i n g level and
performance time in the 800 meter swim.
its
i ndiv idu al
Four p r e d i c t o r
Each v a r i a b l e was examined f o r
r e l a t i o n s h i p r e l a t i v e to the c r i t e r i o n VO^ max.
c o r r e l a t i o n m a t ri x between a l l
A
paired measurements was es ta bl is hed in
order to examine the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the p r e d i c t o r va r i a b l e s
and the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f each p r e d i c t o r to the c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e of
VO^ max (Table I I ) .
It
is undesirable in a regression ana lys is to incorporate the
same v a r i a b l e into both the c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e and the p r e d i c t o r
variable.
This would h e a v il y weight t h a t v a r i a b l e as a p r e d i c t o r o f
the c r i t e r i o n and produces a spurious c o r r e l a t i o n .
This would be the
case i f body weight were assigned as a p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e and were also
contained in the c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e VO^ max (ml /kg x mi n r ) .
Consequently,
regression ana lys is was conducted w i t h VO^ max expressed in 1?t e r s / m i n .
To determine the s p e c i f i c r o l e o f each of the v a r i a b l e s in
p r e d i c t in g VO^ max the data f o r the t o t a l
commonality a n a ly s is .
tio n f o r a l l
sample were subjected to a
This an a ly s is determined the m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a ­
of the p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s combined;
i d e n t i f i e d those
25
s i n g l e p r ed ic to r s which made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n tr i b u t io n s
VOg max; and indicated the percentage of the t o t a l
by each p r e d i c t o r .
in pr e d i c t in g
va ri anc e con tribut ed
The F - t e s t was then used to determine i f the con­
t r i b u t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 0. 0 5 l e v e l .
In Table I I I ,
the commonality o f the pr e d i c t o r s in the t o t a l
c o r r e l a t i o n with VO^ max ( 1 i t e r s / m i n ) can be seen.
0.7 3 and an R = 0.8 6 (p < 0. 001)
An
value o f
represent the v a l i d i t y of the f u l l
regression equation c a l c u l a t e d w ith a l l o f the p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s .
2
The R values f o r regression equations containing each s i n g l e p r e d i c t o r
2
v a r i a b l e sep ar at el y are labeled TOTAL R .
The corresponding independent
co n tr ib u t io n s of each v a r i a b l e to the t o t a l
2
UNIQUE R .
the f u l l
c o r r e l a t i o n are labeled
2
The percentage t h a t each v a r i a b l e represents of the R f o r
regression equation is labeled PERCENT.
Tests o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
2
2
were computed f o r both TOTAL R and UNIQUE R f o r a l l
Independent
co n tr ib u t io n s and are labeled UNIQUE and TOTAL (Veldman 1978).
Upon examining each of the v a r i a b l e s
made s i g n i f i c a n t co n tr i b u t io n s to the t o t a l
in Table M l ,
those t h a t
c o r r e l a t i o n both as inde­
pendent pr e d i c t o r s and in combination w it h each ot he r were selec te d.
The v a r i a b l e s o f body we igh t, t r a i n i n g
level and performance time were
selected as the best set of p r e d i c t o r s , and a m u l t i p l e regression
equation was constructed.
Y '=
where:
Y'
The equation was as fo ll o w s :
1 . 9 6 3 8 + .0425 (Xj )
- . 1 3 5 9 (X2) -
is the pr edicted VO^ max ( l i t e r s / m i n ) ;
(kg) of the sub ject; X^ Is the t r a i n i n g level
3.0 correspond to h i g h - t r a i n e d ,
.0014 (Xg)
X^ is the body weight
(values o f 1 . 0 , 2 . 0 , and
t r a i n e d , and l o w - t r a i n e d ,
r e s p e c t iv e ly )
26
Table I I I .
Commonality Analysis of P r e d ic t o r Va ria bl es w ith VO. max
in L i t e r s / M i n u t e
TOTAL
P r e d ic t o r
V a ri a b l e
UNIQUE
R2
PERCENT
Age
0.01
0.01
1.81
Weight
0.46
0. 22
Training
Level
0.22
Performance
Time
0. 32
Total
R
= 0 . 7 3 , Total
UN IQUE
TOTAL
P = 0.139
P = 0.427
30.50
P < 0.001**
P < 0.001**
0.02
3.66
P = 0. 0 0 3 7 *
P = 0.001**
0. 05
89
6. 89
P = 0.006**
P < 0.001**
R = 0 .8 6 ,
S i g n i f i c a n t a t the 0. 0 5 level
S i g n i f i c a n t a t the 0.01 level
P < 0.001
27
of the sub jec t; and
is the performance time (sec) f o r the 800 meter
swim f o r each su b je c t.
equation was R = 0. 85
It
The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h i s regression
(P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
is noted from the above t h a t t r a i n i n g level makes the le a s t
absolute c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the t hr ee
p r e d i c t o r s . Although i t
is
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t and does account f o r some o f the vari anc e,
its practical
significance is,sm all.
The absolute e f f e c t t h a t t r a i n ­
ing level makes on the pr edicted value o f VO^ max is so sm al l, ± 0.0042
liters/m in,
t ha t i t s
p r a c t i c a l val ue.
inclusion in the regression equation o f f e r s
little
Consequently, t r a i n i n g level was del eted as a p r e d i c ­
tor variable resulting
in no s i g n i f i c a n t decrease in the value of the
m ultiple correlation c o e ffic ie n t,
R = 0. 8 5 to R = 0 . 8 4 .
The f i n a l
m u l t i p l e regression equation was as f ol lo w s:
Y' = 2.1494 + .042 (X j)
where:
-
.002 (X2)
Y ' is the predict ed VO^ max ( l i t e r s / m i n ) ;
X^ is the body weight
(kg) o f the^subject; and X^ is the performance time (sec)
meter swim.
f o r the 800
The c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h i s regression equation was R = 0. 84
(P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
Using the f i n a l
regression equation, a chart was constructed
(Appendix D) t h a t provides the complete range of pred ict ed values o f
VO^ max from the two p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s .
The v a r i a b l e s were ranged
in body weight from 45 to 117 kg. and in performance time from 500 to
1000 sec.
Values of VO^ max in l i t e r s / m i n were converted on the ch ar t
to ml/kg x mi n.
The standard e r r o r of p r e d i c t i o n was 0. 48 l i t e r s / m i n .
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The maximal oxygen uptake values obtained from the subjects in
t h i s study were moderately high,
min.
i.e .,
the mean value was 52. 5 ml/kg x
This is most l i k e l y due to the la rg e number o f h ig h ly t ra in e d
(n = 2k)
subjects
included in the study.
These values are in agreement
w i t h those reported by ot he r i n v e s t i g a t o r s measuring the VO^ max o f
swimmers (Magel and Faulkner 1967; McArdle e t a l . 1971; Dixon and
Faulkner 1971; Nomura 1978).
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study i n d ic a t e th at
it
is possible to pre­
d i c t VO^ max using body weight and performance time in an a l l - o u t ,
meter swim as the p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s
800
in a m u l t i p l e regression equation.
The c o e f f i c i e n t of m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n ,
R = 0.84,
i nd ic at es a r e l a t i v e l y
O
high degree o f accuracy in the p r e d i c t i o n o f VO^ max.
Approximately 70
percent o f the variance in VO^ max was accounted f o r by these two v a r i a ­
bles alone.
The standard e r r o r of p r e d i c t i o n , 0.4 8
1i t e r s / m i n , is
c e r t a i n l y w i t h i n acceptable p r e d i c t i o n accuracy, and approaches the mag­
nitude of d i f f e r e n c e seen on repeat te s t s when VO^ max is measured
directly.
Body weight was found to have a la rg e influe nc e on the pr e d ic ­
t io n of VO^ max, even though swimming is considered to be a non-weight
bearing a c t i v i t y .
Energy expenditure in swimming is t h e o r e t i c a l l y
divided into two components.
One component involves the energy cost
28
of f l o a t i n g .
Obviously, t h i s
l a r g e r amounts of f a t .
is less f o r people who have r e l a t i v e l y
The second component involves the energy cost
o f producing the propu lsive for ce required to overcome water r es is ta nc e .
This cost here is less f o r the l ea n er , more streamlined i n d i v i d u a l .
Although t h i s theory indic at es t h a t both f a t weight and lean body weight
c o n tr i b u t e in some degree to performance and VO^ max w h i l e swimming,
body composition was not determined f o r the subjects in t h i s study.
Further i n v e s t i g a t i o n
into the r o l e o f body composition in swimming
performance is in d ic a t e d .
The p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e of performance time made a s i g n i f i c a n t
influe nc e on the p r e d i c t io n o f VOg max.
This s p e c i f i c performance task
was selected to most a c c u r a t e ly r e f l e c t the i n d i v i d u a l ' s swimming
endurance cap aci ty as i t
r e l a t e d to VO^ max.
I t was assumed t h a t the
higher an i n d i v i d u a l ' s VO^ max the less time i t would take him to f i n i s h
the performance tas k.
The distance of 800 meters was designated as the
performance task because of the f o ll o w in g reasons.
F i r s t , a distance
was needed which assured a predominant r e l i a n c e on the aerobic pathways
to supply energy.
Results o f running studies
(Krahenbuhl e t a l .
1978;
Ribi sl and Kachadorian 1969) have indic ate d t h a t an a l l - o u t run at
distances in excess o f one m ile places considerable r e l i a n c e on the
aerobic energy system.
Krahenbuhl et a l . (1978) showed t h a t an 800
meter run and a 1200 meter run c o r r e l a t e d r = - 0 . 2 2 and r = - 0 . 4 7 w ith
V0^ max, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
mile)
in young males.
Whereas, the 1600 meter (0.992
run c o r r e l a t e d r = - 0 . 6 0 w ith VOg max.
Rib isl
and Kachadorian
(1969) demonstrated t h a t an 880-yard run, a 1-mile run and a 2- m ile
run c o r r e l a t e d r = 0 . 6 7 , 0. 79 and 0. 8 5 w it h VO^ max, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
cating the dur ation of the run is c r i t i c a l
o f aerobic ca p a c i ty .
indi­
to the accurate p r e d i c t io n
Jackson and Coleman (1976) have sub stantiated
t h a t 9 and 12-minute runs provide accurate estimations o f endurance
ca p a c i ty . . Other running studies have reported s i m i l a r r e s u l t s ,
indi­
cating t h a t distances re q u i r in g 10 to 12 minutes to complete adequately
stress the aerobic energy system.
Secondly, the r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n by Jackson, Jackson,
and Frank?ewicz (1979)
i n d i c a t e t h a t the distance covered in a 12-minute
swim is a v a l i d measure of swimming endurance.
An 800 meter swim
normally takes between 10 and 15 minutes to complete.
The average time
to complete the 800 meter swim in t h i s study was 11.8 minutes.
This time
frame places i t w i t h i n close approximation to a 12-minute swim.
Thirdly,
the performance task in t h i s study was defined as the
time to complete a f i x e d distance as opposed to the dista nce covered in
a f i x e d time, as i t allowed f o r g r e a t e r accuracy in measurement.
When
swimming f o r a f ix e d time, the swimmer may be somewhere in the middle o f
the pool a t the end o f the t e s t .
the t o t a l
distance covered.
Some accuracy is l o s t when estimating
Also,
i t was f e l t t h a t i t
is considerably
e a s ie r to perceive the magnitude of a task when the exact distance is
known.
This g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s
the swimmer's pacing and s t r a te g y ,
which are important considerations w ith regard to subject m ot iv a tio n.
M ot iv at io n plays a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in the a d m i n i s tr a t i o n of the
800 meter a l l - o u t swim.
It
is e s s en t ia l
t h a t the swimmers be motivated
to push themselves to t h e i r peak aerobic capacity f o r t h i s to be
considered a v a l i d t e s t of t h e i r maximum endurance ca p a c i ty .
A test
is
only as good as the e f f o r t provided by the swimmer.
Upon s e l e c t i n g the v a r i a b l e s to be used in the p r e d i c t i o n , a
question arose w ith regard to the inclusion of t r a i n i n g
v a r i a b l e in the f i n a l
regression equation.
level as a
Although t r a i n i n g level was
a strong independent p r e d i c t o r of VO^ max, when combined w ith the o th er
variables,
i t did not make a s i g n i f i c a n t change in the p r e d i c t io n
accuracy o f the f u l l
regression equation.
due to the f a c t t ha t t r a i n i n g
level
mance time of the 800 meter swim.
This phenomena is most l i k e l y
is a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t e d
in the p e r f o r ­
I t would be expected t h a t the more
experienced, h i g h l y - t r a i n e d swimmers would swim f a s t e r than the less
experienced,
lo w - t ra in e d swimmers*.
Also, VO2 max values w i l l
be higher
in the more h i g h l y - t r a i n e d swimmers a n d , lower in the l e s s e r - t r a i n e d
swimmers.
Hence, t h i s would account f o r the la rg e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t r a i n ­
ing level as a s i n g l e p r e d i c t o r of \J0^ max and the smaller c o n t r i b u t io n
i t made when combined w it h performance time.
Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in t h i s study was the i ncl usi on of two
subjects who were h i g h l y - t r a i n e d distance runners w it h VO^ max values
g r e a t e r than 60.0 ml/kg x min when tested on the t r e a d m i l l .
inexperienced swimmers and were c l a s s i f i e d
They were
in the l o w - t ra in e d group.
Although t h e i r swimming VO^ max values were r at he r high, 60. 0 and 48.2
ml/kg x min, t h e i r swimming performances were two of the thr ee slowest
times.
city.
Obviously, t h i s data serves to r e i n f o r c e the concept o f s p e c i f i ­
I t st ron gl y suggests, t h a t endurance capacity is s p e c i f i c to the
type o f a c t i v i t y
involved,
i.e .,
a grea t endurance cap aci ty f o r running
does not mean t h a t you w M 1 have a gr ea t endurance cap aci ty f o r swimming.
Also, t h i s
implies t h a t s p e c i f i c i t y
in t e s t i n g methods is necessary to
insure accurate and v a l i d measurement of endurance cap ac ity in any
a c t i v i t y , a l l o f which f u r t h e r supports the o r i g i n a l
purpose of t h i s
study, which was to develop a t e s t of c a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y endurance
capacity s p e c i f i c to swimmers.
The success of p r e d i c t i n g VO^ max from body weight and p e r f o r ­
mance time in the 800 meter swim is indicated by the m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a ­
t io n c o e f f i c i e n t R = 0 . 8 4 .
This value is f a r above the g e n e r a ll y
accepted lev el s of r = 0. 6 0 f o r a useful
fitness test
(Mathews 1973).
In order to comprehend the magnitude o f such a c o r r e l a t i o n
it
is neces­
sary to compare i t w ith the success of ot he r p r e d i c t i v e methods.
The .
v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s o f various p r e d i c t i v e methods reported by other
i n v e s t i g a t o r s are displayed in Table IV.
I t can be seen t h a t the 800
meter swim compares very well w ith ot he r studies attempting to p r e d i c t
V02 max.
Table
IV.
V a lid ity of
F i e l d T e s t s f o r P r e d i c t i n g VO^ Max.
n
Sex
Age
Duration of Test
12 min. run-wa1k
115
M
17-52
12 min.
12 min. run-wa1k
600 yd. run-wa1k
9
9
M
M
14-15
14-15
12 min.
600 yds.
12 min. run-wa1k
22
25
22
25
M
9-11
9-11
9-11
9-11
87
-
A c t i v i t y and Test
V a l i d i t y C o e f f i c ie n t
Reference
Run/Wa1k
9 min.
run-wa1k
600 yd.
run-walk
12 min. run-wa1k
2 mile run-wa1k
1600 m. run-walk
F
M
F
12
12
9
9
min.
min.
min.
min.
0.897
0.90
-0.62
Cooper 1968
D o o l i t t l e and
Bigbee 1968
0.82
0.71
0.82
0.71
Jackson and
Coleman 1976
23-58
600 yds.
-0.64
F a l l s et a l .
1966
M
M
Col 1ege
Col 1ege
12 min.
2 mile
0.54
-0.55
Katch and
Henry 1972
117
M-F
6-8
1600 m.
-0.60
Krahenbuhl
et a l . 1978
-
12 min.
run-walk
80
M
11-14
12 min.
0.65
Maksud and
Coutts 1971
600 yd.
run-walk
76
M
16-17
600 yd.
0.53
01ree et a l .
1965
UJ
CO
Table
IV.
Continued.
Duration of Test
Sex
Age
run-wa1k
run-wa1k
run-wa1k
run-wa1k
11
11
11
24
M
M
M
M
18-22
18-22
18-22
30-48
880 yd.
1 mile
2 miles
2 miles
-0.67
-0.79
-0.85
-0.86
Ribisl and
Kachadorian
1969
600 yd. run-waIk
6 min. run-wa1k
69
69
M
M
9-12
9-12
600 yd.
6 min.
-0.50
0.50
Vodak and
WiImore 1975
Astrand-Rhymi ng
Sjostrand
16
16
M
M
Col 1ege
Col 1ege
Astrand-Rhymi ng
24
M
17-33
16
16
M
M
Col 1ege
Col 1ege
50
M
15-25
880 yd.
1 mile
2 mile
2 mile
V a lid ity Coefficient
Reference
n
A c t i v i t y and Test
Bicycle
0.736
0.877
deVries and
Klafs I 965
0.77
Glassford
1965
0.766
0.711
deVries and
Klafs 1965
0.84
Santeusanio
1980
Bench Step
Harvard Step
Progress ive
Pulse-Rat io
Swim
800 meter
f r o n t crawl
800 m.
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY
F i f t y male subjects were studied in an attempt to determine the
r e l a t i o n s h i p of selected v a r i a b l e s
in p r e d i c t i n g VO^ max w h il e swimming.
Age, body we igh t, t r a i n i n g l e v e l , performance time in an a l l - o u t 800
meter swim, and VO^ max during tethe red swimming were determined f o r
each su b je c t.
Test-retest r e l i a b i l i t i e s
f o r the 800 meter swim and the
VO^ max determinations were c a l c u l a t e d and found to be R = 0. 99 and
R = 0.96,
respectively.
The v a r i a b l e s were submitted to regression a n a ly s is to d e t e r ­
mine how each one r e l a t e d to V0^ max and to i d e n t i f y the best pr e d ic ­
tor variables.
I t was found t h a t body w eig ht, t r a i n i n g
l e v e l , and
performance time in the 800 meter swim were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a te d
(R = 0 . 6 8 , - 0 . 4 7 , and - 0 . 5 6 ,
o f VO^ max.
R = 0. 85
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) as independent pr ed ic to rs
The m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n of a l l
(P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
three v a r i a b l e s was
I t was noted t h a t t r a i n i n g level made the l ea st
absolute c o n t r i b u t io n of the thr ee v a r i a b l e s .
Although i t was s t a t i s ­
t ic a lly significant
s i g n i f i c a n c e was small.
(P = 0.037)»
its practical
Hence, t r a i n i n g level was deleted as a p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e .
The f i n a l
m u l t i p l e regression equation was constructed using body weight and
performance time in the 800 meter swim as p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s .
The
m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h i s regression equation was R = 0. 84 (P <
0.001).
The standard e r r o r of p r e d i c t i o n was 0. 48
35
liters/m in.
The
36
magnitude o f t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n was s i m i l a r to c o r r e l a t i o n s of other
successful p r e d i c t i v e methods using running, c y c l i n g , and bench stepping
as the mode o f ex e r c is e .
The r e s u l t s of t h i s study suggest the VO^
max w h il e swimming can be predicted suc ces sf ul ly based upon the r e l a t i o n ­
ship between an a l l - o u t 800 meter swim, body weight and actual VO^ max
determination in men ages 15 to 25 years of age.
APPENDIX A
SUBJECT CONSENT FORM
P ro je c t T i t l e :
A Swimming T e s t f o r P r e d i c t i o n o f Maximum Oxygen
Consumption
In v e s tig a to r :
David M. S a nte usanio
T h is is a re s e a rc h s tu d y in te n d e d t o d e ve lo p a t e s t f o r e s t i m a t ­
ing th e endurance c a p a c it y o f an i n d i v i d u a l w h i l e swimming th e f r o n t
c ra w l s t r o k e .
The s tu d y w i l l be cond ucte d a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r iz o n a
McKale Pool and w i l l r e q u i r e each s u b j e c t t o r e p o r t on f o u r s e p a ra te
days f o r t e s t i n g and t o f i l l o u t a P r e - E x e r c is e M edical H i s t o r y Form.
Those who choose t o ta k e p a r t in t h i s s tu d y w i l l be r e q u ir e d t o
swim th e f r o n t craw l s t r o k e in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n u n t i l near exhaus­
t i o n w h i l e a tta c h e d t o a t e t h e r e d swimming e r g o m e te r . The t e t h e r e d
swimming erg o m e te r c o n s i s t s o f a b e l t t h a t is p la ce d around th e swimmer's
w a i s t and a tta c h e s t o a c a b le w h ich is run th ro u g h a s e r i e s of. p u l l e y s
where a c e r t a i n amount o f w e ig h t w i l l be added f o r th e swimmer t o h o ld
up w h i l e swimming.
E x p ire d a i r w i l l be c o l l e c t e d and a n a ly z e d d u r in g th e swim t o
d e te rm in e how much oxygen y o u r body used d u r in g th e t e s t .
In o r d e r f o r
th e e x p ir e d a i r t o be c o l l e c t e d i t w i l l be nece ssary t o b r e a th e i n t o a
s p e c i a l l y designe d m o uthpiece t h r o u g h o u t th e t e s t .
H e a rt r a t e w i l l be m o n ito re d d u r in g th e t e s t by th e placem ent
o f t h r e e s u r fa c e e l e c t r o d e s on th e c h e s t .
A t t h i s t im e , you may e x p e r i ­
ence some m in o r d i s c o m f o r t from s k in a b r a s io n w h ich i s n e ce ssary t o
ass u re p r o p e r a tta c h m e n t o f th e e l e c t r o d e s .
T h is d i s c o m f o r t is te m p o ra ry
and sh o u ld d is a p p e a r p r i o r t o e l e c t r o d e p lacem ent.
On a subsequent day you w i l l r e t u r n t o McKale Pool where you w i l l
swim 800 m eters ( a p p r o x im a t e ly 875 y a r d s ) u s in g th e f r o n t craw l s t r o k e .
The tim e i t ta k e s you t o com ple te th e swim w i l l be re c o rd e d and compared
w i t h y o u r maximum oxygen co n su m p tio n .
I t w i l l be n e ce ssary f o r you t o r e p e a t both o f th e s e two t e s t s w i t h i n two weeks o f each o t h e r in o r d e r t o assu re t h a t we a re o b t a i n i n g
a c c u r a t e measures. We w i l l s c h e d u le y o u r t e s t i n g p e r io d s in advance
and you w i l l be e xpe cted t o a r r i v e p re p a re d f o r swimming.
I t w i l l ta k e
a p p r o x im a te ly f i f t y (50) m in u te s f o r each swimming e rg o m e te r t e s t and
tw e n ty (20) m inutes f o r each 800 m eter swim.
37
38
A l l d a ta c o l l e c t e d from th e s tu d y w i l l be c o n f i d e n t i a l and
a c c e s s i b l e o n l y f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t o r and th e t h e s i s com m ittee members.
No r e s u l t s w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s name.
F i n a n c i a l com pensation f o r wages and tim e l o s t and th e c o s ts o f
m edical c a re and h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n is n o t a v a i l a b l e and must be borne by
th e s u b j e c t .
T h is co n s e n t form w i l l be f i l e d in an a rea d e s ig n a te d by
th e Human S u b je c ts Committee w i t h access r e s t r i c t e d t o th e p r i n c i p a l
i n v e s t i g a t o r o r a u t h o r iz e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e p a r t i c u l a r d e p a r tm e n t.
A copy o f t h i s conse n t form is a v a i l a b l e upon r e q u e s t .
The o b j e c t i v e s , p r o c e d u r e s , and r i s k s o f t h i s s tu d y have been
e x p la in e d t h o r o u g h ly t o me.
I am r e q u e s tin g t h a t I p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s
s tu d y and I u n d e rsta n d th e commitment o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , b u t r e a l i z e I
may w ith d r a w from th e s tu d y a t any tim e w i t h o u t i l l w i l l , o r a f f e c t i n g
my u n i v e r s i t y s t a n d in g .
S u b j e c t 's S ig n a tu r e _____________________________Date________________________
P a r e n t 's S ig n a tu r e ^ ______
( i f under 18 y e a rs o f age)
Da t e
Wi tness
Date
APPENDIX 8
METHOD USED TO CALCULATE STANDARD LOAD PROGRESSIONS
FOR ESTIMATED MAXIMUM LOADS = 4. 00 KG.
AT TIME
WORK LOAD CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS
0.00
Base work load (B^) = 0. 25
1:00 to
4:00
Base work loads B^ through Bj. remain
the same.
5:00
,
6:00
•
Exercise work load
(Est. Max)* r
(E.)
(Est. Max)*
= 0.50
Exercise work load (£ 2) = work load f o r
E, plus 35% of A, where A = d i f f e r e n c e
between work loads f o r E, and E _ . * *
I
5
6:30
Exercise work load ( E , )
E2 plus 28% o f A . * *
5
= work load f o r
7:00
Exercise work load ( E . )
E- plus 22% of A . * *
= work load f o r
Exercise work load
- 1.00 kg.
= (Est. Max.)
5
7:30
8:00
8:30 and each
a d d it io n a l 30
seconds
(EL)
b
Exercise work load (E^) = E^ + 0.25 kg.
Add 0 .2 5 kg.
* A l l values rounded to nearest 1/4 kg w ith values ending in ex a c t ly
1 / 8 , 3 / 8 , 5 / 8 , or 7 / 8 kg rounded to the next higher 1/4 kg.
* * Cumulative rounding e r r o r s oc c a s i o n a l ly resu lted in a s i t u a t i o n in
which one of these work loads had to be a l t e r e d s u b j e c t i v e l y by ±
1/4 kg. A l t e r a t i o n s were based upon:
(A) smoothing progressions
w i t h i n corresponding load increments across estimated maximum loads,
and (B) smoothing the progression w i t h i n the given estimated maximum
load across ex e rc is e work loads across E, to Er .
I
5
39
APPENDIX C
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS
40
Subject
I .D .
800 Meter Performance
( in seconds)
Best Time
Other
•
VOg max
Determinations
ml/kg x min
1
II
III
Age
(yrs)
Weight
(kg)
Traini ng
Leve1*
01
24
85.7
1
516.2
-
58.4
02
23
81.6
1
557.3
-
58.4
03
18
66.6
1
507.3
-
04
19
79.0
1
667.6
05
25
66.2
1
06
22
81.5
07
25
08
6
VO2 max
C r i t e r i o n Va ria bl e
ml/kg x min 1/min
58.4
5.01
55.5
57.0
4.64
61.6
61.9
61.8
4.12
-
53.5
51 .7
52.6
4.15
607.7
-
65.4
63.4
64.2
4.25
1
550.7
-
55.7
58.5
57.1
4.65
65.0
3
1126.4
-
59.0
61.0
60.0
3-93
18
67.0
1
576.9
-
61.9
62.0
62.0
4.14
09
23
94.6
1
571.5
-
54.3
54.3
54.3
5.14
10
24
91.4
1
563.5
-
55.0
57.2
56.1
5.13
11
19
72.3
1
646.3
652.1
51.1
50.8
51.0
3.68
12
25
67.8
3
839.0
845.8
47.2
47.9
47.6
3.22
13
18
72.1
2
699.3
704.4
47.5
45.5
46 .5
3.38
14
18
62.2
3
807.1
822.0
48.5
50.1
49.3
3.07
15
19
^ 73.5
2
651.2
651.0
54.3
50.7
51.8
3.81
16
17
77.1
1
681.6
705.3
54.8
52.4
53.6
4.14
17
16
64.7
1
715.7
721.4
49.6
53. 6
54.4
3.52
18
17
63*0
1
717.7
745.5
44.5
49.2
49.2
3.10
18
17
61.3
1
725.1
756.4
54.0
52.6
53.3
3.26
20
24
78.4
3
806.3
-
47.4
44.8
46.1
3.62
63.8
50.4
55.1
bj
I .[
Age
(yrs)
800 Meter Performance
( in seconds)
Best Time
Other
VOg max
Determinations
ml/kg x m(n
721.1
-
43.2
46.3
I
11
TT
23
64.7
2
22
24
74.6
2
614.7
661.4
54.8
59.5
23
19
84.5
1
607.4
.612.7
53.5
24
19
87.3
1
793.7
800.0
25
15
66.9
1
598.1
26
16
60.9
2
27
25
81.3
28
25
29
VO2 max
C r i t e r i o n Va ria bl e
ml/kg x min 1/min
III
57.0
OO
Tr ai ni ng
Level*
-3°
Weight
(kg)
2.90
57.1
4.36
53.4
53.4
4.52
42.6
43.1
42.8
3.74
603-3
56.6
58.7
57.6
3.85
681.4
702.3
57.9
55.4
56.6
3.45
2
630.4
632.3
52.2
50,4
51.3
4.18
77.0
2
625.6
636.7
54.3
54.1
54.2
4.18
25
71.5
3
879.0
901.3
48.4
49.9
49.2
3.52
30
23
71.0
2
698.3
700.1
53.9
52.8
53.4
3.78
31
17
60.2
1
684.2
710.6
52.5
54.6
53.6
3.22
32
17
61 .2
1
63 2 . I
640.0
56.4
57.5
56.9
3.48
33
16
6 9 .O
1
637.5
641.5
52.9
53.2
53.0
3.66
34
22
70.7
2
672.9
-
55.4
55.4
3.92
35
22
74.4
2
623.8
625.8
53.8
53.6
53.6
3.99
36
15
70.4
1
586.4
595.9
55.7
57.4
56.6
3.98
37
.16
73.4
2
682.7
690.6
52.5
54.6
53.6
3.94
38
23
77.0
3
837.2
845.7
39.6
41.4
40.5
3.12
39
25
71.4
3
797.7
800.0
40.9
39.7
40.3
2.88
40
22
75.0
2
600.2
621.6
52.1
49.9
53.0
3.90
41
22
84.3
2
937.2
952.6
44.8
43.7
44.2
3-73
.
53.4
54.0
800 Meter Performance
( in seconds)
Best Time
Other
Age
(yrs)
Weight
(kg)
Training
Leve1*
42
25
66.8
2
749.3
-
48.3
43
15
48.7
1
622.0
622.3
67.1
60.0
44
23
71.4
3
955.3
1017.8
42.0
45
25
69.1
3
1177.3
1240.6
46
16
66.1
1
646.0
47
21
72.0
2
763.1
48
24
68.0
2
722.5
49
18
72.0
1
583.5
50
22
77.1
3
1064.1
* T ra in in g l e v e l :
vo2
VO2 max
Determinations
ml/kg x min
1
II
Ml.
Subject
I.D .
C r i t e r i o n Va ria bl e
ml/kg x min 1/min
48.3
3.22
60.4
2.94
43.5
42.8
3.05
38.2
39.1
38.6
2.67
660.2
53.8
55.3
54.6
3.61
-
50.7
50.7
3.65
50.0
3.40
64.6
4.64
48.2
3.71
51.0
49.0
583.8
64.2
64.8
-
48.2
1 = h ig h - t r a i n e d ; 2 = t ra in e d ; 3 = low-trained
60.8
'
APPENDIX D
PREDICTED VOg MAX CALCULATED FROM THE
REGRESSION EQUATION AND CONVERTED TO ML/KG X MIN
44
Performance
Time
(seconds)
Body W e i g h t
510
920
330
590
5^0
560
370
50R
Sop
6»o
610
620
690
600
650
660
670
600
690
700
710
720
730
790
750
760
770
700
790
000
0 |O
02O
030
000
050
060
070
000
090
900
910
920
930
9 00
950
960
970
900
99 0
JQOO
AS
40
67 9
67, 8
66 7
66 2
65, 0
65 S
60, 9
60, 0
69 0
63, 9
63, t
62, T
62, 2
68 0
61, 9
60 9
60, a
60, ,0
5 9 , ,9
3 9 , ,1
90, ,7
59, ,2
37, ,0
37, ,3
56, ,9
3 6 , ,9
56 ,,0
55, ,5
55, ,8
So,,7
59, ,2
33, ,9
33, J
92, ,9
5?, ,0
3 2 , ,0
51, ,5
3 1 , ,1
SO,,7
3 0 , ,2
99, ,9
<39,,5
A9,>9
q<3,,0
90,,0
q f , ,5
q7, ,1
46, ,7
96, ,2
95,,9
95,,3
65. g
63. 5
65. 1
60. 7
60. 3
63. 9
63. 4
63. 0
62. 6
62. 5
61. 9
61, a
60. 9
60. 9
60. 8
5°. 7
59. 3
50. 9
98. 9
50. 0
37, 6
97, 2
3 6 , ,8
3 6 . ,9
95, 9
5 5 , ,5
5 5 , ,1
9 4 . ,7
9 9,5
9 3 . ,9
9 3 . ,9
93, 0
52. 6
32. 2
51. 8
51. 0
5 0 . ,9
90. 9
SO. ,3
99. 7
94. 3
9 8, ,9
9 0 .,4
98. ,0
9 7. ,6
97, 2
46, ,0
46, ,0
45, ,9
95. ,9
09,3
SI
60
69
63
63
63
62
62
61
61
68
60
60
39
59
59
58
30
57
37
37
56
36
35
35
S3
90
90
S3
53
93
52
52
92
51
91
30
50
90
99
99
98
90
98
97
97
46
96
46
99
93
49
9
1
8
0
0
6
2
8
0
0
6
2
0
0
9
7
3
9
9
1
7
3
9
5
1
7
3
9
6
2
A
Q
V
6
2
8
4
0
6
2
9
5
8
7
3
9
9
8
7
3
9
Sq
57
60
63
6 3,3
6 2,9
62.3
62,2
61.9
61,0
61.8
60.7
6 0,3
6 0,0
59.6
39,2
5 8,0
9 0,5
58,8
97,7
9 7,4
9 7,6
96.6
96,2
9 3.9
99.9
35.1
5 o ,e
50.4
99,6
53.7
3 3,3
32.9
92,5
92,2
51,8
5 8.0
51.1
30.7
5 0,3
50,0
4 9.6
99,2
98,0
90.5
90.8
4 7.F
97,4
97,0
96,6
96.2
99,9
45,9
99.1
44,8
62 2
68, 8
61, 9
61, 8
6 0, 8
60, 0
60, 1
9 9, 7
59 a
3 9, 0
38 7
9 8, 3
50 0
3? 6
3 7, s
56 9
36 6
36, ,2
39,,0
35, ,5
55,,1
30,,8
34, ,0
3a,,8
93, ,7
S3, ,4
S3,,0
92, ,7
52, ,3
32, ,0
31, ,6
31, ,3
50, »9
90, ,6
SO,,2
94, ,9
09,,5
99, ,2
90,,0
48, ,9
98,,1
97,,0
97,,9
97, ,8
96,,7
96, ,0
96,,0
99,,7
99,,3
49, ,0
99, ,6
6 1,2
6 9,8
6 0.5
60.2
99,0
3o,g
9 9,2
98,0
5 8,9
98,2
97,9
9 7,9
97,2
96,0
36;3
56,2
55,0
99,9
99,2
59.8
94,3
50,2
53,0
53.3
5 3.2
52.0
9 2,9
92.2
91,0
98.3
91.2
50,0
50.3
50.2
49,0
49,3
99,2
48,0
96.9
9 0.2
97,0
97,3
97.2
46.0
46,9
96,2
95.0
99.9
4 9.2
99.9
4 4,9
6 9,2
39,9
59,6
99,3
99.0
38,7
5 8,3
58,0
97,7
57,0
97.1
96,0
36,0
56,8
99.8
95,3
95.2
34,0
3 0,9
30,2
33.9
3 3,6
93iS
5 2,9
52,6
3 2,3
92,0
9 1,7
31,0
9 1.0
90,7
90,0
90,1
49.8
49,9
9°, 1
48,0
90.9
4P,8
47.9
47,9
47.2
9 6,9
96,6
46,3
96,0
49.6
49,3
99.0
49,7
94.0
66
99
99
90
98
50
97
97
97
97
96
96
96
99
95
99
94
94
94
94
93
93
93
92
92
92
91
98
98
90
90
90
90
49
99
99
40
48
98
97
47
47
97
46
96
46
93
93
95
99
99
99
0
1
0
9
2
4
6
3
0
7
a
8
8
9
2
g
6
3
0
7
0
8
7
a
8
0
9
2
9
6
3
O
7
a
1
0
9
2
9
6
3
0
7
0
8
0
9
2
9
6
3
69
38.7
3 0,0
98.1
97.8
9 7.9
3 7,2
56.9
96.6
36,3
96,0
5 9,0
35,9
9 9.2
54,9
39,6
59,3
59.9
93.7
93.9
53,2
5 2.9
92.0
52,3
9 2,0
91.7
3 1,0
91 i 8
38,0
5 0,3
9 0,3
90,9
00,7
44,0
09.8
40,6
90.9
48.2
4 7.9
97.6
07,0
47.1
9 6.0
96,3
96,2
43,9
09,6
05,3
03.0
99.7
44.9
99.2
72
38
97
97
97
36
96
96
96
95
59
93
54
94
94
90
93
93
93
93
92
92
92
91
91
91
91
90
90
90
49
Q?
qg
99
98
98
40
98
47
97
97
46
96
46
96
49
99
99
99
99
94
49
0
7
9
8
g
6
3
Q
7
9
2
9.
6
0
1
0
9
2
0
7
0
1
g
6
3
8
7
9
2
g
6
0
1
0
9
8
0
7
0
1
9
6
3
0
7
9
2
g
6
a
1
(kilogram s)
79
70
08
97.3
37; 8
9 6,0
5 6,9
3 6,3
3 6.0
5 3.7
5 9.9
5 9.2
3 9,4
9 0,7
59,0
30,8
93,9
3 3,6
93*3
93.1
3 2,0
9 2.9
9 2,3
9 2,0
5 1.7
91,9
91,2
9 0,9
30.7
5 0.0
50.8
09,9
04.6
0 9.3
09,1
98,0
90,9
00,3
49,0
07,7
07,9
0 7,2
4 6,9
06.7
96,0.
96,8
49.9
95,6
09,3
99,8
99.8
9 4.9
49,3
94.9
56,7
9 6,3
96.2
96,0
9 3.7
9 9.9
95,2
s o ,g
90,7
90,0
9 0,2
93,9
93,7
53.0
33,1
92,9
3 2,6
92,0
52,1
91,9
3 1.6
91,0
91.1
5 0,8
9*3,6
9 0,3
90.1
4 9.0
09,6
09,3
0 9,0
08,8
08.9
48.3
0 8,9
47,8
9 7,9
97.2
9 7,0
96,7
9 6.9
4 6.2
46,0
45,7
43,3
9 9.2
99.9
49,7
94,4
9 9.2
4 3,9
56.2
99,9
93,7
53,9,
93*2
3 9,0
99,7
9 0.3
50,2
9 4,0
9 3,7
9 3,9
93,2
93,0
32,7
52,9
9 2.2
32,0
9 1,7
91,9
51.3
98,0
50.8
30;9
99,3
38,0
99.8
09.9
0 9,3
0 9,0
98,0
48,9
09,3
09,0
47,8
0 7.5
97,9
07,1
46,0
06,6
06,3
06,1
09,8
09,6
49,3
03,1
44.0
49,6
49.3
49,8
43,8
93
99
33
33
56
94
90
94
33
93
33
93
92
92
92
52
91
91
91
91
90
90
98
90
90
og
og
og
og
08
90
98
40
97
07
47
47
96
46
96
96
95
49
99
99
99
94
49
40
44
93
69
0?
7
4
2
0
7
9
3
0
8
9
3
8
0
6
3
8
9
9 5,2
9 9.9
90,0
34.3
3 0,3
30,1
9 3,8
9 3,6
53.0
93,1
5 2,9
52.7
52.9
92.2
9 2.0
3 1,0
3 8,3
9 1,3
91,1
30,0
9 0.6
3 8.0
30,2
09,9
qg.F
49,9
09,2
09.0
08,0
40.9
48,3
08.1
07,9
0 7.6
07,0
07.2
66,9
06,7
06.9
9 6,2
96,9
95,0
99.6
49.3
49,1
94.9
49,6
99,0
4 9,2
9 3,9
93.7
4
2
9
7
a
S
0
7
9
3
0
0
9
3
8
0
6
3
8
9
6
0
2
g
'7
4
2
0
7
9
3
0
8
90
90
90
94
94
93
93
93
53
53
92
32
92
92
91
91
si
91
91
SO
50
50
99
og
og
og
og
og
40
08
08
08
47
07
07
07
07
46
06
06
46
49
OS
95
95
49
44
04
49
qo
93
43
8
9
3
8
g
7
4
2
0
8
9
9
8
9
7
9
2
0
0
9
3
1
g
7
0
2
0
8
9
3
8
g
7
0
2
0
0
9
3
1
g
7
0
2
0
G
9
3
8
9
7
90
90
93
93
93
93
93
52
52
92
92
92
91
91
58
31
90
90
90
50
90
og
qg
qg
og
qg
48
00
40
00
97
@7
07
07
47
46
06
06
06
06
45
09
99
99
90
99
94
09
44
43
93
95
96
99
102
0
1
g
7
9
3
1
9
6
a
2
0
8
6
3
1
9
7
9
3
1
9
6
0
2
0
0
6
3
8
g
7
9
3
8
8
6
0
2
0
8
5
3
8
g
7
9
3
0
A
6
94.0
93,0
93.6
9 3,3
33,1
5 2 ,g
32,7
32,9
92,3
52.1
9 1 .g
91,7
91,9
91,3
91,1
90,0
90,6
30,0
5 0,2
9 0.0
49,0
09*6
09,0
09,2
09,0
00,0
00.6
00.3
00,1
07.9
07,7
07,9
47.3
07.1
06.9
06,7
06,5
06.3
06,1
45.0
49,6
95.0
4 9,2
49,0
44.0
44,6
99,0
44.2
4o.O
43.0
43,6
93.6
53.0
33.2
93.0
52,0
32,6
52,0
52.2
9 2,9
91.0
91.6
91,0
9 1,2
91.0
5 0,0
9 0.6
50,4
50.2
59.0
49.0
09,6
09,0
09,2
09.0
00,8
08,6
00,0
48,2
08,0
47,0
07,9
97,3
07.1
06,9
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169
100
118
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45 . 3
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43,
Y'- = 2.1494 + .042 (X. ) - .002 ( x J . . . where: Y ' is the predicted V0^ max
( 1 i t e r s / m i n ) ; X is the body weight (kg); X^ is the performance time (sec)
f o r the 800 meter swim.
vn
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