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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROCRASTINATION AND
STRESS IN THE LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER
by
LIESEL VAN WYK
Submitted Towards the Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree
MAGISTER COMMERCII
(HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT)
in the
FACULTY OF ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA
PRETORIA
2004
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank my study leader, Mr. G.J. Steyn, for his assistance and support in
the process of completing this study.
All the teachers who took the time to participate in this study.
Mrs. Silverthorne for assisting with editing and proofreading.
I wish to thank our newfound friends in America, as well as our family and friends
in South Africa for their continuous interest and support.
My loving parents, Willem and Cathy, and my only sister Gina, who provided the
encouragement and support to help me keep going.
My wonderful husband and gorgeous son for their love, care and moral support.
Without you life would be extremely boring. Josef, thank you!
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DECLARATION
I, Liesel van Wyk declare that “The Relationship between Procrastination and
Stress in High School Teachers” is my own work and that the views and opinions
expressed in this work are those of the author and relevant literature references
as shown in the bibliography.
I further declare that the content of this research will not be handed in for any
other qualification at any other tertiary institution.
LIESEL VAN WYK
OCTOBER 2004
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T ABLE
OF
C ONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS CONTEXT ..........................................1
1.1.
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................1
1.2.
PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................1
1.3.
AIM OF THE STUDY...............................................................................2
1.4.
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY .................................................................2
CHAPTER 2
PROCRASTINATION ...................................................................3
2.1.
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................3
2.2.
AN OVERVIEW: PROCRASTINATION..................................................3
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
Meaning of the word procrastination................................................8
Synonyms........................................................................................8
Dictionary definitions .......................................................................8
Academic and other definitions .......................................................9
2.3.
WHO IS THE PROCRASTINATOR?.....................................................10
2.4.
TYPES OF PROCRASTINATORS ........................................................10
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
2.4.4.
The sometimes-procrastinator .......................................................10
The chronic procrastinator.............................................................10
The tense-afraid type.....................................................................10
The relaxed type............................................................................11
2.5.
CONSEQUENCES OF PROCRASTINATION.......................................12
2.6.
THEORIES OF PROCRASTINATION...................................................12
2.6.1.
2.6.2.
2.6.3.
2.6.4.
Theory 1:
Theory 2:
Theory 3:
Theory 4:
Anxiety: Fear of failure, perfectionism, etc....................13
Self-handicapping.........................................................13
Rebelliousness .............................................................14
Discounted expectancy theory .....................................15
2.7.
PROCRASTINATION AND THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ....................18
2.8.
REASONS WHY PEOPLE PROCRASTINATE .....................................19
2.8.1.
2.8.2.
Resistance.....................................................................................19
Boredom........................................................................................19
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2.8.3.
2.8.4.
2.8.5.
2.8.6.
2.8.7.
2.8.8.
2.8.9.
2.8.10.
2.8.11.
2.8.12.
2.8.13.
2.8.14.
2.8.15.
2.8.16.
2.8.17.
2.8.18.
2.8.19.
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Fear of failure ................................................................................20
Perfectionism.................................................................................21
Indecisiveness ...............................................................................21
Last-minute syndrome ...................................................................21
Lack of motivation for a task..........................................................21
Fear of success .............................................................................22
Skill deficit (I don't know how)........................................................22
Rebellion and resistance ...............................................................23
Feelings of inadequacy..................................................................23
Disorganisation..............................................................................23
Confusion ......................................................................................23
Shame ...........................................................................................24
Discomfort .....................................................................................24
Pride ..............................................................................................24
Hostility..........................................................................................24
Habit ..............................................................................................24
"Deadline high" ..............................................................................24
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROCRASTINATION ...................................24
2.9.1.
2.9.2.
2.9.3.
Vicious cycles ................................................................................25
Unrealistic sense of time ...............................................................25
Dependence on inspiration............................................................25
2.10. CYCLE OF PROCRASTINATION .........................................................25
2.10.1.
2.10.2.
2.10.3.
2.10.4.
2.10.5.
2.10.6.
2.10.7.
2.10.8.
“I'll start early this time”..................................................................26
“I've got to start soon” ....................................................................26
“What if I don't start?” ....................................................................26
"There's still time” ..........................................................................28
"There's something wrong with me”...............................................28
The final choice: To do or not to do ..............................................28
“Just get it done!”...........................................................................30
“I'll never procrastinate again!” ......................................................30
2.11. THE PROCRASTINATOR AND STRESS .............................................30
2.11.1.
2.11.2.
2.11.3.
2.11.4.
Waiting until the last minute...........................................................31
Avoidance of tasks or activities .....................................................31
Relationships with other people.....................................................32
Stress from other sources of life ....................................................32
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2.12. WAYS TO OVERCOME PROCRASTINATION.....................................33
2.12.1.
2.12.2.
2.12.3.
2.12.4.
2.12.5.
2.12.6.
Set priorities ..................................................................................33
Recognise self-defeating motives..................................................33
Modify goal of perfection ...............................................................33
Discipline yourself..........................................................................33
Be a positive role model ................................................................33
Change old habits step by step .....................................................33
2.13. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................34
CHAPTER 3
TEACHERS AND STRESS ........................................................35
3.1.
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................35
3.2.
WHAT IS STRESS? ..............................................................................36
3.3.
THE TWO DIMENSIONS OF STRESS .................................................37
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.4.
The experiential aspect .................................................................37
The physiological aspect ...............................................................37
THREE STAGES OF STRESS..............................................................37
3.4.1.
3.4.2.
3.4.3.
The alarm stage.............................................................................38
The resistance stage .....................................................................38
The exhaustion stage ....................................................................39
3.5.
WHAT IS WORK-RELATED STRESS? ................................................39
3.6.
TEACHER STRESS STATISTICS ........................................................40
3.7.
DEFINITIONS OF TEACHER STRESS ................................................43
3.7.1.
3.8.
TEACHER STRESS MODELS ..............................................................43
3.8.1.
3.8.2.
3.8.3.
3.9.
Teacher stress defined ..................................................................43
The engineering model..................................................................44
The medical model ........................................................................44
The interactive model ....................................................................44
TEACHER BURNOUT...........................................................................45
3.9.1.
3.9.2.
Teacher burnout defined ...............................................................45
What causes teachers to burnout? ................................................46
3.10. TEACHERS' RESPONSE TO STRESS ................................................46
3.10.1. Psychological responses to teacher stress....................................47
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3.10.2. Behavioural responses to stress....................................................47
3.10.3. Withdrawal from teaching as a response to stress ........................47
3.11. CAUSES OF TEACHER STRESS ........................................................48
3.11.1.
3.11.2.
3.11.3.
3.11.4.
Factors intrinsic to teaching ...........................................................49
Cognitive vulnerability to stress .....................................................49
Systemic factors ............................................................................50
Other factors..................................................................................50
3.12. THE EFFECTS OF TEACHER STRESS...............................................54
3.13. COPING WITH TEACHER STRESS.....................................................55
3.13.1.
3.13.2.
3.13.3.
3.13.4.
Direct action techniques ................................................................56
Palliative techniques......................................................................56
The school’s role in the reduction of teacher stress.......................57
The effectiveness of teacher stress workshops .............................57
3.14. STRATEGIES TO COMBAT TEACHER STRESS ................................58
3.15. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................59
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................60
4.1.
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................60
4.2.
RESEARCH STRATEGY ......................................................................60
4.3.
QUESTIONNAIRES ..............................................................................60
4.4.
RESEARCH POPULATION...................................................................63
4.5.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ..................................................63
4.5.1.
4.5.2.
4.6.
STATISTICAL METHODS .....................................................................63
4.6.1.
4.6.2.
4.6.3.
4.7.
Distribution and collection of questionnaires .................................63
Data collection and analysis ..........................................................63
Introduction....................................................................................63
Descriptive statistics ......................................................................64
Correlation .....................................................................................64
SUMMARY ............................................................................................65
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH RESULTS AND FINDINGS ...................................66
5.1.
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................66
5.2.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ............................................66
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FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS ...........................................................67
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
5.3.3.
Analysis of population....................................................................68
Analysis of WLQ and TPS (high, moderate and low).....................71
Histograms ....................................................................................72
5.4.
CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY ..........................................74
5.5.
CORRELATION.....................................................................................74
5.5.1.
5.5.2.
5.5.3.
5.6.
Overall comparison of procrastination levels with associated
stress levels...................................................................................75
Overall comparison of high, medium and low procrastination
levels with associated stress levels ...............................................76
Pearson correlation .......................................................................78
SUMMARY ............................................................................................81
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..........................83
6.1.
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................83
6.2.
REVIEW OF THE STUDY .....................................................................83
6.3.
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................83
6.4.
RECOMMENDATIONS .........................................................................85
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................87
ANNEXURE A:
QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER.....................................92
ANNEXURE B:
BIOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE..........................................94
ANNEXURE C:
THE EXPERIENCE OF WORK AND LIFE
CIRCUMSTANCES QUESTIONNAIRE (WLQ) ....................95
ANNEXURE D:
THE 16-ITEM AND 35-ITEM TPS ..........................................97
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L IST
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F IGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1:
An example of the discounted utility theory ...................................17
Figure 5.1:
Respondent’s age..........................................................................68
Figure 5.2:
Marital status .................................................................................68
Figure 5.3:
Highest tertiary qualification ..........................................................69
Figure 5.4:
Gender ..........................................................................................70
Figure 5.5:
Years of teaching experience ........................................................70
Figure 5.6:
Number of children ........................................................................71
Figure 5.7:
WLQ stress levels – high, moderate, low ......................................71
Figure 5.8:
16 TPS – high, moderate, low .......................................................72
Figure 5.9:
Stress distribution ..........................................................................73
Figure 5.10: Procrastination distribution ............................................................73
Figure 5.11: Bar graphs of correlation between WLQ and 16 TPS....................75
Figure 5.12: Graphical comparison of high levels (n=21) of procrastination
and stress......................................................................................76
Figure 5.13: Graphical comparison of moderate levels (n=18) of
procrastination and stress .............................................................77
Figure 5.14: Graphical comparison of low levels (n=31) of procrastination
and stress......................................................................................77
Figure 5.15: Overall Correlation between TPS & WLQ......................................78
Figure 5.16: Correlation between TPS & WLQ: High........................................79
Figure 5.17: Correlation between TPS & WLQ: Moderate................................80
Figure 5.18: Correlation between TPS & WLQ: Low ........................................81
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L IST
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T ABLES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: The psychological, physical and work related effects of teacher
stress ...............................................................................................55
Table 5.1: Summary descriptive statistical analysis – general information........67
Table 5.2: Central tendency and variability .......................................................74
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S AMEVATTING
SAMEVATTING
DIE VERHOUDING TUSSEN SLOERING EN STRES BY ONDERWYSERS
deur
LIESEL VAN WYK
LEIER
DEPARTEMENT
GRAAD
:
:
:
G.J. STEYN
MENSLIKE HULPBRONBESTUUR
M COM MENSLIKE HULPBRONDBESTUUR
Die doel van die studie was om te bepaal of daar ‘n verband is tussen sloering en
stres by hoërskool onderwysers. Navorsing bewys dat onderwys een van die
mees stresvolste beroepe is. Die navorser het besluit om ondersoek in te stel
ten opsigte van die redes vir sloering en stres en of daar ‘n verband tussen die
twee is.
Sloering was bespreek ten opsigte van die geskiedenis, definisies, verskillende
teorieë en ‘n tipiese siklus waardeur individue gebeig tot sloering beweeg. Die
redes hoekom mense geneig is om te sloer is ook bespreek.
Stres en werkstres is bespreek en dan meer spesifiek is daar gekyk na die
onderwyser se werksomgewing en stressors.
Die navorsingsgroep het bestaan uit 70 onderwysers, waarvan 61 (87 %) vroulik
was en 9 (13 %) manlik. Die oorgrote meerderheid van die groep was tussen die
ouderdom 21 – 29 jaar (43 %).
Tuckman se “procrastination scale” (TPS) is gebruik om die onderwysers se
geneigdheid om te sloer te meet en “The Experience of Work and Life
Circumstances Questionnaire” (WLQ), Van der Walt, H.S. & van Zyl, E.S. (1991)
(WLQ) is gebruik om die stresvlakke van die onderwysers te bepaal.
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S AMEVATTING
Die stelling dat verhoogde vlakke van sloering sal lei tot vehoogde stresvlakke
was ondersoek en het duidelik getoon dat daar wel ‘n verband tussen die twee
veranderlikes bestaan. Te verwagte was die verhouding meer beduidend vir hoë
vlakke van stres en sloering en swak vir lae vlakke.
Dit het gelei tot die konklusie dat stres ervaar deur individue met lae tot
gemiddelde geneigdheid om te sloer nie absoluut hierdeur beïnvloed is nie. Dit
blyk wel redelik te wees om te verwag dat stresvlakke wel sal verhoog indien die
geneigdheid om te sloer ook toeneem. Dit is wel belangrik om in gedagte te hou
dat korrelasie nie noodwendig oorsaak spel nie. Die twee veranderlikes mag wel
‘n verwantskap toon, maar dit beteken nie dat een veranderlike die ander sal
veroorsaak nie; dit is bloot ‘n aanduiding daarvan.
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S UMMARY
SUMMARY
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROCRASTINATION AND STRESS IN
TEACHERS
by
LIESEL VAN WYK
PROMOTOR
DEPARTMENT
DEGREE
:
:
:
G.J. STEYN
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
M COM HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a relationship between
procrastination and stress in a group of high school teachers. Research shows
that teaching is one of the most stressful jobs.
The researcher decided to
examine whether procrastination could be blamed for the stress teachers
experience.
Procrastination was discussed with regard to its history, how it is defined, various
theories of procrastination, a typical cycle that procrastinators follow and also the
reasons why people tend to procrastinate.
Stress and most importantly work-related stress and the teaching environment
was investigated.
The research group consisted of 70 teachers, 61 (87 %) female and 9 (13 %)
male. The majority of the group was in the age group 21 – 29 years (43 %).
Tuckman’s procrastination scale was administered to determine the teachers’
tendency to procrastinate and “The Experience of Work and Life Circumstances
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Questionnaire” (WLQ), Van der Walt, H.S. & van Zyl, E.S. (1991) was used to
determine teachers’ stress levels.
The notion that increased levels of procrastination would result in increased
levels of stress was assessed and clearly indicated that some measure of
correlation between procrastination and stress does exist. Not surprisingly, the
correlation tended to be higher for respondents with a high tendency to
procrastinate and conversely proved to be weak for respondents with a low
tendency to procrastinate.
This led to the conclusion that stress experienced by respondents with low to
moderate levels of procrastination was not necessarily entirely related to their
tendency to procrastinate. However, it seems reasonable to expect the stress
experienced by respondents to increase to some degree if their tendency to
procrastinate increased.
An important fact to remember, however, is that
correlation does not necessarily mean causation. Two variables may be related
to each other, but this does not mean that one variable causes the other; they are
merely indicative of each other.
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T HE P ROBLEM
AND ITS
C ONTEXT
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS CONTEXT
"Much of the stress that people feel doesn't come from having too much to do. It comes from not
starting what needs to be done and then finishing what they started."
- David Allen -
1.1.
INTRODUCTION
Due to various reasons, including socio-economic reform, significant changes in
the educational system, policy changes as well as government pressure and
regulation, teaching has become an extremely stressful profession in recent
years. Lately, the notion of teachers experiencing undue stress has received
deserved attention. This is partly due to the fact that it is no longer seen as a
weakness for teachers to admit to the stress they are experiencing.
1.2.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
This has led to the question what can be done to relieve stress or, how can one
identify factors that contribute to or influence stress levels? These factors could
then be proactively managed to reduce stress significantly, thereby having a
direct effect on the quality of life experienced by teachers, which in turn would
filter down to improve the teaching situation and ultimately the quality of
education provided to our children.
A tremendous amount of research has been conducted regarding students’
procrastination behaviour, but very little on that of teachers.
As research
indicates, teaching has become one of the most stressful occupations.
One
cannot help but ask whether any of the stress teachers experience is self-inflicted
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through an inherent tendency to procrastinate. On the other hand the question
remains whether people procrastinate because they are stressed or whether
people stress because they procrastinate. At the end of the day, teaching is not
only about educating students in academic subjects but also about educating
them in lessons of life. The positive behaviour a teacher displays during the
developmental years in students’ lives will most definitely have a profound impact
on the students’ ultimate development.
1.3.
AIM OF THE STUDY
The aim of the study was to gain a thorough understanding of procrastination and
stress and to determine if there is a relationship between procrastination and
stress in high school teachers. If a significant relationship does exist, it may
enable us to predict and manage the one by measuring and managing the other.
1.4.
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
The first chapter states the nature of the problem and establishes the need for
the research.
Chapter Two explains what procrastination is by defining it, discussing various
reasons why people procrastinate, the different procrastination theories and also
the procrastination cycle.
Chapter Three refers to stress and more particularly work stress and the teaching
environment.
Chapter Four explains the research methodology used in the study.
In Chapter Five the research results and findings are analysed and discussed.
Chapter Six focuses on the conclusion and recommendations.
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CHAPTER 2
P R O C R A S T I N AT I O N
"Know the true value of time; snatch, seize, and enjoy every moment of
it. No idleness; no laziness; no procrastination; never put off till
tomorrow what you can do today."
- Lord Chesterfield -
2.1.
INTRODUCTION
In the musical Annie, the young heroine sings that she loves tomorrow because it
"is only a day away." To Annie, tomorrow is a metaphor for her future - and she
hopes that it will be brighter and better than today's dismal circumstances. In this
sense, tomorrow is a kind of friend to troubled persons and those in adverse
circumstances.
However, tomorrow becomes a kind of enemy - perhaps
disguised as a friend - to those who procrastinate on a regular basis.
Unfortunately, procrastination can become a disturbing personality trait that
interferes with an individual’s relationships. Sooner than later tasks and projects
are finished badly or not completed on schedule, goals are not attained and
eventually dreams start to vanish. This kind of procrastination can be referred to
as chronic procrastination or 'the tomorrow syndrome'.
(http://www.clarocet.com/encyclopedia/pr-intro.htm).
2.2.
AN OVERVIEW: PROCRASTINATION
A study conducted by Steel (n.d.) revealed the following important information
regarding procrastination:
ƒ
The history of procrastination.
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ƒ
Meaning of the word “procrastination” (2.1.1)
ƒ
Synonyms (2.1.2)
ƒ
Dictionary definitions (2.1.3)
The History of Procrastination as written by Peter Steel, University of Calgary
(http://www.ucalgary.ca/~steel/procrastinus/meta/meta.html) is quoted below.
HISTORY OF PROCRASTINATION
When I first started researching this topic I tried to track down a book by
Ringenbach (1971):
“Procrastination through the Ages: A Definitive History,
cited several times by Knaus (1979; 2000). This search is not recommended.
After spending weeks on this endeavour, enlisting the help of professional
librarians, I finally found a very relevant section in the appendix of an old PhD
thesis by Margaret Aitken (1982). Her correspondence with Paul Ringenbach
and the publisher reveals that the work was never actually written. It was
actually an elaborate joke (i.e. a book on procrastination that was never
completed).
See also Kaplan (1998) for another well-conducted academic
article/prank.
However, there have been some legitimate investigations into when and
whether people procrastinate.
Here are two schools of thought: the first
indicates that procrastination is a relatively recent phenomenon; the second,
based on my own research, indicates that procrastination has existed
throughout time but has increased in recent years.
Procrastination: Recent Phenomenon
Noach Milgram (1992) wrote the first historical analysis on this topic,
“Procrastination: A Malady of Modern Time”. There he argues that technically
advanced societies require numerous commitments, deadlines, and scheduling,
and it is from this nasty brew that our vice arises. Consequently, undeveloped
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agrarian societies are not beset by the woes of procrastination.
Ferrari,
Johnson, and McCown (1995), in their book, take a similar though somewhat
softened stand.
They contend that procrastination has existed throughout
history but that it only acquired truly negative connotations with the advent of the
Industrial Revolution, that is, circa 1750.
Before then, procrastination was
viewed neutrally and could be interpreted as a wise course of (in)action.
Accordingly, they find examples from ancient Egyptian and Roman civilisations
where the authors use the concept of postponement or putting off as being
useful or wise (DeSimone, 1993 as cited in Ferrari et al., 1995).
These
examples include avoiding unnecessary work or demonstrating patience. Also,
they note that procrastination, according to the OED (1952), did not have
negative connotations until the mid-18th century. Consequently, they conclude,
“that as economies become large and more complex…words related to the
concept of task avoidance become more negatively imbued with meaning” (p.
5).
Procrastination: Perpetual & Pervasive
On balance, there is some truth to procrastination being a modern malady. Selfreports of procrastination appear to be on the rise. My own research indicates
that in 1978, when we first started measuring procrastination, about 15% of the
population said they procrastinate somewhat and about 1% indicated they often
procrastinate. In 2002, about 60% of the population said they procrastinate
somewhat and about 6% indicated they often procrastinate.
Despite this
increase, historical references indicate that our views about procrastination have
been reasonably constant over the ages: it’s a prevalent problem.
Starting with the Industrial Revolution, Samuel Johnson (1751) writes about
procrastination indicating that it is already a well ingrained habit, not a recent
fad. Specifically, “it is one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the
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instruction of moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or
less degree in every mind.”
Similarly, a contemporary of Johnson, Phillip
Stanhope (1749), the Earl of Chesterfield, stated, “no idleness, no laziness, no
procrastination; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.”
Clearly preceding the Industrial Revolution was a sermon written by a Reverend
Walker in the 17th century. There he makes it quite clear that procrastination is
extremely sinful, that he and other ministers have repeatedly railed against it to
their congregations, and that there are other texts available that speak similarly.
This sermon can be further predated by John Lyly, an English novelist
patronised by Queen Elizabeth I. Lyly made himself famous through a 1579
work “Eupheus”, a book that relies heavily on proverbs for content. In it he
writes, “Nothing so perilous as procrastination” (1579/1995).
Earlier research into the nature of procrastination is obtainable through the
Perseus Project, an extensive electronic collection of classical texts. Searching
this database, there are several illuminating references. Focusing on the more
notable sources, we find in 44 B.C. Marcus Cicero spoke upon this subject.
Cicero was the consul of Rome, its highest political office, and an infamous
orator who spoke against several political opponents such as Catiline, whom
Cicero had killed, and Mark Antony, who had Cicero killed.
In a series of
speeches denouncing Mark Antony, he states, “In the conduct of almost every
affair slowness and procrastination are hateful” (Philippics, 6.7). Roughly 400
years earlier were the musings of Thucydides, an Athenian general, who wrote
extensively on the war with the Spartans, including various aspects of
personalities and strategies.
He mentions that procrastination is the most
criticised of character traits, useful only in delaying the commencement of war,
so as to allow preparations that speed its conclusion (Histories, 1.84.1). Finally,
there is Hesiod who wrote in about 800 BC. Hesiod is one of the first recorded
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poets of Greek literature, and thus provides one of the first citations possible.
His words are worth repeating in full (Works and Days, l. 413): “Do not put your
work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his
barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man
who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin.”
As an additional Eastern reference, there is the Bhagavad Gita.
Written
approximately 500 BC, it is considered to be the most widely read and influential
spiritual text of Hinduism.
In it, Krishna maintains: “Undisciplined, vulgar,
stubborn, wicked, malicious, lazy, depressed, and procrastinating; such an
agent is called a Taamasika agent” (18.28). Of special note, Taamasika people
are considered so lowly that mortal rebirth is denied to them. Rather, they go to
hell.
Conclusion
It is apparent that procrastination has been with us for an extremely long time.
Given that it has manifested itself under a myriad of conditions and cultures, it
most likely represents an intimate part of our human nature. It seems capable
of finding expression equally within either the steel and glass buildings of
modern New York or the stone and wood structures of ancient Thebes. To be
fair to the recent theories of procrastination by Milgram’s (1992) and Ferrari et
al.’s (1995), the frequency if not the severity of procrastination has probably
grown. Essentially, if there are now more tasks to do and the deadlines for their
completion are more deeply etched, then the opportunity for and saliency of
procrastination has necessarily increased. However, in seeking to understand
this ubiquitous iniquity better, we should not believe it is peculiar to our modern
society. Consequently, our explanations should focus on some fundamental
and constant aspects of ourselves, as they must be relevant not only for
antiquity, but also for the life of today.
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2.2.1.
Meaning of the word procrastination
Procrastination comes from the Latin “pro,” meaning “forward, forth, or in favour
of,” and “crastinus,” meaning “of tomorrow”.
2.2.2.
Synonyms
ƒ
Cunctation - putting off or delaying or deferring an action to a later time.
ƒ
Shillyshally - postpone doing what one should be doing.
ƒ
Dilatoriness - slowness as a consequence of not getting around to it.
2.2.3.
ƒ
Dictionary definitions
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition
To put off doing something, especially out of habitual carelessness or
laziness; to postpone or delay needlessly.
ƒ
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)
The act or habit of procrastinating, or putting off to a future time; delay;
dilatoriness.
ƒ
Cambridge International Dictionary of English
To keep delaying something that must be done, often because it is
unpleasant or boring.
ƒ
WordNet (r) 1.7
Slowness as a consequence of not getting around to it.
ƒ
Encarta World Dictionary
To postpone doing something, especially as a regular practice.
ƒ
Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary
To put off intentionally the doing of something that should be done.
ƒ
OED, Second Edition (1996)
Defer action, especially without good reason; be dilatory.
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2.2.4.
Academic and other definitions
According to Boice (1996:xix), procrastination consists largely of opting for shortterm relief through acts that are easy and immediately rewarding, while generally
avoiding even the thought (and its anxiety) of doing more difficult, delayable,
important things.
The American College Dictionary as cited in Burka & Yuen (1988:5) defines
procrastination as: "to defer action, delay; to put off till another day or time."
Thus, whenever you put something off you are procrastinating, regardless of the
reason for your delay.
postponing.
Strictly speaking, procrastination is the behaviour of
What distinguishes comfortable procrastination from problem
procrastination is how troublesome your delaying is to you.
Procrastination has also been defined as "letting the low-priority tasks get in the
way of high priority ones," (http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/procrast.html).
Finally, the author regards the following definition to be the most appropriate for
this study.
Lowman (1993:53) defines procrastination as “a persistent and/or cyclical pattern
in which an individual who is otherwise capable of doing the job repetitively
avoids timely initiation and/or completion of work assignments or activities that
must be initiated or completed by a particular deadline, real or perceived”. Often,
the individual waits until the last minute and then races to complete the various
tasks quickly. By procrastinating, the individual may, for example, preserve the
illusion of greater talent than has yet been manifested, may indulge in a thrillseeking race to get assignments turned in just under the wire, or may passiveaggressively avoid timely or agreeable compliance with the requirements of
those in authority.
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2.3.
WHO IS THE PROCRASTINATOR?
A procrastinator is someone who knows what he/she wants to do, is equipped to
perform the task, is trying and planning to perform the task, but does not
complete the task, or excessively delays performing the task.
Normally, the
procrastinator will work on less important obligations, rather than fulfilling the
more important obligation, or he/she may use his or her time wastefully in some
minor activity or pleasure. In most cases, procrastinators keep themselves ready
to work, but end up avoiding the activity. (Yaakub, 2000).
2.4.
TYPES OF PROCRASTINATORS
Yaakub (2000) classifies procrastinators as sometimes-procrastinators or chronic
procrastinators.
2.4.1.
The sometimes-procrastinator
Research shows that 20 percent of us think of ourselves as a procrastinator from
time to time.
2.4.2.
The chronic procrastinator
The individual that procrastinates in all areas of his life. Procrastination is a
lifestyle and cuts across all domains of that person's life. For example, it can go
from not paying bills on time to shopping for Christmas gifts on December 24, to
putting off work projects.
According to (http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4r.htm) procrastinators
can also be classified as tense-afraid or relaxed type procrastinators.
2.4.3.
The tense-afraid type
The tense-afraid type often feels both an intense pressure to succeed and a fear
of failure. The tense-afraid type of procrastinator is described by Fiore (1989) as:
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ƒ
Feeling overwhelmed by pressures.
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Being unrealistic about time.
ƒ
Being uncertain about goals.
ƒ
Dissatisfied with accomplishments.
ƒ
Indecisive.
ƒ
Blaming others or circumstances for his/her failures.
ƒ
Lacking in confidence.
ƒ
A perfectionist.
Thus, the underlying fears are of failing, lacking ability, being imperfect, and
falling short of overly demanding goals.
This type thinks his/her worth is
determined by what he/she does, which reflects his/her level of ability.
Therefore, this kind of procrastinator will get over-stressed and over-worked until
they escape the pressure temporarily by trying to relax.
Unfortunately, any
enjoyment gives rise to guilt and more apprehension.
2.4.4.
The relaxed type
This denial-based type of procrastinator avoids as much stress as possible by
dismissing
his/her
work
or
disregarding
more
challenging
tasks
and
concentrating on "having fun" or some other distracting activity. If their defence
mechanisms work effectively, they actually have what seems like "a happy life" for the moment. This personality seems, at first, to be less complicated, but
careful observation of their thoughts and emotions suggests differently.
As
suggested by Maslow, these procrastinators may be addicted to people or
preoccupied with meeting their more basic emotional needs, for example, for
attention and approval by peers, love, or self-esteem.
In addition to emotional needs, the relaxed procrastinator's thoughts may push
him/her away from his work or studies. For instance, his/her basic belief system
may centre around thinking that "my long-range goals require too much hard and
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unpleasant work”. To such a person the gain is not worth the pain, especially
since the necessary work is seen by them as so distasteful or boring or stupid
that they just can't do it. A quick-starter, on the other hand, knows he/she can
handle the drudgery. This relaxed procrastinator gets to the point of saying very
irrational things to him/herself, such as: "I have to have something going on”, “I
can't stand being bored" or "I must feel like studying before I can get started".
They end up procrastinating by finding something fun to do and then rationalise
their behaviour.
2.5.
CONSEQUENCES OF PROCRASTINATION
According to Monchec and Munchik (1988) the hallmark of procrastination is that
it has significant concrete and emotional consequences.
Concrete consequences:
ƒ
Missed deadlines.
ƒ
Lost opportunities.
ƒ
Lost income.
ƒ
Lower productivity.
ƒ
Waste of time.
ƒ
Lost of standing among associates.
Emotional consequences:
ƒ
Lower morale.
ƒ
Heightened stress.
ƒ
Frustration and anger.
ƒ
Lower motivation.
2.6.
THEORIES OF PROCRASTINATION
Steel (n.d.) reviews four of the most popular theories of procrastination by
considering the evidence for and against them. The empirical evidence comes
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from a recent met-analysis, which is a systematic review of all the literature
written on the topic of procrastination. The theory with the most support is the
Discounted Utility Theory and is presented last.
(http://www.ucalgary.ca/~steel/procrastinus/theory/theory.html).
2.6.1.
Theory 1: Anxiety: Fear of failure, perfectionism, etc.
There is a host of anxiety related reasons that are thought to cause
procrastination.
Essentially, people are thought to procrastinate on tasks
because they are aversive or stressful.
Consequently, those who are more
susceptible to experiencing stress should procrastinate more. There is a variety
of conditions that make people anxious, especially irrational beliefs. Irrational
belief, cognition, or thought is a broad term that includes several dysfunctional or
anxiety-provoking world views. Some examples of irrational beliefs are fear of
failure and perfectionism. (See 2.6.3 and 2.6.4).
Evaluation of this theory
Evaluation of this theory indicates that it is not supported:
ƒ
It explains why we might avoid tasks entirely, but not why we delay them.
The fact is that more anxiety is typically experienced closer to the deadline,
therefore procrastination appears to be a way of increasing anxiety, not
reducing it.
ƒ
Empirical evidence indicates a weak or even no relationship between anxiety
or irrational beliefs and procrastination.
For example, self-perfectionists
actually report slightly less procrastination than other people.
2.6.2.
Theory 2: Self-handicapping
There is some dispute over whether self-handicapping should be considered a
form of procrastination. Self-handicapping is when people place obstacles that
hinder their own good performance. The motivation for self-handicapping is often
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to protect self-esteem by giving people an external reason, an “out,” if they fail to
do well.
Evaluation of this theory
Evaluation of this theory indicates that it is not supported:
ƒ
Self-handicapping is not necessarily a form of procrastination, which is to
voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worseoff for the delay. Self-handicappers appear to be acting in their own selfinterest, thinking they are protecting themselves from shame and humiliation.
ƒ
Self-handicapping is still an important issue and can share some
commonalities with procrastination (i.e. delaying a task can be a way to selfhandicap). However, the two will differ regarding causes and treatments and
so it is best to study them separately.
2.6.3.
Theory 3: Rebelliousness
According to the clinical literature, rebelliousness, hostility, and disagreeableness
are thought to be major motivations for procrastination. For those with these
personality traits, externally imposed schedules are more likely experienced as
aversive, and thus avoided.
Evaluation of this theory
Evaluation of this theory indicates that it is not supported:
ƒ
Similar to anxiety it explains why we might avoid tasks entirely, but not why
we delay them. In fact, more autonomy might be expressed by not doing a
task at all instead of just delaying it.
By doing it at the last minute,
procrastination may appear to be capitulation, “caving in,” rather than
autonomy.
ƒ
Empirical evidence indicates an extremely weak relationship, virtually nil,
between rebelliousness and procrastination.
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2.6.4.
Theory 4: Discounted expectancy theory
This theory represents the very cutting edge of motivational research.
It
suggests that the reasons why people make any decision can be largely
represented by the following equation:
Utility indicates preference for a course of action. Naturally, the higher the utility,
the greater the preference. On the top of the equation, the numerator, we have
two variables: Expectancy (E) and Value (V). Expectancy refers to the odds or
chance of an outcome occurring while Value refers to how rewarding that
outcome is. Naturally, we would like to choose pursuits that give us a good
chance of having a pleasing outcome.
On the bottom of the equation, the
denominator, we also have two variables. Γ refers to the subject’s sensitivity to
delay. The larger Γ is, the greater is the sensitivity. Finally, D represents Delay,
which indicates how long, on average, one must wait to receive the payout.
Since delay is in the denominator of the equation, the longer the delay, the less
valued the course of action is perceived to be.
This theory relates to procrastination in the following way. Essentially, we are
constantly beset with making decisions among various courses of action. Should
we go to the gym or watch TV? Should I make dinner or order-in? Discounted
Utility Theory suggests, unsurprisingly, that we are more likely to pursue goals or
tasks that are pleasurable and that we are likely to attain. Consequently, we are
more likely to put off, to procrastinate, difficult tasks with lacklustre qualities.
Even more important regarding procrastination are the effects of delay. We like
our rewards not only to be large but also to be immediate. Consequently, we will
most likely procrastinate any tasks that are unpleasant in the present and offer a
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reward only in the distant future. In other words, we are more likely to put off
higher priority tasks if there are options available that lead to more immediate
rewards with more remote costs. We tend to call such options temptations.
An Example
The following ideal example helps to illustrate these characteristics the college
student’s essay paper.
A college student has been assigned an essay on
September 15th, the start of a semester, it is due on December 15th, the course
end. This student likes to socialise but he also likes to get good grades. The
figure below maps the changes in expected utility for him over the course of the
semester regarding his two choices, studying vs. socialising. Since the reward
for socialising is always in the present, it maintains a uniformly high utility
evaluation. The reward for writing is temporally distant initially, diminishing its
utility. Only towards the deadline do the effects of discounting decrease and
writing becomes increasingly likely. In this example, the switch in motivational
rank occurs on December 3rd, leaving just 12 days for concentrated effort.
During this final hour, it is quite likely that earnest but empty promises (i.e.
intentions) are made to start working earlier next time.
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Figure 2.1:
An example of the discounted utility theory
Evaluation of this theory
There is exceedingly strong evidence that indicates why we procrastinate:
ƒ
Procrastination is strongly associated with expectancy.
Specifically, those
people with low self-efficacy, that is feelings of competence, are more likely to
procrastinate.
ƒ
Procrastination is strongly associated with the value of the tasks. The more
unpleasant people report a task to be the more likely they are to put it off.
Those people low in need for achievement, that is how much pleasure they
get from achieving, are more likely to procrastinate.
ƒ
Procrastination is strongly associated with sensitivity to delay (i.e. Γ).
Specifically, people who are more distractible, impulsive, and have less selfcontrol tend to procrastinate more.
ƒ
Procrastination is strongly associated with time delay. The closer we are to
realising a goal, the harder we work at it.
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ƒ
Discounted Utility Theory predicts an intention-action gap, where we intend to
work but fail to act on these intentions. As expected procrastinators tend not
to act on their intentions.
ƒ
Observed behaviour matches what is predicted by Discounted Utility Theory.
The Discounted Utility Theory suggests that many of the previous theories were
right, but only in part. They deal with one piece of the puzzle, task aversiveness,
and only for the small percentage of people that suffer from the specific
condition.
For example, consider rebelliousness.
If you are a rebellious
individual and feel some work is foisted upon you, then you will probably also find
it more aversive. Since anything that makes work more unpleasant increases the
likelihood of procrastination, rebelliousness would indeed be one contributor to
procrastination, though in general its contribution is very small.
2.7.
PROCRASTINATION AND THE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Employees may be afraid of not knowing how to do the task or may be
concerned they will not do the job perfectly. They may feel this task will finally
expose their self-perceived incompetence. Perhaps intimidated by the task, they
may not even know how to begin. They are probably afraid to acknowledge any
need for help, fearing it will be seen as weakness or incompetence. This fear
results in paralysis and they end up doing nothing. Others procrastinate not in
actually starting the task, but in completing it and turning in the results. They will
complete it, but they do not consider it finished because they perceive that it is
never quite good enough, never quite done.
It is never completed to their
satisfaction. They are constantly looking for a little extra time to get it done right.
The problem is there is never enough time for them to complete the task just the
way they want it! (Horowitz et al. 1984:228)
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According to Horowitz dealing with employees who procrastinate is a common
management challenge. Procrastination is very frustrating and has a negative
impact on productivity, efficiency and the morale of others.
2.8.
REASONS WHY PEOPLE PROCRASTINATE
According to (http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4r.html) the wisest course
of action, most of the time, would be simply to do the unpleasant task as soon as
possible, while we have enough time to do the job right and get it over with, not
prolonging our agony.
However, the question to be asked is: “Why do we put off starting and completing
a task as soon as possible?” Possible reasons could be, amongst others:
ƒ
We feel good about setting goals and declaring that we are going to change
or succeed "sometime".
ƒ
By procrastinating we shorten the time we actually have to work on the task.
ƒ
Much of the time we avoid the unpleasant task altogether.
Understanding the reasons why people procrastinate can be helpful in finding
ways to overcome procrastination. Following is a list of 20 reasons why people
tend to procrastinate.
2.8.1.
Resistance
They may just not want to do it - period! They do not agree with it or believe it is
not important. They do not believe that it is worth postponing their current tasks
to get it accomplished (Chambers, 1998:210).
2.8.2.
Boredom
When employees are bored with what they are doing, they frequently
procrastinate to avoid the repetition.
This type of procrastination is usually
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experienced with routine or ongoing tasks.
Much of the procrastination we
experience around repetitive reporting requirements (daily, weekly, monthly) is, in
fact, rooted in boredom (Horowitz et al, 1984:228).
Research has shown that 70% of New Year's resolutions are abandoned by February 1.
2.8.3.
Fear of failure
Having the attitude that they will not be able to accomplish this task at all; a fear
of letting down another individual as well as themselves. Both cases suggest a
concern about what others think of them (Yaakub, 2000).
According to (http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/career/procras.html)
the payoff for procrastinating is protecting yourself from the possibility of
perceived real failure. As long as you do not put 100 percent effort into your
work, you will not find out what your true capabilities are. Another variation on
this theme is that you may often fill your schedule with busy-work so that you
have a legitimate reason for not getting around to more important tasks.
Perfectionism often underlies the fear of failure.
Family expectations and
standards set by parents may be so high that no one could actually live up to
them. Procrastination steps in to derail parental expectations and standards and
prevent you from really failing.
(http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/career/procras.html).
According to Yaakub (2000), a person experiencing fear of failure will spend
more time worrying about forthcoming tests and projects rather than completing
them.
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2.8.4.
Perfectionism
Some people have the attitude that if they can’t do it perfectly they will not do it at
all.
They might also have such high expectations that no amount of work
towards the finished product is good enough.
(http://mahdzan.com/papers/procrastinate/).
Summer (1996) suggests that the task is prolonged again and again by
standards of excellence that are impractical or downright impossible. Each "final
draft" is rejected because it can be "better."
2.8.5.
Indecisiveness
Some people have to weigh the decision to the point of being unable to move
forward.
This is lack of self-confidence and often is a result of over critical
parents or parents who made all the decisions for their children (Yaakub, 2000).
2.8.6.
Last-minute syndrome
Subscribing to the myth that time pressure makes them more productive. Thrillseekers think this is the best way to be creative. Unfortunately, they do not turn
out to be more creative; they only feel that way (Yaakub, 2000).
The website (http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/career/procras.html)
mentions the following reasons why people tend to procrastinate.
2.8.7.
Lack of motivation for a task
Lack of motivation for a task is a commonly given reason for not attending to an
unpleasant task. Most procrastinators believe that something is wrong with them
if they do not feel motivated to begin a task. The fact is that not many people feel
motivated and energised by the prospect of raking leaves, or changing the oil in
the car, or completing their tax returns. Mostly, these tasks are regarded as
unpleasant and not very exciting.
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Starting a task is the real motivator, rather than motivation needing to be present
prior to beginning. Often just taking the first step, regardless of how small, can
serve as an inducement for further action.
2.8.8.
Fear of success
Reasons why people procrastinate when they fear success could be that perhaps
you fear that if you do well, then next time even more will be expected, or
succeeding may place you in the spotlight when you prefer the background.
Procrastination of this kind may indicate an internal identity conflict. If your selfworth is tied to your level of achievement, then you may constantly question
yourself about how much you must do to be good enough. Each success only
sets you up for the next bigger challenge. If your self-worth is tied to family
acceptance, then what more does it take for them to be satisfied? Each success
only opens the door to greater and greater expectations.
Often this leads to a feeling of losing your identity and perhaps no longer being
able to claim your successes as your own. Inaction or procrastination may be
the outward expression of this feeling of being lost.
In other words,
procrastination may be how you cope with the pressures you feel to constantly
try to be good enough.
Procrastination is the fear of success... Because success is heavy, it carries a responsibility with
it, it is much easier to procrastinate and live on the "someday I'll" philosophy.
-Denis Waitley-
2.8.9.
Skill deficit (I don't know how)
A skill deficit is one of the most basic reasons for procrastination. If you lack the
skills to complete certain tasks, it is only natural to avoid doing them.
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For example, you may be a slow reader. If you have several lengthy articles to
read before you can write a paper, you may postpone the reading because it is
difficult.
You may even have trouble admitting to your poor reading skills
because you do not want to seem stupid. Procrastinating may seem better than
facing your need to improve your reading skills.
2.8.10.
Rebellion and resistance
Delaying tactics can be a form of rebellion against imposed schedules,
standards, and expectations.
The expectations are often those of parents,
managers, and friends. Procrastination in this instance is the acting out of a
power struggle, usually not on a conscious level.
(http://www.southampton.liu.edu/fw/protfolie_resource_guide/h7.html)
highlights
the following reasons why people tend to procrastinate:
2.8.11.
Feelings of inadequacy
"I'll never get this done", "This is too hard", or even "My work just isn't good
enough." Thinking like this often makes us avoid the task out of fear or shame,
or a "why bother" kind of helpless feeling.
2.8.12.
Disorganisation
Lack of planning and organisation usually means we have to put in the same
planning time (plus some extra) at the end.
2.8.13.
Confusion
If you aren't clear on why you're doing these studies, or where you stand in
relation to them, you may not make them a priority.
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2.8.14.
Shame
Sometimes we avoid turning something in or even working on it because we are
ashamed of its being so late in the first place.
2.8.15.
Discomfort
Work is hard. Doing anything else becomes easy, especially when you are tired
or disoriented.
2.8.16.
Pride
"I'm in charge of my own life. I can do whatever I want."
2.8.17.
Hostility
We may not always get along with our advisor, or with someone involved in our
projects, so we may avoid them, or try to hurt them by ignoring them.
2.8.18.
Habit
A body in motion tends to stay in motion. A body at rest tends to stay at rest.
2.8.19.
"Deadline high"
Many of us find that we "do our best work" under lots of pressure. This is partly
because the thrill of pushing up against a looming deadline creates adrenalin in
our bodies, which gives us a kind of (natural) chemical high. The trouble is that,
like any kind of high (or anything else pleasurable), we can become dependent
on this stimulation, and end up procrastinating just to feel more alive.
2.9.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROCRASTINATION
The website (http://www.southampton.liu.edu) lists the following characteristics of
procrastination.
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2.9.1.
Vicious cycles
Many of the factors described above turn into cyclical patterns: Avoidance
because of shame or self-criticism, for example, may result in late work, which in
turn may increase that shame. Fear of negative feedback to your work may
increase as your work gets later and later.
2.9.2.
Unrealistic sense of time
Many studies have shown that people who procrastinate overestimate the
amount of time they have remaining to complete the task, and that they
underestimate the amount of time that the task will take to complete. The plans
and schedules that they make, therefore, are often unrealistic, and not very
useful for getting their work done.
2.9.3.
Dependence on inspiration
It is easy to put something off saying "Tomorrow I will be in a better mood" (or
more inspired, or less confused, etc.) There are two fallacies here: The first is
the idea that you have to be inspired in order to work well, or to work at all. You
can work whenever you make yourself work. The second fallacy is the idea that
you will be more inspired tomorrow. Mental/emotional states like inspiration are
hard to figure out; philosophers, artists, and psychologists have been trying for
centuries to predict when inspiration happens. It is just possible that tomorrow
you might be as burned out as before, but the work will still need to be done.
2.10. CYCLE OF PROCRASTINATION
The Cycle of Procrastination was compiled by Burka and Yuen (1988).
Many people compare the experience of procrastination to living on an emotional
rollercoaster. Their moods rise and fall as they attempt to make progress and
they predictably slow down. When they anticipate starting a project and then
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work toward its completion, procrastinators undergo a sequence of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours that is so common they have called it the Cycle of
Procrastination. There are, of course, individual variations of this sequence. The
cycle may be drawn out over a period of weeks, months, or even years, or it may
occur so rapidly that one moves from the beginning to the end in a matter of
moments.
2.10.1.
“I'll start early this time”
At the outset, procrastinators are usually very hopeful when a project is first
undertaken. The possibility exists that this time it will be completed in a sensible
and systematic way. Although they feel unable or unwilling to start right now,
procrastinators often believe that this start will somehow spontaneously occur,
with no planned effort on their part. It is only after some time has elapsed and it
becomes apparent that this time may not be different after all that their hope
changes into apprehension.
2.10.2.
“I've got to start soon”
The time for an early start has passed, and illusions of doing the project right this
time are fading. Anxiety builds and the pressure to begin intensifies. Having
almost lost hope of the spontaneous start, the procrastinator now begins to feel
pushed to make some effort to do something soon. But the deadline is not yet in
sight, so some hope remains.
2.10.3.
“What if I don't start?”
As the time continues to pass, and the procrastinator still has not made a start, it
is no longer a question of the ideal beginning or even of the push to get going.
By now, any remaining optimism has been replaced by foreboding.
The
procrastinator, imagining that he or she may never start, may have visions of
horrible consequences that will ruin their life forever. At this point the person
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may become paralysed, a number of thoughts circling around in his or her head,
until they seem almost dizzying:
ƒ
"I should have started sooner"
This conclusion reflects guilt, a constant companion to most procrastinators.
They look back over the time they have lost and realise that it's irretrievable.
The pressure of the circumstances is such that soon they'll have no choice
but to begin. Looking back, they regret the behaviour that has brought them
to the edge of the precipice, knowing they could have prevented it if only they
had started sooner. As one procrastinator put it, "I have the experience of
constant lament".
ƒ
"I'm doing everything but …"
Sometimes distracting activity seems so productive that the procrastinator
actually believes he or she is making progress on The Project. Eventually,
however, it becomes clear that it still isn't done. (B?). "I can't enjoy anything."
Many procrastinators try to distract themselves with pleasurable, immediately
rewarding activities.
They go to the movies, get together with friends, or
spend the weekend sailing. Although they try hard to enjoy themselves, the
shadow of the unfinished project looms dark before them. Any enjoyment
they feel rapidly disappears and is replaced by guilt, apprehension, or disgust.
ƒ
"I hope no one finds out"
As time drags on and nothing is done, some procrastinators begin to feel
ashamed. They do not want anyone to know of their predicament, so they
create ways to cover up their inactivity. They try to look busy even when they
are not working; they present the illusion of progress even if they haven't
taken the first step; they invent elaborate lies to justify their delay. Some
literally hide - avoiding the office, people, phone calls, and any other contact
that might reveal their awful secret.
As the cover-up continues, the
procrastinator usually feels increasingly fraudulent.
In response to their
excuse about the "family emergency" that delayed their report, people may
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offer condolences on their grandmother's death, but they know that she is
alive and well, playing bridge in Florida. This sense of fraudulence only adds
to the internal and external pressures that intensify with each day.
2.10.4.
"There's still time”
Though feeling guilty, ashamed, or fraudulent, the procrastinator continues to
hold on to the hope that somehow there is still time to get the project done. The
ground may be crumbling away underfoot, but the procrastinator desperately
tries to remain optimistic and waits for the magical reprieve that rarely comes.
2.10.5.
"There's something wrong with me”
By now the procrastinator is desperate. Good intentions to start early didn't work;
shame, guilt, and suffering didn't work; the faith in magic didn't work.
The
procrastinator's worry about getting the project done is replaced by a far more
frightening fear: "It's me. There's something wrong with me!" You may entertain
the notion that you are lacking something fundamental that everyone else has self-discipline, courage, brains, or luck. After all, they could get this done!
2.10.6.
The final choice: To do or not to do
At this point the procrastinator makes a decision either to carry on to the bitter
end or to abandon the sinking ship (Burka & Yuen, 1988:9). He or she thus
takes one of the following two paths:
Path 1: Not to do
a.
"I can't do this!"
The tension has become unbearable. Time is now so little that the project
seems totally impossible to do in the minutes or hours remaining.
Because you have reached your level of intolerance, the effort required to
pull through seems beyond your capability. Thinking, "I cannot stand this
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any more!" you may decide that the pain of trying to finish would be too
great for you. You give up.
b.
"Why bother?"
At this late stage in the game, some procrastinators look ahead at all there
is left to do and decide that it's simply too late to pull it off this time. There
is no way in the world they can complete the project as they initially
planned - it cannot be done well with so little time remaining. Any efforts
made now will not really make a difference to the final outcome. Now that
there's no point in working hard, why bother even trying?
They have
messed up again, and that's all there is to it. So they do not do anything
more.
Path 2: To do - on to the bitter end
a.
"I can't wait any longer."
By now, the pressure has become so great that you can't stand waiting
another minute. The deadline is too close or your own inertia has become
so painful that it's finally worse to do nothing than it is to take action. So,
like a prisoner on death row, you resign yourself to your unavoidable
fate... and you begin.
b.
"This is not so bad. Why didn't I start sooner?"
At last, the project is under way. To your own amazement, it is not as bad
as you feared. Even if it is difficult, painful, or boring, at least it's getting
done - and that's a tremendous relief. There may even be times when it is
actually a pleasure to do! Procrastinators are sometimes unnerved by this
stage, unable to reconcile the discrepancy between their dreadful
anticipation and the relatively benign experience of the action itself.
Puzzled, they may also feel a tinge of regret for all the needless suffering
they have endured. "I could actually have enjoyed doing this, or got it over
with so much more easily. Why didn't I just do it sooner?"
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2.10.7.
“Just get it done!”
The end is almost at hand. There is not a second to spare as you begin to race
the clock in order to finish. When you play the perilous game of brinksmanship,
you no longer have the luxury of extra time to plan, refine, or improve what's
done.
Your focus is no longer on how well you could have done it, but on
whether you can get it done at all.
2.10.8.
“I'll never procrastinate again!”
When the project is finally either abandoned or finished, the procrastinator
usually collapses with relief and exhaustion. It's been a difficult ordeal. But at
long last, rest is possible…. at long last, life can be enjoyed. The idea of going
through this process even once more is so abhorrent that the procrastinator
resolves never to get caught in the cycle again. Next time you will start early, be
more organised, stay on schedule, and control your anxiety. And your conviction
is firm - until the next time.
So the Cycle of Procrastination comes to an end with an emphatic promise to
renounce this behaviour forever. In spite of their sincerity and determination,
however, most procrastinators find themselves repeating the cycle over and over
again.
2.11. THE PROCRASTINATOR AND STRESS
Procrastination leads to stress and stress leads to health problems such as
insomnia, colds and stomach aches. Procrastinators tend to drink and smoke
more when very stressed. It is difficult for them to set priorities. As a result,
social activities get priority status over academic projects.
This feeling often
promotes delay and frustration (Saltz, 2004). There are several ways in which
procrastinators are especially prone to stress.
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Burka and Yuen (1988) list the following as reasons why procrastinators
experience stress:
2.11.1.
Waiting until the last minute
The last-minute frenzy that is so common among procrastinators is typically a
very high-stress situation. Whether you experience yourself as panicked with
fear and worry or as flying high on the thrill of danger and risk, your body is
mobilized for a full all-out effort. You perform at top speed, aiming for maximum
output in the shortest possible time. That is stress. Sometimes you may be so
anxious and stressed that your performance is seriously impaired.
At other
times, the energy of the last-minute frenzy may allow you to pull through just in
the nick of time. If you repeatedly get yourself into these full-alert, high-stress
situations, you may, over the long haul, be exhausting yourself and wearing your
body down. Putting things off, too, often creates an internal build-up of pressure
and stress. When you initially put something off, it may be of little consequence
to you. As time passes and you still haven't got around to it, however, you begin
to feel increasingly worse. The task nags at you, never leaving you in peace,
seeming larger and less manageable as the days go by. In addition, you may
become angry with yourself for not getting it done.
This kind of gradual
intensification of pressure over time also mobilizes the stress response in your
body, though probably at a more moderate level than during the last-minute
frenzy. The longer you put things off and the more upset, anxious, or angry you
become, the more stress you are contending with on a chronic, daily basis.
2.11.2.
Avoidance of tasks or activities
It may also be that the task or activity that is being avoided may in and of itself be
a source of stress for the procrastinator - the favour you must do for someone
you don't like, the tax return that's due, the doctoral or master's thesis that seems
ominous. As we have seen, the tasks themselves are usually not inherently
threatening, but the procrastinator has attributed some meaning to the activity or
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views it in such a way that it feels particularly unpleasant or dangerous. The task
thus becomes a source of tremendous anxiety, and the mere thought of the
dreaded thing is enough to mobilize the procrastinator's stress response.
2.11.3.
Relationships with other people
Like the college student who got behind on her coursework, some procrastinators
worry about how other people will view them, so they try to look cheerful and
confident in public, hiding their uncertainty and their fear. This kind of vigilance is
highly stressful because it demands constant alertness, careful attention to the
reactions of other people, and unceasing scrutiny of one's own behaviour.
Relationships can also be stressful when other people become involved in the
cycle of procrastination. Initially the other person may try to be supportive and
help the procrastinator get going, but often the situation deteriorates into a power
struggle, with attempts to pressure, cajole, entice, or shame the procrastinator
into action. The other person may embody the procrastinator's internal critical
voice - impatient, irritated, angry, disappointed--and so become someone to be
avoided. Over time, tension escalates and the relationship evolves into another
source of stress through apprehension, resentment, and threat.
2.11.4.
Stress from other sources of life
Finally, some people procrastinate when stress from other aspects of their lives
has become too great.
One young professional woman who is generally
responsible and attentive to her business affairs, periodically finds herself putting
things off--paying bills, getting her laundry done, or having her car serviced.
Puzzled by her behaviour, she thought about when these situations tended to
occur, and she realised that she procrastinates at times when her job has been
particularly demanding, and she feels exhausted and overextended. "I'm tired of
being responsible," she said. "I want somebody to take over and let me rest!"
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2.12. WAYS TO OVERCOME PROCRASTINATION
Saltz (2004) suggests the following ideas on how to overcome procrastination:
2.12.1.
Set priorities
Discipline yourself to use time wisely and try to make a list that is realistic. Do
the most important tasks first. Look at each task, not the whole list. This will
help you avoid feeling overwhelmed.
2.12.2.
Recognise self-defeating motives
Recognise the qualities about yourself that are causing procrastination, such as
fear of failure, indecisiveness, and poor time management.
2.12.3.
Modify goal of perfection
Try to get the task done without being perfect. See if that works for you. The
goal is to do the best job possible in the time permitted.
2.12.4.
Discipline yourself
Use your time wisely and do not set unrealistic goals. If you set out to do a chore
for five minutes, do not allow any distractions to get in your way.
2.12.5.
Be a positive role model
Remember to let your children make decisions. Allow them to fail without being
overly critical.
Let them know you support their decisions.
Keep in mind,
children will follow your lead.
2.12.6.
Change old habits step by step
It is possible to change, but old habits die hard. Take it one step at a time so you
can begin to create healthy habits.
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2.13. CONCLUSION
This chapter focused on procrastination.
A brief overview regarding the history, meaning and definition of procrastination
was provided.
The procrastinator was categorised into 4 different types: the sometimesprocrastinator, the chronic procrastinator, the tense-afraid type and relaxed type.
Next the consequences of procrastination were evaluated.
The theories of procrastination were introduced and the various reasons why
people procrastinate were discussed. A cycle of procrastination was evaluated.
The role of stress in the procrastinator’s life was evaluated so as to introduce the
next chapter.
Finally, ways to overcome procrastination were suggested.
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CHAPTER 3
TEACHERS AND STRESS
“Teaching is a political football, it changes all the time, The combination of continual change –
with frequent new government demands – coupled with long, unsociable hours and poor pay,
make up a stressful recipe.”
- Cary Cooper -
3.1.
INTRODUCTION
“Within the teacher's emotional life are the forces that most powerfully affect the
entire teaching process. The human, emotional qualities of the teacher are the
very heart of teaching. No matter how much emphasis is placed on such other
qualities in teaching as educational technique, technology, equipment or
buildings, "'the humanity of the teacher is the vital ingredient if children are to
learn”; Greenberg (1969:20-21) as cited in Van der Linde (2000).
This quote emphasizes the importance of the affective or emotional qualities of
the teacher (positive and negative) in the teaching profession. Consequently, the
issue of stress in teaching is crucial, particularly in contemporary times where a
considerable percentage of illnesses are attributed to excessive stress.
All
people are susceptible to stress at one time or another (Van der Linde, 2000)
According to Russell (2000), evidence shows that in certain environments and
under particular levels of pressure, some individuals survive the strain while
others do not. Therefore, the experience of stress can be very personal with
stress resulting from an individual teacher perceiving the stressors and threats as
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far outweighing their available resources to meet the demands. Some teachers
are therefore more susceptible to stress.
A very important reason for studying teacher stress is that their work experiences
can have detrimental effects on them, their students, and the learning
environment. Consequently, many teachers are finding that their feelings about
themselves, their students, and their profession are more negative over time.
These teachers are vulnerable to developing chronic feelings of emotional
exhaustion and fatigue, negative attitudes toward their students, and feelings of
diminishing job accomplishments. The opinion here is that these feelings are
aspects of stress and often result in absenteeism, which may lead to student
absenteeism and a lack of academic achievement (Wiley, 2000).
3.2.
WHAT IS STRESS?
Stress is a part of life and is generated by constantly changing situations that a
person must face. The term "stress" refers to an internal state that results from
demanding, frustrating or unsatisfying conditions. A certain level of stress is
unavoidable. In fact, an acceptable level of stress can serve as a stimulus to
enhance performance.
However, when the level of stress is such that the
individual is incapable of satisfactorily dealing with it, then the effect on
performance may be negative (http://www.scre.ac.uk/resreport/rr109/7.html).
Wiechers (1993:123), as cited in Van der Linde (2000), maintains that one's
stress load consists of the demands made by the environment on a person.
Overload indicates demands that are more than a person can physiologically or
psychically cope with. She points out that stress overload is not only pressures
exerted on someone from outside, but also each person's unique reaction to
such overload. Each individual is unique; consequently some will experience
stress under certain circumstances, whilst others will not experience stress under
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exactly the same circumstances. A life without stress is simply not possible, all
people experience stress.
3.3.
The
THE TWO DIMENSIONS OF STRESS
website
(http://www.ieu.asn.au/ohs/stressburnout.html)
addresses
two
dimensions of stress: the experiential aspect and the physiological aspect.
3.3.1.
The experiential aspect
This can be described as an unpleasant feeling that people have when they feel
in a psychological state of distress or tension. This state relates to the way they
perceive their present situation.
Prolonged exposure to stressful situations
where the individual begins to feel increasingly inadequate can be harmful.
When the internal balance in a person's life is lost, that person is suffering from
stress.
3.3.2.
The physiological aspect
According to some psychologists, in threatening situations the body responds
with a "fight or flight" syndrome. Confronted by a challenging situation a person's
body releases a charge of adrenalin that helps to equip it to either face the
danger or run.
Muscles become tense in readiness for action.
Hormonal
responses such as a rise in adrenalin can also occur when a person encounters
desirable demands or when physical or mental effort is called for. Life without
demands or excitement would be dull and boring. However, there is an optimal
level of arousal beyond which physiological responses become unbalanced.
3.4.
THREE STAGES OF STRESS
Dr. Hans Selye, (cited in http://swatma.tripod.com/SMW/stages.htm) the highly
acclaimed endocrinologist and the father of modern studies on stress, while
presenting the General Adaptation Syndrome, revealed that as the stress starts
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taking its toll there are three very evident stages which the person goes through.
These stages are discussed below.
3.4.1.
The alarm stage
The alarm stage is the first stage in response to physical, mental or social
stressors. The Alarm stage is characterised by the triggering of the Stress Alert
System (the fight or flight response).
sympathetic
nervous
system,
and
There is thus an over-activity of the
the
simultaneous
inhibition
of
the
parasympathetic nervous system. Alarm is generated in the body and the whole
body starts preparing for a fight or to take a flight. There is a rush of energy, and
all activities are speeded up. The pressure is evident and can be seen in a
person’s excitement or fear.
3.4.2.
The resistance stage
In the Resistance stage because of the continuity of the stressful conditions there
is depletion of energy, the person feels run down. As the pressure mounts he
struggles to meet the various demands expected of him. He starts getting bouts
of irritation, there is over-reaction to minor issues and he starts getting weaker
both mentally and physically. Very clear physical, psychological and behavioural
changes are observed by others.
The second stage, the resistance stage, is where the body attempts to regain a
state of internal balance or homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state where the
body maintains a balance of internal functions no matter what external changes
have happened. In this stage the pulse rate returns to normal; so does the
breathing rate and blood pressure. Tense muscles relax and extra blood from
the digestive system returns and normal digestion occurs.
(http://www.mehs.educ.state.ak.us/portfolios/christineh/school/stress.html)
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3.4.3.
AND
S TRESS
The exhaustion stage
When the stressful condition is prolonged, and even after observing distinct
symptoms of the resistance phase and appropriate measures are not resorted to,
the Exhaustion phase takes over. As the very name suggests the person feels
fully exhausted and tired. This may even go to the extent of absence of all
enthusiasm to work or even to live. Psychosomatic diseases take root. There is
emotional breakdown, insomnia and a host of other very painful symptoms
associated with burnout. The burnout has started (See 3.11).
(http://swatma.tripod.com/SMW/stages.htm)
If distress continues too long a new stage begins. The exhaustion stage results
in wear and tear on the body, low resistance to disease and sometimes death.
Results depend on a person's heredity and abilities for coping. The exhaustion
stage is only experienced after long periods of distress.
(http://www.mehs.educ.state.ak.us/portfolios/christineh/school/stress.html)
3.5.
WHAT IS WORK-RELATED STRESS?
According to (http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/sector/education/faq2.stm)
work-related stress is experienced when the demands of the work environment
exceed the worker’s ability to cope with (or control) them. It is not a disease, but
can lead to mental and physical ill health. Work related stress is a symptom of
an organisational problem, not an individual weakness.
Numerous studies address the causes and effects of stress in the workplace.
These studies included information on the characteristics of the environment as
stressors, on the different perceptions and appraisals of stressful situations, on
the individual's reactions to stress, and on how to reduce stress (Wiley, 2000).
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Research on job stress and employee health examines the interaction of certain
job, work environment, and personal characteristics which are assumed to be
causal elements in job stress. These stressors can be classified into four types
including:
ƒ
Extra-organisational
(Come from outside the employing organisation.)
ƒ
Organisational
(Come from within the employing organisation.)
ƒ
Task-related
(Pertain to the job duties and responsibilities.)
ƒ
Individual stressors
(Involve personal difficulties that may be exaggerated by work roles.)
3.6.
TEACHER STRESS STATISTICS
Jarvis (2002) reports the following teacher stress statistics.
(http://www.isma.org.uk/stressnw/teachstress1.htm)
In a survey of head teachers by the National Association of Head Teachers
(NAHT) in May 2000 the following became evident:
ƒ
40% of respondents reported having visited their doctor with a stress-related
problem in the previous year.
ƒ
20% considered that they drank too much.
ƒ
15% believed they were alcoholics.
ƒ
25% suffered from serious stress-related health problems including
hypertension, insomnia, depression and gastrointestinal disorders.
The hazard of teacher stress was recently brought into focus in 2000 when Jan
Howell won a landmark victory against Newport County Borough Council for
failing to respond to her suffering stress in the classroom and she was awarded
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pond of dollars £250,000 compensation. Teacher stress is now firmly on the
political agenda, and representations of the nature of stress have become
unhelpfully polarised between unions and employers, the former seeing stress as
an organisational and the latter as an individual issue.
In a survey assessing the stress levels of various jobs by the Health and Safety
Executive, teaching came out top. The report, The Scale of Occupational Stress:
further analysis of the impact of demographic factors and type of job, published in
2000, found that 41.5% of teachers reported themselves 'highly stressed', while
58.5% came into a 'low stress category (Moore, 2000).
Moore reported the following top five issues raised by teachers seeking help:
ƒ
Stress, anxiety and depression
27%
ƒ
Conflict with managers or colleagues
14%
ƒ
Pressure of workload and excessive changes
9%
ƒ
Loss of confidence and performance anxiety
9%
ƒ
Relationship, marital and family problems
5%
Based on his 1997 research assessing 104 jobs, Professor Cary Cooper at the
University of Manchester's Institute of Science and Technology, found teaching
was rated as the fourth most stressful job in Britain.
(http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/stress/saw_work.html).
BRITAIN’S 20 MOST STRESSFUL JOBS
1.
Prison officer
2.
Police
3.
Social work
4.
Teaching
5.
Ambulance service
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6.
Nursing
7.
Medicine
8.
Fire fighting
9.
Dentistry
10.
Mining
11.
Armed forces
12.
Construction
13.
Management
14
Acting
15.
Journalism
16.
Linguist
17.
Film producer
18.
Professional sport
19.
Catering/hotel industry
20.
Public transport
AND
S TRESS
Midwestern teachers who completed a stress inventory conducted by Optum
(http://www.optumanswers.com/research/articles/teacherstress.shtml)
say
job
stress affects all aspects of their lives and their students' ability to perform well in
class. Here are the five major life areas teachers said were most affected by job
stress, followed by the percentage of teachers who said stress impacted on this
life area (multiple choices were allowed):
The impact of teacher stress:
Personal and family life
59 %
Physical health
46 %
Job performance
45 %
Mental health
36 %
Students’ academic achievement
25 %
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3.7.
3.7.1.
AND
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DEFINITIONS OF TEACHER STRESS
Teacher stress defined
Teacher stress may be defined as the experience by a teacher of unpleasant,
negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration or depression,
resulting from some aspect of their work as a teacher (Kyriacou, 2001).
According to Kyriacou (2001), this is the definition he adopted when he first
started to do research on teacher stress in the 1970s and is very much in line
with the definitions most widely used by other researchers. This definition was
linked to a model of teacher stress that he developed in 1978, which essentially
viewed stress as a negative emotional experience triggered by the teachers’
perception of their work.
3.8.
TEACHER STRESS MODELS
Three explanatory models of stress have been developed to help us understand
the concept of stress (http://www.scre.ac.uk/resreport/rr109/2.html).
The first two models assume that teachers are subjects rather than actors in their
own destiny; in contrast the third is predicated on shared responsibility for
situations which may give rise to occupational stress.
Turning specifically to stress in teaching, previous SCRE reviews (Johnstone,
1989, 1993a) drew heavily on Dunham (1984b) who proposed three ways of
defining stress.
Each model has different implications for teachers and
educational managers.
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The engineering model
The engineering model presents stress as the load or demand placed upon a
person that exceeds the ‘elastic limit’ of the individual’s capacity to adapt to it. In
this model, teachers are perceived to be subjects rather than actors.
Some
operate in situations, such as during probation, working with children with special
educational needs or in areas of multiple deprivations, which may give rise to
demands beyond their adaptive limits.
3.8.2.
The medical model
The medical model focuses on physiological and psychological responses, which
can arise as a consequence of stress.
A plethora of symptoms, such as
depression, tension, irritability, insomnia, loss of appetite, and weight loss, are
essential components of the definition. But it is also clear that these symptoms
are not unique to stress and may be attributed to other medical conditions. Again
the teacher is portrayed as a subject to whom pressure is applied with resultant
stress.
3.8.3.
The interactive model
This model perceives stress as interactive and situational. It recognises that on
the one hand teaching as a profession and some schools in particular may exert
pressures on teachers; while on the other, individual teachers react in different
ways and use a variety of adaptive resources to help them cope with those
pressures. Importantly, teachers are portrayed as actors who are no longer at
the mercy of external pressures.
Of the three models, the third approach is perhaps the most helpful. It implies
that responsibility for the maintenance of acceptable levels of stress in teaching
is a two-way process.
Employers have a statutory duty to ensure that the
working environment in schools does not adversely affect employees’ health; but
teachers must also apply their adaptive resources to help them cope with the
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inherent pressures of their chosen profession. In addition, recent appeal court
reductions of awards for stress at work (Guardian, 2002a) have also made it
clear that employees who feel under undue pressure have a responsibility to
inform their employers.
3.9.
TEACHER BURNOUT
The extended suffering of stress ultimately results in burnout. This warrants a
brief discussion of burnout.
3.9.1.
Teacher burnout defined
Teacher burnout is defined by Kyriacou (1987:146), as cited in Dunham, (2001),
as “the syndrome resulting from prolonged teacher stress, primarily characterised
by physical, emotional and attitudinal exhaustion”.
Increasingly there has been a growing alarm at the rate of teacher burnout and
the adverse implications this has for the learning environment in schools and on
the achievement of educational goals.
Pierce and Molloy (1990: 330), as cited in Dunham (2001), describe three
aspects of burnout:
ƒ
The first aspect is the development of increased feelings of emotional
exhaustion and fatigue.
ƒ
The second aspect is the tendency for teachers to develop negative cynical
attitudes towards their students.
ƒ
The third aspect of burnout is the tendency to evaluate oneself negatively,
resulting in feelings of lack of personal accomplishment.
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What causes teachers to burnout?
Research by Dunham (2001), reflects research findings by various other
researchers:
ƒ
Blasé (1982)
Excessive work stress over extended periods of time
ƒ
Begley (1982)
Relentless work demands
ƒ
Fielding (1982)
Teachers with a negative attitude towards students
Lowenstein (1991) revealed burnout to be a product of:
ƒ
Lack of social recognition.
ƒ
Large class sizes.
ƒ
Lack of resources.
ƒ
Isolation.
ƒ
Fear of violence.
ƒ
Role ambiguity.
ƒ
Limited professional opportunities.
ƒ
Lack of support.
3.10. TEACHERS' RESPONSE TO STRESS
A number of stress symptoms and responses have been observed in teachers
over the years and what follows is a summary of the key findings (Dunham,
2001). The key findings can be divided into the following categories:
ƒ
Psychological responses to teacher stress.
ƒ
Behavioural responses to teacher stress.
ƒ
Withdrawal from teaching as a response to stress.
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Psychological responses to teacher stress
Early work by Dunham (1976) identified frustration and anxiety as the two most
common types of reactions to teacher stress.
Frustration
Frustration can be seen to be associated with the physiological symptoms of
headaches, sleep disturbances, stomach upsets, hypertension and body rashes
and in severe cases, depressive illness, whereas anxiety can be linked to loss of
confidence, feelings of inadequacy, confusion in thinking and sometimes panic in
severe cases.
Anxiety
Anxiety can lead to the physiological psychosomatic symptoms of a nervous
rash, twitchy eye, loss of voice and weight loss. In prolonged cases, a nervous
breakdown or complete burnout may result.
3.10.2.
Behavioural responses to stress
Though there is little research scrutiny of the link between palliative coping and
stress in teachers (e.g. smoking, drinking and drugs), we may suppose that
teachers will be as vulnerable to these coping strategies as any other
occupational group.
3.10.3.
Withdrawal from teaching as a response to stress
Other sets of symptoms associated with teacher stress are turnover, early
retirement, sickness, absenteeism and intention to leave – all forms of
withdrawal.
These are perhaps the options teachers take when they find
themselves in intolerably stressful situations.
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Turnover
A turnover rate in any profession of between 7 and 8% may be seen as healthy,
but in teaching this has been reported to be far greater. According to research
resignations are the result of the subject areas in which teachers teach, the type
of school and the sector.
Early retirement
A large number of teachers are looking for early retirement as a way out of
teaching. This means the education system and society as a whole are losing a
large proportion of experienced workforce. Many have explained that this desire
to leave early is indeed a reaction to the stress of the job.
Sickness absence in teachers
Simpson (1976) suggested that sickness absence is a way that teachers can
allow themselves time to temporarily withdraw from stress at work, without
having to make a definite break.
It is believed that this allows teachers to
continually readjust to stressful work situations by such occasional withdrawals,
and at the same time, develop skills necessary to deal with the sources of stress
that they face.
3.11. CAUSES OF TEACHER STRESS
Jarvis (2002), as cited in Finlayson (2003), concluded that based on a review of
international research teacher stress is a real phenomenon.
Jarvis (2002)
suggests that there are a number of causal factors in teacher stress and that
these can be divided into three broad areas:
ƒ
Factors intrinsic to teaching.
ƒ
Cognitive factors affecting the individual vulnerability of teachers.
ƒ
Systemic factors operating at the institutional and political level.
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Factors intrinsic to teaching
Research has suggested that a number of stressors are intrinsic to teaching. As
you might expect, workload and long working hours emerged as particular issues
for teachers. A factor related to workload is ‘role overload’, which takes place
when an employee has to cope with a number of competing roles within their job.
Some research has identified a cyclical pattern in the effects of overwork,
contingent on the academic year.
It was found that recovery from stress
occurred each weekend during the spring term, but that by the end of the longer
autumn term weekend recovery no longer took place. (Northern hemisphere).
Classroom discipline is also a significant source of stress. Lewis (1999), as cited
in Jarvis (2002), examined teachers' estimations of stress arising from being
unable to discipline pupils in the way they would prefer. Overall, maintaining
discipline emerged as a stressor, with those worst affected being teachers who
placed particular emphasis on pupil empowerment.
Evaluation or inspection apprehension is an issue of increasing importance, as
quality
assurance
procedures
increasingly
demand
lesson
observation.
Inspection continues to be demanding and its impact on the well being of the
individual and schools is not recognised or is ignored.
3.11.2.
Cognitive vulnerability to stress
A substantial body of research has examined the cognitive factors affecting
individual susceptibility to stress amongst teachers. One study investigated selfdefeating beliefs by asking teachers to identify what they must do to be a good
teacher. 92% of responses were couched in absolute terms, such as 'must',
'need' etc – an indication of deep conviction but personally damaging when
perfection is not achieved.
In another study the role of attributions was
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examined. There was a significant association between internal attributions and
symptoms of burnout, suggesting that teachers who blame themselves for
difficulties are more vulnerable to stress.
The greatest volume of research concerning cognitive vulnerability to teacher
stress relates specifically to individual differences in coping style. High levels of
stress are associated with low social support and the use of disengagement and
suppression of competing activities as coping strategies. In other words, the way
teachers perceive themselves and their jobs has an impact on their well being.
This is significant as it suggests that some of the stressors associated with
teaching may not be inherently stressful but are stressful because of the way
teachers deal with them.
3.11.3.
Systemic factors
The term 'systemic' is used to denote organisational factors that are not intrinsic
to the nature of teaching, but rather dependent on the climate of the school or the
wider context of education, including the political environment. Research found
that teachers named lack of government support, lack of information about
changes, constant change and the demands of the National Curriculum as
among their greatest sources of stress.
At school level factors such as social support amongst colleagues and leadership
style have been found to be important in affecting levels of stress. Social support
has both a direct positive effect on health and a buffering effect in respect of
work-related stress.
3.11.4.
Other factors
Howard and Johnson (2002) reviewed literature regarding teacher stress. They
found that various studies agreed that the following are key causes of teacher
stress. (http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/how02342.htm)
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Poor student-teacher relationships
ƒ
Students lack motivation and respect for teachers.
ƒ
Classroom behaviour problems.
ƒ
Miscommunication or lack of understanding between the teacher and
students of different class/ethnic/cultural backgrounds.
Time pressure
ƒ
Inadequate time for preparation.
ƒ
Unrealistic demands are made by administrators/managers.
ƒ
Unrealistic deadlines are imposed.
ƒ
Issues concerning workload.
Role conflict
ƒ
Conflicts among teaching philosophies within the school.
ƒ
Education department policies demand innovation and change.
ƒ
New roles are required to be undertaken without appropriate training.
ƒ
Administrative demands and paperwork are excessive.
Poor working conditions
ƒ
Inadequate facilities and resources.
ƒ
Class sizes are too big.
ƒ
Excessive noise levels in the working environment.
ƒ
The school is geographically isolated.
Lack of control and decision-making power
ƒ
The bureaucratic structure of school is very hierarchical and power is
concentrated in the hands of a few.
ƒ
An autocratic leadership.
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Poor colleague relationships
ƒ
Lack of trust and/or cooperation between colleagues.
ƒ
Competitiveness in the school culture.
Feelings of personal inadequacy
ƒ
Teachers feel incompetent and/or poorly trained.
ƒ
Teachers are required to teach outside their areas of competence and
training.
ƒ
Inadequate praise and/or recognition for achievement from peers and school
leaders.
Extra-organisational stressors
ƒ
Poor negative community attitudes towards teachers and schools.
ƒ
Teachers' personal lives and relationships are unstable/insecure.
The
European
Agency
for
Safety
and
Health
(http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/sector/education/faq2.stm)
following causes of work-related stress in teachers:
Pressure on professional skills
ƒ
Introduction of new teaching methods.
ƒ
Changes in curriculum and courses.
Economic pressures
ƒ
Inadequate salary.
ƒ
Job insecurity.
Students
ƒ
Increased class size per teacher.
ƒ
Lack of pupil motivation, attention and interest.
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at
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Having to meet new teaching targets or student attainment levels.
The school as a stressful workplace
ƒ
Excessive workload and hours of work.
ƒ
Lack of time.
ƒ
Lack of control and autonomy.
ƒ
Environmental noise.
ƒ
Poor ventilation.
ƒ
Lack of solidarity and morale.
ƒ
Excessive paperwork and administrative duties.
Poor planning and programming
ƒ
Constant restructuring.
ƒ
Frequent reforms in the vocational educational system.
ƒ
Working alone and the transition to team work.
ƒ
Lack of personnel and poor allocation.
ƒ
Strong administrative hierarchy with a lack of support.
ƒ
Insufficient financial resources.
Social and personal pressures
ƒ
Concerns about the quality of education.
ƒ
Lack of coherence between personal goals and professional obligations.
ƒ
No recognition or acknowledgement.
ƒ
Lack of public esteem.
Difficult parent/teacher relations
ƒ
New demands regarding roles of the teacher.
ƒ
Decreased parent participation.
Travers (2001) amongst other causes of teacher stress mentioned ‘the homework interface’ and ‘dual-career couples’ as a key cause of teacher stress:
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The home–work interface
Potential stressors that exist in the individual teacher’s life, outside of their
workplace, affecting an individual’s behaviour at work should be considered
when assessing the sources and impact of work stress.
Potential stressors
include:
ƒ
Stressful life events.
ƒ
Pressure resulting from conflict between organisational and family demands.
ƒ
Financial difficulties.
ƒ
Conflicts between organisational and personal beliefs.
However, events occurring in the home may be both a source of stress and a
source of support, just like relationships at work, and may also mitigate or
exacerbate the effects of stressors experienced in the work environment.
Dual-career couple
One aspect of home life that may help intensify pressure is that of being part of a
dual-career couple.
In a profession such as teaching that has such a large
proportion of women, this is bound to be a feature to be considered in the
teacher stress phenomenon.
One of the major problems facing dual-career
families is that of society’s attitude towards them (i.e. the ‘traditional’ family setup is still regarded as the norm).
3.12. THE EFFECTS OF TEACHER STRESS
Teachers’ stress may have an impact on teachers as individuals, on the schools
in which they work and on the pupils they teach. It is also estimated to have an
economic impact on the education system in terms of lost teaching time and
additional costs of replacement teachers.
(http://www.scre.ac.uk/resreport/rr109/3.html Feeling the Strain).
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The following table is a summary of the psychological, physical and work related
effects of teacher stress (Wiley, 2000).
PSYCHOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
WORK RELATED
PHYSICAL
EFFECTS
EFFECTS
ƒ
Anger
ƒ
Increased heart rate
ƒ
Anxiety
ƒ
Nervous disorder
ƒ
Depression
ƒ
Cardiovascular
ƒ
Tension
ƒ
Feeling that
ƒ
Upset stomach
teaching is
ƒ
Headache
damaging to
ƒ
Fatigue
ƒ
Lower productivity
psychological and
ƒ
Peptic ulcers
ƒ
Turnover
physical health
ƒ
Insomnia
ƒ
Stress transmitted to
ƒ
Deterioration in work
performance
ƒ
disease
Increased need for
substitute teachers
ƒ
Excessive
absenteeism
ƒ
Indecisiveness
ƒ
Confusion
ƒ
Occasional panic
feedback to
ƒ
Guilt
students
ƒ
Worry
ƒ
Cynicism
ƒ
Frustration
ƒ
Resentment
reinforcement for
ƒ
Feelings of
the students
students
ƒ
ƒ
Less constructive
Less learning in the
classroom
ƒ
Less positive
inadequacy as
ƒ
Low enthusiasm
teachers
ƒ
De-personalisation
of the students
Table 3.1:
The psychological, physical and work related effects of
teacher stress
3.13. COPING WITH TEACHER STRESS
According to Kyriacou (2001), individual coping strategies for coping with teacher
stress can be categorised into two main types:
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Direct action techniques.
ƒ
Palliative techniques.
3.13.1.
AND
S TRESS
Direct action techniques
Refer to actions a teacher can take to eliminate the source of stress. First of all
the teacher needs to identify the source of stress. Once the source of stress has
been identified the teacher can take action by changing the situation in such a
way that it will no longer occur, or, by identifying ways to approach the stressor in
a different way so as to minimize the stress it causes. Examples of direct action
techniques are as follow:
ƒ
Managing or organising oneself more effectively.
ƒ
Developing new knowledge, skills and working practices.
ƒ
Negotiating with colleagues, so that aspects of one's situation are changed or
dealt with by others.
3.13.2.
Palliative techniques
This is where people do not deal with the source of stress itself, but rather are
aimed at lessening the feeling of stress that occurs. Palliative techniques can be
mental or physical.
Mental strategies
ƒ
Involve the teacher in trying to change how the situation is appraised.
Physical strategies
ƒ
Involve activities that help the teacher retain or regain a sense of being
relaxed, by relieving any tension and anxiety that has built up.
The most frequent coping actions used by teachers are:
ƒ
To keep problems in perspective.
ƒ
To avoid confrontations.
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To try to relax after work.
ƒ
To take action to deal with problems.
ƒ
To keep feelings under control.
ƒ
To devote more time to particular tasks.
ƒ
To discuss problems and express feelings to others.
ƒ
To have a healthy home life.
ƒ
To plan ahead and prioritise.
ƒ
To recognise one’s own limitations.
AND
S TRESS
From the above list it is evident that a mix of direct action and palliative
techniques are employed to combat teacher stress.
3.13.3.
The school’s role in the reduction of teacher stress
Working in a school where a positive atmosphere of social support exists enables
teachers to share concerns with each other, which can lead to helpful
suggestions from colleagues that will assist the teacher in implementing action
plans that will help resolve the sources of stress. Often simply sharing problems
or engaging in some social activity with colleagues during break periods can
effectively help dissolve the feelings of stress.
Teachers and principals in schools also need to give thought to the way in which
they may be creating unnecessary sources of stress through poor management.
For example, a principal can set unrealistic targets for the completion of certain
tasks or fail to communicate adequately with others, which then gives rise to
avoidable problems (Kyriacou, 2001).
3.13.4.
The effectiveness of teacher stress workshops
Over the years a number of teachers have taken part in in-service workshops
aimed at helping them to reduce their level of experienced stress.
Such
workshops typically focus on helping teachers to develop a mix of direct action
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and palliative techniques and also helping teachers as individuals and the school
as a whole to develop methods of working which will minimise the occurrence of
unnecessary sources of stress. A common feature of such workshops is training
in the use of relaxation exercises as a palliative technique (Kyriacou, 2001).
3.14. STRATEGIES TO COMBAT TEACHER STRESS
Strategies that can be used to combat these effects include:
ƒ
Better employee placement.
ƒ
Job enrichment.
ƒ
Physical exercise.
ƒ
Participation and involvement.
ƒ
Skills training.
ƒ
Mentoring.
ƒ
Classification of roles and responsibilities.
ƒ
Measurable objectives.
ƒ
Realistic job previews.
ƒ
Opportunities through career planning and development.
ƒ
Encouragement through social support systems.
ƒ
Assistance through crisis intervention counselling can combat the adverse
effects of stress.
ƒ
Good recruitment and selection can assist in reducing job stress as well.
Effective use of accurate screening devices during selection helps ensure a
better fit between individual abilities and the school system's job
requirements.
A mismatch between needs and abilities due to poorly
conceived and executed recruitment and selection procedures may result in
heightened stress levels with negative effects on teachers, students and
school systems.
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3.15. CONCLUSION
This chapter examined stress by defining stress and discussing dimensions and
stages of stress in general. In greater detail teacher stress was defined and
teacher stress models were evaluated. As burnout is the eventual outcome of
long term stress a brief overview of this topic was provided.
Teachers’ responses to stress were examined and numerous causes of teacher
stress were discussed.
Finally, this chapter focused on the effects of teacher stress and ways to combat
it.
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R ESEARCH M ETHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1.
INTRODUCTION
The previous chapters focused on procrastination and teacher stress. A broad
overview of procrastination was given and stress was examined very specifically
as to its causes and effects.
This chapter focuses on the research design, the research population and the
statistical methodology applied.
4.2.
RESEARCH STRATEGY
The aim of the study was to determine whether there is a relationship between
procrastination and stress in teachers.
To determine the relationship between procrastination and stress in teachers, the
survey method was used as it is one of the most important areas of
measurement in applied social sciences. According to Kuter and Yilmaz (2001),
a ‘survey’ can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an
intensive interview.
4.3.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Participants who volunteered to participate in the study completed pen and paper
questionnaires. The questionnaire consisted of three sections.
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SECTION 1: BIOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONNAIRE
The biographical questionnaire focused on the following:
ƒ
Age.
ƒ
Marital status.
ƒ
Tertiary qualification.
ƒ
Gender.
ƒ
Years of experience.
ƒ
Number of children.
ƒ
Age of children.
SECTION 2: PROCRASTINATION SCALE
Tuckman’s (1991) procrastination scale (TPS16 and TPS35) was used to
determine the teachers’ tendency to procrastinate.
This survey is a 35-item (TPS35), 4-point, Likert-type scale with a reliability
coefficient of .90. Using factor analysis, Tuckman reduced this 35-item scale to a
16-item scale consisting of questions that loaded .40 or higher with an alpha
reliability of .86. The 16-item scale takes less time to complete than the 35-item
scale. The 16-point scale is contained within the 35-item scale, so both were
administered at the same time.
The TPS35 is designed to measure:
ƒ
A generalised self-description of the inclination to delay.
ƒ
A penchant to experience difficulty when doing “unpleasant things”.
ƒ
A tendency to blame external events or people for any ensuing ramifications
from procrastination choices.
ƒ
Survey questions to illustrate these dimensions are respectively:
o “When I have a deadline, I wait until the last minute”.
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o “I look for a loophole or a shortcut to get through a tough task”.
o “I believe that other people do not have the right to give me deadlines”.
Interpretation of scores
The 16-item TPS was used to score and interpret the teachers’ tendency to
procrastinate.
obtained.
A maximum score of 64 and minimum score of 16 could be
Once scoring was completed teachers were categorised into the
following three groups regarding their tendency to procrastinate:
ƒ
“High” procrastinators:
57 - 64
ƒ
“Moderate” procrastinators:
50 - 56
ƒ
“Low” procrastinators:
34 - 49
SECTION 3: “THE EXPERIENCE OF WORK AND LIFE CIRCUMSTANCES
QUESTIONNAIRE”
Scale A of “The Experience of Work and Life Circumstances Questionnaire”
(WLQ), Van der Walt, H.S. & van Zyl, E.S. (1991), was administered to
determine the teachers’ levels of stress. Scale A consists of a 40-item 5-point
Likert scale.
Interpretation of scores
The score for this part of the questionnaire is obtained by determining the
aggregate of the answers. (Items 1 – 40)
ƒ
“Very High” levels of stress:
98 - 200
ƒ
“High” levels of stress:
80 - 97
ƒ
“Normal” levels of stress:
40 - 79
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4.4.
RESEARCH POPULATION
The research population consisted of high school teachers in the Gauteng
Province. 120 Questionnaires were distributed to teachers and a total of 70
teachers participated in the study.
4.5.
4.5.1.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Distribution and collection of questionnaires
All the questionnaires were distributed at the participating high schools. The
questionnaires were in pen and paper format.
4.5.2.
Data collection and analysis
Data received from the questionnaires was read into an Excel spreadsheet and
the statistical software application “Analyse it” was used to analyse the data.
4.6.
4.6.1.
STATISTICAL METHODS
Introduction
One of the principal objectives of psychological science is to understand human
behaviour. At the end of the data collection phase of this research project, a
significant amount of information was available but without any apparent order or
meaning. Therefore, in order to understand the results achieved from this study,
a statistical analysis was performed as a means of finding order and meaning in
this apparent chaos.
Descriptive statistical analysis was performed to describe the data and to serve
as the first step in understanding the results obtained.
The data was then
reduced to descriptive summaries for the mean, standard deviation and
correlation as well as to visualisation through various graphical procedures that
included drafting histograms, frequency distributions, and scatter plots.
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Finally, inferential statistical analysis was used to test hypotheses regarding
relationships between procrastination and stress levels in the population
surveyed, thereby assisting in the final conclusion whether the relationship (or
lack thereof) can be considered real or just a chance fluctuation.
4.6.2.
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics were used to describe patterns and general trends in the
data set by exploring one variable at a time.
In order to gain a better
understanding of the research population, it was described in terms of age,
gender, years of experience, highest tertiary qualification etc.
4.6.3.
Correlation
The most common measure of "correlation" or "predictability" is Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation. Pearson’s r, as it is often symbolised, can have a value
anywhere between -1 and 1. The larger r, ignoring the direction of the sign, the
stronger the association between the two variables and the more accurately you
can predict one variable from knowledge of the other variable. At its extreme, a
correlation of 1 or -1 means that the two variables are perfectly correlated,
meaning that you can predict the values of one variable from the values of the
other variable with perfect accuracy. At the other extreme, an r of zero implies
an absence of a correlation. There is no relationship between the two variables.
This implies that knowledge of one variable gives you absolutely no information
about what the value of the other variable is likely to be.
The sign of the correlation implies the "direction" of the association. A positive
correlation means that relatively high scores on one variable are paired with
relatively high scores on the other variable, and low scores are paired with
relatively low scores.
On the other hand, a negative correlation means that
relatively high scores on one variable are paired with relatively low scores on the
other variable.
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(http://www.une.edu.au/WebStat/unit_materials/c4_descriptive_statistics/pearson
s_coeff.html)
4.7.
SUMMARY
This chapter focused on the research methodology.
The research strategy, questionnaires and population as well as the statistical
methods used in this study were explained and evaluated.
The next chapter focuses on the research analysis and results.
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CHAPTER 5
R E S E A R C H R E S U LT S A N D F I N D I N G S
5.1.
INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter explained and evaluated the research strategy,
questionnaires and population as well as the statistical methods used in this
study.
This chapter explains the data analysis performed on the collected data. The
gathered data was analysed to see if anything unexpected or unanticipated
emerged.
Thereafter, the focus was on determining what relationship and
correlation existed between the procrastination and stress levels experienced by
the high school teachers who responded to the questionnaires.
5.2.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data from the completed questionnaires was analysed to determine whether the
sample respondents represented a logical extrapolation of the total population of
high school teachers. Figures 5.1 – 5.6 are a graphical reflection of this analysis.
In addition, the results of the study were assessed by performing a descriptive
statistical analysis and reviewing the correlation between the stress levels (WLQ)
and procrastination (TPS) of the respective respondents. General information
regarding the datasets used is summarised in the table below.
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Summary Descriptive Statistical
Analysis
AND
F INDINGS
WLQ Total
TPS Total
Minimum %
25
29
Maximum %
76
76
Count (n)
70
70
2.623
2.199
1.31
1.10
Kurtosis
1.6901
0.2027
Skewness
1.1954
-0.4302
General Information
95 % Confidence Level
Frequency Distributions
Standard Error
Table 5.1:
Summary
descriptive
statistical
analysis
–
general
information
5.3.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
In order to provide a more meaningful way of expressing the relative frequency of
individual variables in the population, these variables were analysed and are
graphically depicted in the following subsections as a percentage of the whole.
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AND
F INDINGS
Analysis of population
RESPONDENT'S AGE
11%
<21 years
3%0%
21 – 29 years
43%
16%
30 – 39 years
40 – 49 years
50 – 59 years
60 + years
27%
Figure 5.1:
Respondent’s age
Figure 5.1 presents the respondent’s age in this study. The age group 21 – 29
years has the largest number of participants, namely 30 (43 %). The second
largest age group is 30 – 39 years 19 (27%). Following the second largest age
group is the age group 40 – 49 years 11 (15 %) and 50 – 59 years 2 (3 %).
MARITAL STATUS
11%
0%
Married
27%
Single
Divorced
62%
Figure 5.2:
Marital status
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This figure shows the marital status of the respondents. The majority of the
population 44 (62 %) is married. 19 (27 %) of the population is single and 7 (11
%) is divorced.
HIGHEST TERTIARY QUALIFICATION
9%
Technicon
diploma/degree
12%
University
degree
30%
Postgraduate
degree
Other
49%
Figure 5.3:
Highest tertiary qualification
Figure 5.3 shows the participants’ highest tertiary qualifications.
Within the
population 9 (12 %) have a Technicon diploma/degree, 37 (49 %) have a
University degree, 22 (30 %) have a Postgraduate degree and 7 (9 %) have
“other” qualifications.
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GENDER
13%
Male
Female
87%
Figure 5.4:
Gender
Figure 5.4 indicates that 62 (87 %) of the population is female and 8 (13 %) of
the population is male.
YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE
8%
27%
>1 years
24%
1-5 years
6-10 years
11-14 years
14%
15+ years
27%
Figure 5.5:
Years of teaching experience
Figure 5.5 indicates the number of years of teaching experience of the
population. The majority of the population has between 6 – 10 years 18 (27 %)
and 15 + years 19 (27 %) of experience. 17 (24 %) has 1 – 5 years of experience
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and 10 (14 %) has between 11 – 14 years of experience. Finally, 6 (8 %) of the
population has less than 1 year of experience.
NUMBER OF CHILDREN
8%
None
17%
1
2
54%
3+
21%
Figure 5.6:
Number of children
This figure indicates that 37 (54 %) of the population have no children, 15 (21 %)
have 1 child, 12 (17 %) have 2 children and 6 (8 %) have 3 or more children.
5.3.2.
Analysis of WLQ and TPS (high, moderate and low)
QUALITY OF WORKLIFE STRESS LEVELS
14%
High
Moderate
29%
57%
Figure 5.7:
WLQ stress levels – high, moderate, low
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Figure 5.7 indicates that according to the WLQ 40 (57 %) of teachers experience
“low” levels of stress, 20 (29 %) experience “moderate” levels of stress and 10
(14 %) experience “high” levels of stress.
16 TPS
29%
45%
High
Moderate
Low
26%
Figure 5.8:
16 TPS – high, moderate, low
Figure 5.8 indicates that 29 % of the population have a high tendency to
procrastinate, 26 % have a moderate tendency to procrastinate and the majority
of the population (45%) have a low tendency to procrastinate.
5.3.3.
Histograms
The skewness of each scored dataset was also determined using the ShapiroWilk W test. The calculated p-values were <0.0001 and 0.2583 for the scored
WLQ and TPS datasets respectively (the significance level of the p-value is
0.05). The distribution of the scores obtained is graphically presented in figures
5.9 – 5.10. Based on the results shown, it is clear that the measured stress
levels of respondents are asymmetrical (i.e. not normally distributed) and
positively skewed.
In contrast, the measured procrastination levels for the
respondents were symmetrical (i.e. normally distributed) and therefore not highly
skewed.
In conclusion, the scored procrastination dataset is considered
acceptable as a basis for further analysis and was used as the primary reference
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in determining the statistical relationship between the measured levels of stress
and procrastination in high school teachers.
WLQ OVERALL
16
n
14
Frequency
12
Mean
95% CI
10
8
6
4
2
70
39.5
36.9 to 42.1
Variance
SD
SE
CV
121.00
11.00
1.31
28%
n
70
0
Interval
Figure 5.9:
Stress distribution
TPS: OVERALL
16
14
Frequency
12
Mean
95% CI
10
8
Variance
SD
SE
CV
6
4
2
0
Interval
Figure 5.10:
53.8
51.6 to 56.0
Procrastination distribution
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85.05
9.22
1.10
17%
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AND
F INDINGS
CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY
The measures of tendency in the respective datasets are summarised below and
provide an effective summary of the typical stress and procrastination levels (i.e.
scores achieved) of the high school teachers who participated. The mode is the
score that was achieved most frequently.
The median is the value that
theoretically cuts the distribution exactly in half while the mean indicates the
average levels of stress and procrastination for the participants in the study. The
standard
deviation
for
procrastination
indicates
that,
on
average,
the
procrastination levels of respondents differ about 9% from the mean.
Central Tendency and Variability
WLQ Total
TPS Total
39.51%
53.85%
38.50
55.00
44
63
51
47
11.000
9.222
121.000
85.053
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Variability
Range
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Table 5.2:
Central tendency and variability
Based on the measures of central tendency listed in table 5.2, it would be
reasonable to expect the average high school teacher to have a slight tendency
to procrastinate while simultaneously experiencing low to moderate stress levels.
5.5.
CORRELATION
The notion defined above gave rise to the question whether increased levels of
procrastination would result in increased levels of stress.
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question in a satisfactory fashion, the correlation between the levels of
procrastination and stress experienced by the respondents was analysed. The
correlation between these two variables would be indicative of the measure to
which information regarding one variable can be used to determine the other:
ƒ
Firstly, bar and line graphs were drawn to graphically depict the overall as
well as specific relationship trends between different procrastination levels
and the associated stress levels experienced by respondents (figures 5.115.14).
ƒ
Secondly, the overall correlation between the respondents’ procrastination
levels and their associated stress levels was determined by calculating the
Pearson correlation (figure 5.15).
ƒ
Finally, the Pearson correlation for high, medium and low levels of
procrastination and the associated stress levels was calculated (figures 5.165.18).
5.5.1.
Overall comparison of procrastination levels with associated
stress levels
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
QWL
16 TPS
16 TPS
High
Figure 5.11:
QWL
Moderate
Low
Bar graphs of correlation between WLQ and 16 TPS
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Figure 5.11 is a graphical representation of the stress levels associated with
high, moderate and low levels of procrastination for all the respondents.
5.5.2.
Overall comparison of high, medium and low procrastination
levels with associated stress levels
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
WLQ
Figure 5.12:
Graphical
comparison
TPS
of
high
levels
(n=21)
of
procrastination and stress
With the exception of three contrasting data points, figure 5.12 indicates a clear
and common relationship between high levels of procrastination and stress
experienced by respondents.
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60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
TPS
WLQ
Figure 5.13:
Graphical
comparison
of
moderate
levels
(n=18)
of
procrastination and stress
Figure 5.13 indicates a common theme, although it is not as pertinent as for high
levels of procrastination.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
WLQ
Figure 5.14:
Graphical
comparison
21
23
25
27
29
31
TPS
of
low
levels
(n=31)
of
procrastination and stress
In figure 5.14, even though a common theme can be observed, the relationship
between low levels of procrastination and stress experienced by respondents do
not seem to be that significant.
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5.5.3.
AND
F INDINGS
Pearson correlation
CORRELATION: TPS & WLQ
75
n
16 TPS
65
55
r statistic
95% CI
45
2-tailed p
70
0.43
0.22 to 0.61
0.0002
(t approximation)
35
25
20
40
60
80
WLQ
Figure 5.15:
Overall Correlation between TPS & WLQ
Figure 5.15 indicates the correlation between procrastination and stress as
measured by Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (i.e. the r statistic). The squared
correlation (i.e. r²) provides a measure of how much of the variability in stress
experienced can be "explained” by variation in procrastination. In this case, 0.43
is squared to 0.1849, which indicates that about 18.5% of the variability in stress
levels is attributable to the procrastination behaviour of the respondents. The 2tailed p value of 0.0002 is a test of a hypothesis about the "significance" of the
correlation and indicates a relatively low level of significance for the correlation
between the levels of procrastination and stress experienced by the respondents.
This is also clear when viewing the dispersion of observations around the
regression line depicted on the scatter plot.
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CORRELATION: TPS & WLQ: HIGH
80
n
16 TPS
75
r statistic
95% CI
21
0.30
-0.16 to 0.65
70
2-tailed p
65
0.1920
(t approximation)
60
55
20
40
60
80
WLQ
Figure 5.16:
Correlation between TPS & WLQ: High
Figure 5.16 indicates the correlation between high levels of procrastination and
stress as measured by Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (i.e. the r statistic). A
positive correlation of 0.3 was calculated, which indicates a somewhat positive
(1%) relationship between high levels of procrastination and stress. However,
the 2-tailed p value of 0.1920 indicates a high significance of the correlation
between elevated levels of procrastination and the resulting increased stress
experienced by the respondents.
As can be seen from the scatter plot, the
observations are widely dispersed around the regression line, which explains the
moderate level of correlation (albeit positive) as measured by the r statistic.
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CORRELATION: TPS & WLQ: MODERATE
57
56
n
18
55
r statistic
95% CI
16 TPS
54
-0.18
-0.59 to 0.32
53
2-tailed p
52
0.4832
(t approximation)
51
50
49
28
33
38
43
48
WLQ
Figure 5.17:
Correlation between TPS & WLQ: Moderate
Figure 5.17 indicates the correlation between moderate levels of procrastination
and stress as measured by Pearson’s coefficient of correlation. An r-statistic
factor of -0.18 was calculated, which indicates a weak negative relationship
(<1%) between moderate levels of procrastination and stress. The 2-tailed p
value of 0.4832 indicates a high significance of the correlation between moderate
levels of procrastination and the resulting increased stress experienced by the
respondents.
However, the actual correlation factor is so low that this
significance factor does not have much value. The scatter plot further indicates a
low level of correlation based on the widely dispersed observations around the
regression line.
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CORRELATION: TPS & WLQ: LOW
50
n
45
r statistic
95% CI
16 TPS
40
30
0.27
-0.10 to 0.57
35
2-tailed p
30
0.1501
(t approximation)
25
20
20
30
40
50
WLQ
Figure 5.18:
Correlation between TPS & WLQ: Low
Figure 5.18 indicates the correlation between low levels of procrastination and
stress as measured by Pearson’s r statistic. A positive correlation of 0.27 was
calculated, which indicates a somewhat positive (<1%) relationship between high
levels of procrastination and stress. The 2-tailed p value of 0.1501 indicates a
high significance of the correlation between elevated levels of procrastination and
the resulting increased stress experienced by the respondents. As can be seen
from the scatter plot, the observations are widely dispersed around the
regression line, which explains the low level of correlation (albeit positive) as
measured by the r statistic.
5.6.
SUMMARY
In this chapter statistical methods were used to generate the research results.
This was performed by completing a descriptive statistical analysis on the
datasets, which included an analysis of frequency distributions, central
tendencies and variance as well as correlation between procrastination and
stress.
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The next chapter focuses on the conclusions derived from this study as well as
recommendations for future research, which are supported by the literature study
in prior chapters and the analysis of findings in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 6
C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S
6.1.
INTRODUCTION
As noted in the beginning, a tremendous amount of research has been
conducted regarding students’ procrastination behaviour, but very little on that of
teachers.
The notion was raised that teaching is not only about educating
students in academic subjects but more about educating them in lessons of life
and therefore that the positive behaviours a teacher displays during the
development years in students’ lives will have a profound impact on their ultimate
development.
This study was conducted to answer the question whether a significant
relationship exists between procrastination and stress and, if such a relationship
does exist, whether such knowledge can be used proactively to manage and
reduce procrastination and stress, thereby improving the quality of life
experienced by teachers.
6.2.
REVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study endeavoured to gain a thorough understanding of procrastination and
stress and to determine whether a relationship exists between procrastination
and stress as experienced by high school teachers.
6.3.
CONCLUSION
Literature clearly indicates that procrastinators tend to keep themselves ready to
work, but end up avoiding the activity by working on less important obligations.
This practice has significant concrete and emotional consequences, which
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include lost opportunities and income, lower productivity, lower morale,
heightened stress, frustration and anger as well as lower motivation. This in turn
leads to stress, which in turn leads to health problems, tendencies to drink and
smoke and difficulties in setting priorities in their work and personal lives. This
ultimately results in poor quality of life.
The two dimensions of stress (i.e. experiential and physiological) were explained
and clearly indicated the far-reaching effects stress can have on individuals,
leading from depression and feelings of inadequacy to a "fight or flight"
syndrome. The study also showed that work-related stress may lead to mental
and physical ill health. The growing rate of teacher burnout and the adverse
implications this has for the learning environment in schools, on the achievement
of educational goals as well as the development of negative cynical attitudes
towards students were also mentioned.
The literature study unmistakably showed the far-reaching consequences of
procrastination and stress in a teacher’s life, which also undoubtedly highlights
the extensive need to understand, review and manage these aspects in the life of
a teacher.
The descriptive statistical analysis performed on the gathered information
indicated that these datasets were an appropriate and realistic representation of
tendencies by high school teachers to procrastinate as well as reflecting
accurately the stress experienced by these teachers. The central tendencies and
variance in the datasets indicated that most teachers had a moderate tendency
to procrastinate and experienced low to moderate stress levels.
The notion that increased levels of procrastination would result in increased
levels of stress was assessed by analysing the correlation between these two
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variables. Based on the statistical analysis performed, it was clear that some
measure of correlation between procrastination and stress does exist.
Not
surprisingly, the correlation tended to be higher for respondents with a high
tendency to procrastinate and conversely proved to be very weak for
respondents with a low tendency to procrastinate. An interesting observation
was noted for moderate procrastinators.
For these individuals, virtually no
correlation was noted. However, the little correlation that could be determined
was, in fact, negative!
This led to the conclusion that stress experienced by respondents with low to
moderate levels of procrastination was not necessarily related to their tendency
to procrastinate. However, it seems reasonable to expect the stress experienced
by respondents to increase to some degree if their tendency to procrastinate
increased. An important fact to remember, however, is that correlation does not
necessarily mean causation. Two variables may be related to each other, but
this does not mean that one variable causes the other, they are merely indicative
of each other.
6.4.
RECOMMENDATIONS
An important aspect of human behaviour is that different individuals have
different ways of doing things. Some people can only function efficiently when
experiencing higher than normal stress levels. Therefore, they would have an
inherent tendency to procrastinate in order to increase their stress levels to a
level or degree that would facilitate optimal functionality. Care should be taken to
maintain optimal balance, as this could easily result in over-extension, which
could lead to excessively high stress levels.
Based on this study, it is clear that a positive relationship exists between high
levels of procrastination and stress for high school teachers.
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The analysis
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performed focused on the relationship between procrastination and stress and
the multidimensional aspects of personality types, different attitudes and “stress
appetite” as well as variables like age, teaching experience, etc. were not
analysed. When thinking about these different dimensions, questions like the
relationship between age and procrastination (a possible inversed relationship?)
as well as the influence of marital status, teaching experience, number of
children, gender and even the level of education hint at the possibilities for future
research projects. Clearly it would be extremely useful to expand this research
to include such multi-faceted dimensions, thereby enabling us to more accurately
identify and address situations and/or circumstances more likely to result in high
procrastination and/or stress. Ultimately, this may assist in attaining a magnified
view of the potential causes of procrastination and stress and providing an
effective solution to improve the quality of life and education provided by high
school teachers.
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B IBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Attridge, M, Bergmark, R.E., Parker, M & Lapp, J. (2000). Trouble at the Head of
the Class: Teachers Say Job Stress Impacts Their Students' Academic
Performance, but It's a Condition That Can Be Reversed. EAP Digest, Fall 2000;
pp. 30-32
http://www.optumanswers.com/research/articles/teacherstress.shtml
Retrieved:
October 2004.
Boice, R. (1996). Procrastination and Blocking: A Novel, Practical Approach.
Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Burka, J. B. & Yuen, L. M. (1988). Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do
about It. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
Chambers, H. E. (1998). The Bad Attitude Survival Guide: Essential Tools for
Managers. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Dunham, J. (2001). Stress in the Workplace: Past, Present and Future. Whurr
Publishers.
http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/sector/education/faq2.stm. Retrieved: 28
October 2004
Elmer,
D.
(2001).
Wasted
Time
or
Informed
Delay?
Academic Procrastination, Learning Style, and Self-Talk. Journal of Speech and
Theatre. Volume 14 http://www.edutech.nodak.edu/ndsta/elmer.htm Retrieved:
March 2004.
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Finlayson, M. (2003). Improving the wellbeing of teachers in Scotland:
A
presentation to the symposium on teacher wellbeing Northern Ireland. Teacher
Support Scotland.
http://www.teachersupport.org.uk/index.cfm?dldoc=upload/teachersupport/docum
ents/nisymposium%20-%20mike%20finlayson.pdf Retrieved: 2 November 2004.
Howard, S. & Johnson, B. (2002). Review of the Literature Resilient Teachers:
Resisting Stress and Burnout. http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/how02342.htm.
Horowitz, M., Marmar, C., Krupnick, J., Wilner, N., Kaltreider., N., & Wallerstein,
R. (1984). Personality, Styles and Brief Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Jarvis,
M.
(2002).
Stress
News,
January
2002,
Volume
14
No.
1
http://www.isma.org.uk/stressnews.htm Retrieved: October 2004.
http://www.ksu.edu/counseling/csweb/topics/career/procras.html Retrieved: 30
April 2004.
Kuter, U. & Yilmaz, C. (2001). Survey Methods: Questionnaires and Interviews.
Department of Computer Science University of Maryland College Park, MD
20742 , USA
November 2, 2001. http://www.otal.umd.edu/hci-rm/survey.html
Retrieved: 12 November 2004.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: directions for future research. Educational
Review, February 2001, Vol.53 Issue1, p27-36.
Lowman, R. L. (1993). Counselling and Psychotherapy of Work Dysfunctions.
Washington, DC: APA Books.
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B IBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.mehs.educ.state.ak.us/portfolios/christineh/school/stress.html.
Retrieved: October 2004.
Monchek, M. & Muchnick, S. (2004).
Stop Procrastinating … Now! The
Personnel Administrator. June 1988. Vol 33, Issue 6 Page 14 Retrieved: 30
October 2004.
Moore, W. (November 2002). Teachers and stress:
Pressures of life at the
chalkface.
http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/stress/saw_teachers.html
Retrieved: 6 March 2004.
NSW/ACT Independent Education Union
(2002) Stress! Burnout! Among
Teachers Stress issues facing teachers.
http://www.ieu.asn.au/ohs/stressburnout.html. Retrieved: 20 October 2004.
Russell, J. (2000). Stress Free Teaching: A Practical Guide to Tackling Stress in
Teaching.
Saltz, G. (2003). Put an end to Procrastination: Tips to help you learn how to
use your time wisely.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3840729/ Retrieved:
6
March 2004.
http://www.scre.ac.uk/resreport/rr109/2.html. Retrieved: August 2004.
http://swatma.tripod.com/SMW/stages.htm. Retrieved: September 2004.
Summer,
J.
(1996).
Your
portfolio
resource
guidebook
http://www.southampton.liu.edu/fw/protfolie_resource_guide/h7.html.
July 15, 2004.
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1997
Retrieved:
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B IBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.thehealthcenter.info/emotions/procrastination/)(http://www.clarocet.co
m/encyclopedia/pr-intro.htm Retrieved: March 2004.
Tucker-Ladd,
C.E.
(n.d).
Psychological
self-help:
Mental
health
net
http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4r.htm Retrieved: 6 March 2004.
Tuckman, B. W. (1998). Using Tests as an Incentive to Motivate Procrastinators
to Study. Journal of Experimental Education , 66(2), 141-147.
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~steel/procrastinus/meta/meta.html)
Retrieved:
March
2004.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/procrast.htm Page 3 Retrieved: March 2004.
Van der Linde, C.H. (2000). The teacher’s stress and its implications for the
school as an organisation: How can TQM help? Education, December, 2000
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb095/is_200012/ai_n5650075
Retrieved: 11 October 2004.
Van der Walt, H.S. & van Zyl, E.S. (1991). Manual for the Experience of Work
and Life Circumstances Questionnaire. (WLQ).
Pretoria Human Sciences
Research Council.
Wiley, C. (2000). A Synthesis of Research on the Causes, Effects, and
Reduction Strategies of Teacher Stress Journal of Instructional Psychology,
June, 2000.
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B IBLIOGRAPHY
Wilson, V. (2002). Feeling the Strain:
An Overview on the Literature on
Teacher’s Stress. http://www.scre.ac.uk/resreport/rr109/7.html.
Retrieved:
8
October 2004.
Yaakub, N.F. (2000). Procrastination Among Students in Institutes of Higher
Learning: Challenges for K-Economy. http://mahdzan.com/papers/procrastinate/.
Retrieved: 6 March 2004.
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A NNEXURE A
ANNEXURE A:
QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER
Pretoria
0002
Republic
of South Africa Tel
(012)4204111 http://www.up.ac.za
Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
TELEPHONE: 420-2124
10 June 2004
Dear Teacher,
I am a Masters Student in Human Resources Management at the University of Pretoria under the
supervision of Mr. G.J. Steyn. As partial fulfilment of the Masters Degree I have to conduct a
research project.
The purpose of my study is to determine whether there is a relationship
between procrastination and the stress teachers experience in their work environment.
If you decide to volunteer for this study, you will be asked to complete 3 questionnaires, which will
take approximately 40 minutes of your time. The 3 questionnaires consist of the following:
ƒ
Demographic Questionnaire:
This questionnaire will ask general background questions. For example: your gender, years
of teaching experience, etc.
ƒ
Procrastination Scale:
The Procrastination Scale consists of 35 questions, which will enable the researcher to
determine whether you have a tendency to procrastinate, and to what degree.
ƒ
Quality of Work life Questionnaire:
PAGE 92 OF 98
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A NNEXURE A
The Quality of Work life Questionnaire consists of 40 questions and focuses on the stress
you experience in the work environment.
It is very important that you answer ALL the questions. As you complete the questionnaires do
not ponder over a question too long. Read it and indicate the first reaction that comes to mind
spontaneously.
Please be aware that you may discontinue your participation at any time. There are no known or
anticipated risks to participating in this study. Participation in this project is voluntary and
anonymous. (However, should you wish to receive feedback regarding the study, a space is
provided for you to enter your contact details).
Further, all information you provide will be
considered confidential.
I would like to assure you that this study has been reviewed and received ethics clearance
through the Department of Human Resources Management at the University of Pretoria.
However, the final decision about participation is yours.
Should you have questions about the study, please feel free to contact:
Liesel van Wyk [email protected], or Mr. G.J. Steyn [email protected]
If you agree to voluntarily participate in this research project as described, please indicate your
agreement by completing and returning the attached questionnaire. Please retain this consent
cover form for your reference.
Thank you for agreeing to participate.
Regards
Liesel van Wyk
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A NNEXURE B
ANNEXURE B:
BIOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE
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A NNEXURE C
ANNEXURE C:
THE EXPERIENCE OF WORK AND
L I F E C I R C U M S TA N C E S Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ( W L Q )
Item
1
2
Question
As if you are coming up
against a wall and simply
cannot make any progress?
Afraid, not knowing of what
exactly?
Virtually
Never
Sometimes
Reasonably
Often
Very
Often
Virtually
Always
14.3%
67.1%
10.0%
8.6%
0.0%
42.9%
38.6%
7.1%
10.0%
1.4%
3
Uncertain (unsure, doubtful)?
12.9%
62.9%
11.4%
11.4%
1.4%
4
Worried?
8.6%
42.9%
22.9%
22.9%
2.9%
15.7%
40.0%
27.1%
14.3%
2.9%
17.1%
48.6%
25.7%
5.7%
2.9%
5
6
That your views clash with
those of another person?
That you are experiencing
conflict?
7
Bored?
48.6%
35.7%
8.6%
5.7%
1.4%
8
Irritated (annoyed)?
5.7%
45.7%
18.6%
28.6%
1.4%
32.9%
38.6%
14.3%
11.4%
2.9%
58.6%
34.3%
5.7%
1.4%
0.0%
40.0%
38.6%
7.1%
10.0%
4.3%
57.1%
28.6%
8.6%
4.3%
1.4%
20.0%
44.3%
22.9%
8.6%
4.3%
40.0%
41.4%
11.4%
5.7%
1.4%
48.6%
34.3%
11.4%
4.3%
1.4%
35.7%
48.6%
10.0%
5.7%
0.0%
27.1%
42.9%
17.1%
10.0%
2.9%
24.3%
57.1%
8.6%
7.1%
2.9%
50.0%
38.6%
4.3%
5.7%
1.4%
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
That you have no confidence
in yourself?
That you depend too much on
the help of others?
Alone?
That you would like to attack
another person?
That you merely accept things
the way they are?
That you are disturbed
whenever you work hard at
something?
That you are losing control of
your temper?
That no-one wants to support
you?
That your work situation
compares unfavourably with
those of others?
Despondent (cheerless,
down)?
That you have broken some
or other rule?
PAGE 95 OF 98
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A NNEXURE C
Item
20
21
Question
Inferior (no self-confidence,
unimportant)?
That someone and/or a
situation is annoying you
terribly?
Virtually
Never
Sometimes
Reasonably
Often
Very
Often
Virtually
Always
42.9%
37.1%
14.3%
5.7%
0.0%
12.9%
50.0%
21.4%
14.3%
1.4%
22
Guilty?
57.1%
25.7%
10.0%
5.7%
1.4%
23
Downhearted?
28.6%
47.1%
14.3%
7.1%
2.9%
24
Fearful?
58.6%
21.4%
11.4%
4.3%
4.3%
22.9%
50.0%
15.7%
11.4%
0.0%
57.1%
29.0%
7.2%
4.3%
1.4%
25
26
That you can do nothing
about a situation?
Aggressive (want to hurt
someone/break something)?
27
That you are getting sad?
24.3%
54.3%
11.4%
7.1%
2.9%
28
Overburdened (too much
work/responsibilities)?
5.7%
40.0%
20.0%
27.1%
7.1%
29
Angry?
22.9%
52.9%
14.3%
8.6%
1.4%
30
Afraid without knowing
whether you are afraid of a
particular person and/or
situation?
55.7%
30.4%
2.9%
8.7%
1.4%
31
Not exactly sure how to act?
22.9%
64.3%
8.6%
4.3%
0.0%
38.6%
41.4%
12.9%
4.3%
2.9%
57.1%
37.1%
4.3%
1.4%
0.0%
77.1%
20.0%
0.0%
2.9%
0.0%
58.6%
31.4%
5.7%
4.3%
0.0%
67.1%
27.1%
1.4%
1.4%
2.9%
55.7%
35.7%
2.9%
4.3%
1.4%
21.4%
54.3%
17.1%
5.7%
1.4%
50.0%
34.3%
5.7%
4.3%
5.7%
21.4%
44.3%
22.9%
8.6%
2.9%
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
That you are having trouble
concentrating since you are
worried about something?
That you have no interest in
the activities around you?
That you need assistance
continuously?
That you do not wish to
participate in anything?
Afraid of colleagues and/or
supervisors?
That is seems as if you will
never get out of this mess?
Dissatisfied?
That you are tearful (weeping,
sorrowful)?
That you have too much
responsibility and too many
problems?
PAGE 96 OF 98
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A NNEXURE D
ANNEXURE D:
16
TPS
35
TPS
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
5
7
8
6
9
10
11
7
12
13
14
15
16
17
8
THE 16-ITEM AND 35-ITEM TPS
Question
I needlessly delay finishing
jobs, even though they are
important.
I postpone starting things I
don't like to do.
When I have a deadline, I wait
until the last minute.
I delay making tough
decisions.
I stall on igniting new
activities.
I am on time for appointments.
I keep putting off improving
my work habits.
I get right to work, even on
life's unpleasant chores.
I manage to find an excuse for
not doing something.
I avoid doing those things
which I expect to do poorly.
I put all the necessary time
into even boring tasks, like
studying.
When I get tired of an
unpleasant job, I stop.
I believe in "keeping my nose
to the grindstone."
When something is not worth
the trouble, I stop.
I believe that things I do not
like doing should not exist.
I consider people who make
me do unfair and difficult
things to be rotten.
When it counts, I can manage
to even enjoy studying.
That's
me
for sure
That's
my
tendency
That's not
my
tendency
That's not
me
for sure
2.9%
15.7%
37.1%
44.3%
11.4%
41.4%
34.3%
12.9%
1.4%
22.9%
37.1%
38.6%
11.4%
20.0%
47.1%
21.4%
4.3%
25.7%
48.6%
21.4%
68.6%
18.6%
4.3%
8.6%
1.4%
24.3%
50.0%
24.3%
17.1%
45.7%
31.4%
5.7%
2.9%
11.4%
60.0%
25.7%
11.4%
32.9%
41.4%
14.3%
17%
37.1%
37.1%
8.6%
10.0%
25.7%
48.6%
15.7%
22.9%
57.1%
15.7%
4.3%
18.6%
34.3%
44.3%
2.9%
5.7%
20.0%
42.9%
31.4%
8.6%
15.7%
42.9%
32.9%
42.9%
38.6%
12.9%
5.7%
18
I am an incurable time waster.
2.9%
14.3%
41.4%
41.4%
19
I feel it is my absolute right to
have other people treat me
fairly.
44.3%
28.6%
14.3%
12.9%
20
I believe that other people
1.4%
2.9%
47.1%
48.6%
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A NNEXURE D
16
TPS
35
TPS
21
9
22
10
23
11
24
12
25
26
27
13
28
14
29
30
31
15
32
33
16
34
35
Question
don't have the right to give me
deadlines.
Studying makes me feel
entirely miserable.
I am a time waster now, and I
can't seem to do anything
about it.
When something is too tough
to tackle, I believe in
postponing it.
I promise myself I'll do
something and then drag my
feet.
Whenever I make a plan of
action, I follow it.
I wish I could find an easy way
to get myself moving.
When I have trouble with a
task, it's usually my fault.
Even though I hate myself if I
don't get started, it doesn't get
me moving.
I always finish important jobs,
with time to spare.
I look for a loophole or
shortcut to get through a
tough task.
When I'm done with my work,
I check it over.
I get stuck in neutral even
though I know how important it
is to get started.
I never met a job I couldn't
lick. (I couldn't defeat)
Putting off until tomorrow is
not the way I do it.
I feel work burns me out.
That's
me
for sure
That's
my
tendency
That's not
my
tendency
That's not
me
for sure
4.3%
14.3%
51.4%
30.0%
1.4%
7.1%
45.7%
45.7%
1.4%
27.1%
48.6%
22.9%
5.7%
21.4%
48.6%
24.3%
31.4%
51.4%
12.9%
4.3%
14.3%
28.6%
38.6%
18.6%
10.0%
31.4%
44.3%
14.3%
8.6%
10.0%
57.1%
24.3%
22.9%
55.7%
15.7%
5.7%
10.0%
38.6%
31.4%
20.0%
34.3%
47.1%
11.4%
7.1%
0.0%
30.0%
52.9%
17.1%
21.4%
42.9%
24.3%
11.4%
28.6%
34.3%
28.6%
8.6%
15.7%
30.0%
40.0%
14.3%
PAGE 98 OF 98