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Оглавление
Module 1. Shipbuilding ................................................................................................. 3
Module 2. Chemical matters ....................................................................................... 99
Module 3. Machine building ..................................................................................... 141
Module 4. Information security ................................................................................. 190
Module 5. Nanotechnology ....................................................................................... 220
Module 6. ESP Grammar .......................................................................................... 234
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Module 1. Shipbuilding
UNIT 1
Types of ships
On the one hand, all cargo ships are divided into two main types: dry cargo
ships1 and tankers. On the other hand, cargo ships may be divided into
universal ships2 designed to carry principal different types of cargo and
specialized ships designed to carry one type of cargo (e.g. bulk cargo3,
timber4, refrigerated goods5, oil6).Such specialized ships as bulkers (bulkcarries) ,timber-carriers, reefer ships7, tankers have long been known. In the
past two decades three trends in specialized ships design have emerged. One
is cargo-carriers with cargo-handling equipment8 on board for special
purposes or routes (e. g. heavy/bulky cargo ships9 with derricks10 or cranes11
capable of handling single lifts over 500 tons without requiring outside
assistance. The ships are also called special-purpose ships.
The second trend is Roll-on/Roll-off ships12 in which bow13 and stern14 doors
and adjustable steel ramps15 permit vehicles to drive on board and drive off
again requiring only minimum door-side facilities16.
The third trend is the container ship17. The use of containers for cargoes has
encouraged18 the design of ships to carry containers. In their extreme form
the container is a 60-foot steel lighter which can be quickly launched over the
ship‘s stern.
A comparatively new development is the multi-purpose ship combining
characteristic features of both universal and specialized vessels.
Notes
dry cargo ship – сухогрузное судно
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universal ship – универсальное судно
bulk cargo – навалочный груз
timber – лес
refrigerated cargo – рефрижераторный груз
oil – нефть
reefer = reefer ships – суда для перевозки рефрижераторных грузов
cargo-handling equipment – перегрузочное/ погрузочно – разгрузочное
оборудование
heavy/bulky cargo ship – судно для массовых грузов, навалочное судно
derrick – грузовая стрела, деррик-кран
crane – кран
roll-on/roll-off ship – судно с горизонтальной погрузкой/разгрузкой,
судно типа «ролл-он/ролл-оф»
bow – нос
stern – корма
steel ramp – стальная аппарель/слип
door-side facilities – дверные сооружения
сontainer ship – контейнеровоз
to encourage – способствовать.
Exercises
1. Read the text.
2. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions:
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On the one hand – on the other hand; ship design; heavy/bulky cargo ship;
outside assistance; bow/stern doors; vehicle; 60-foot steel lighter; dock-side
facilities; to be capable.
3. Finish up the sentences according to the model:
Model:
A. Combined ships…..
B. Combined ships are designed to carry different cargoes.
Fruit ships….
Bulk carriers…
Timber carriers…
Container ships…
Reefers…
4. Comprehension questions:
What types are all cargo ships divided into?
How can dry cargo vessels be classified in dependence of the cargo they
carry/in dependence of the cargo handling methods they use?
What are advantages / disadvantages of specialized vessels?
What are special-purpose ships? Can you give any examples?
What are multipurpose ships?
5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Passive Voice.
Define the tense form of the verb in the Passive Voice.
All cargo ships are divided into two types.
Such specialized ships as bulkers, timber-carriers, reefer-ships, tankers have
long been known.
These ships are also called special-purpose ships.
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The container is a 60-foot steel lighter, which can be quickly launched over
the ship‘s stern.
6. Learn the underlined terminology
Principal Dimensions
Length over-all (o.a.) is the linear distance from the most forward point of the
stem to the aftermost point of the stern, measured parallel to the base line.
Length between perpendiculars (b.p.)
Breadth molded is the distance from the molded surface on one side to the
molded surface on the other side measured at the widest portion of the
vessel‘s hull.
Draught (Draft) is the vertical distance from the lowest point of the hull to the
water line.
Depth is the vertical distance from the lowest point of the hull to the side of
the deck to which it is referred. One can consider depth to the main deck.
Depth varies from amidship to the ends depending on the amount of sheer
and camber.
Freeboard at any point along the ship‘s side is the vertical distance from the
water-line to the upper deck at that point.
Sheer is the longitudinal curvature of a vessel‘s deck.
Camber is a transverse slope of the deck. The purpose of camber is to direct
water on the deck out to the sides. Camber does not provide additional
transverse strength.
Deadrise or rise of bottom is the vertical distance between the lowest point of
the hull at the centerline and the upper point at the bilge.
Tonnages
A ship is a floating body which must be designed to transport cargo, crew and
passengers as rapidly, safely and economically as possible. A study of ship‘s
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tonnages not only helps to express the size and/or weight of a vessel but
many questions of importance.
Displacement Tonnages. The weight of a vessel and everything in her when
she is floating at her deepest permissible draft is known as load displacement.
And the weight of a vessel herself is known as displacement. When the vessel
is completely empty, her weight is known as light displacement.
Deadweight tonnage is the weight of cargo, fuel, water and stores. It is the
difference between load and light displacement.
Gross register tonnage is calculated by measuring in cubic feet by the total
internal volume of a vessel and dividing it by 100.
Net register tonnage is determined by deducing from Gross Tonnage the
tonnage of most spaces which are not used for the carriage of cargo or
passengers.
UNIT 2.
General Description of a Ship
The main body of a ship is called a hull1. The hull is divided into three main
parts: the foremost part is called the bow2, the rearmost part is called the
stern3, the part in between is called midships4. The hull is the main part of a
ship. This is the area between the main deck the sides5, (port6 and starboard7)
and the bottom. It is made up of frames covered with plating. The part of the
hull below water is the ship‘s underwater body8. The distance between the
waterline and the main deck is the vessel‘s freeboard9.
The hull is divided into a number of watertight compartments by decks and
bulkheads10. Bulkheads are vertical steel walls going across the ship and
along11. The hull contains the engine room, cargo spaces and a number of
tanks. In dry cargo ships the cargo space is divided into holds12. Openings
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giving access to holds are called hatches13. In liquid cargo vessels the cargo
space is divided into tanks14, which are used for fresh water and fuel.
All permanent housing15 above the main deck is known as superstructure16.
Nowadays, cargo vessels are built with the after location of the engine room
and bridge superstructure to gain more space for cargo17.
The forward raised part of the deck is called the forecastle18, and its after
raised part is the poop19.
On deck there are cargo handling facilities, such as cranes, winches20,
derricks, etc. Ships having derricks also have cargo masts and cargo posts21
(or samson posts)22 on deck.
Notes
hull –корпус судна
bow – нос судна
stern – корма, кормовые обводы
midships – средняя часть судна
side -борт
port (side) – левый борт
starboard (side) – правый борт
ship‘s underwater body - подводная часть корпуса судна
freeboard – надводный борт
decks and bulkheads – палубы и переборки
across the ship and along – вдоль и поперек
hold - трюм
hatch - люк
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tank – танк, бак, цистерна
permanent housing – постоянные постройки
superstructure - надстройка
to gain more space for cargo – чтобы выиграть больше места для груза
forecastle – бак, полубак
poop – ют, полуют
winch – лебедка
cargo posts – грузовые мачты
sam(p)son post – грузовая колонна (полумачта)
Exercises
1. Read the text using a dictionary, paying attention to the notes.
2. Check, if you have remembered the names of parts of the ship after reading
without a dictionary.
3. Read the exercise and insert the missing words and expressions.
1. The main body of a ship is called the … .2. The foremost part of the hull is
called the …; its rearmost part is called the …; the part in between is called
… .3. The hull is the area between … .4. The hull is made up of … covered
with … . 5. The part of the hull below water is the ship‘s … . 6. The distance
between the waterline and the main deck is the vessel‘s … . 7. The hull is
divided into a number of … by … . 8. … are vertical steel walls going across
the ship and along. 9. The hull contains … . 10. In dry cargo ships the cargo
space is divided into … . 11. Openings giving access to holds are called … .
12. At the fore end of the hull are …, and at the after end are … . They are
used for … . 13. The space between the holds and the bottom of the hull
contains … . 14. If a ship has double sides, the space in between contains … .
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15. All permanent housing above the main deck is known as … . 16. The
forward raised part of the deck is called … and its after raised part is the … .
4. Ask questions according to the model.
Model: A. Ask another student what the main body of a ship is called.
B. What is the main body of a ship called?
C. It‘s called the hull.
Ask another student: 1. into how many parts the hull is divided; 2. what the
main parts of the hull are called; 3. what the hull of a ship is made up of; 4.
what spaces the hull contains; 5. what cargo handling facilities a ship has.
5. Comprehension questions.
1. What is the main body of a ship called? 2. What parts is the hull divided
into? 3. What is the hull made up of? 4. What cargo spaces are there in dry
cargo (liquid cargo) ships? 5. What is superstructure? 6. Where is
superstructure located on modern ships? 7. What cargo handling facilities are
there on deck? 8. What do we call the forecastle and the poop?
6. Find sentences with the verbs in the Passive Voice. Write out the passive
forms of the verbs. Define their forms.
7. Define forms and functions of the participles in the following sentences.
The hull is made up of frames covered with plating.
Bulkheads are vertical steel walls going across the ship and along.
The levels are read by the numbers painted on the ship‘s stem and called
draught marks.
Openings giving access to holds are called hatches.
The divided circle on the left shows the depth to which the ship may be
loaded in summer time.
8. Draw the schemes on the blackboard and:
give the general description of the vessel
speak on the draught marks and the load marks
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speak on the main ship‘s measurements
9. Read the text and give its written translation.
Since a ship is supported by fluid pressure, she will incline in any direction in
the process of loading according to the position of the weights placed on her.
Therefore the ship‘s position below water must be closely watched. The
angle that a ship is making fore and aft with the water is known as trim1. An
extreme difference between the water levels at each end of the ship indicates
bad loading. The levels are read by numbers painted on the ship‘s stem and
called draught marks2. A list or inclination from one side to anther, caused by
faulty loading3, is known as heel4. In the course of loading load lines must be
watched above all. The load lines are engraved then painted on both sides of
ships. The divided circle on the left shows the depth to which the ship may be
loaded in summer. Below this line are two lines. The one marked W means
winter loading, the lower one marked WNA means the maximum depth to
which the ship may be loaded if she is going across the North Atlantic in
winter. The other marks above these are: T for tropical, F for fresh water.
These lines are shown on the ship‘s Load Line Certificate5. In case of
overloading a ship, so that these lines are under water, the penalties are
severe.
Notes
trim - дифферент
draught marks – марки углубления (или осадки)
faulty loading – неправильная погрузка
heel - крен
Load Line Certificate (L.L.C.) - свидетельство о грузовой марке
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UNIT 3.
Modern Trend in Design of Vessels
Universal vessels can carry practically any types of cargoes, including
refrigerated goods and liquids. However, most of them are designed to carry
certain types of goods. These liners are intended to carry general cargo,
packaged cargo, containers and also special, liquid or refrigerated cargoes.
Their deadweight1 varies between 2000 and 20000 tons and the speeds
between 10 and 12 knots. Tramps2 are designed to carry bulk cargoes and
timber, but can also carry general cargo if necessary. These ships must be of
sufficient size to carry a profitable cargo and must be able to cope with3 bad
weather conditions in any ocean. They must not be too large to enter the
smaller parts of the world. Speed is necessary but it increases running costs4,
so that a compromise between fuel consumption5 and speed is desirable. The
modern tramp travels at between 12-15 knots. Its deadweight varies between
2000 and 10000 tons.
The cargo spaces are holds, tweendecks6 and deeptanks. Holds and
tweendecks are used to carry general bulk cargoes. Deeptanks7 may be of two
types. The first type is designed to carry liquids only. The second type is
designed to carry liquid and dry cargoes in turn8.
Empty deeptanks are also used for liquid ballast. Liners may have special
cargo spaces and refrigerated cargo spaces.
Conventional9 multi deck vessels have holds divided horizontally by one or
two tweendecks, known as upper and lower tweendecks. The bottom part of
any hold with tweendecks is the lower hold.
Since late 60‘s universal vessels have been superseded by specialized vessels.
But world shipping crisis of mid-70‘s made shipbuilders and ship owners
design new types of universal and specialized combined vessels. Thus a new
generation of universal vessels was born. It was then that multi-purpose
vessels, which are further development of universal vessels, appeared10.
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Notes
deadweight – полная грузоподъемность
tramp – трамповое судно
to cope with – справиться с чем-либо
running costs – эксплуатационные расходы
fuel consumption – расход топлива
tweendeck – твиндек
deeptank – диптанк
in turn - попеременно
conventional – условный
it was then that multi-purpose vessels appeared – именно тогда появились
многоцелевые суда
Exercises
1. Read the text using a dictionary.
2. State if you have remembered the meaning of the following words and
expressions. Use the words in the sentences of your own.
of sufficient size, profitable cargo, running costs, fuel consumption, cargo
spaces, further development of.
3. Agree with the statements. Add the main idea, using words in brackets:
Model - a) Liners are intended to carry general cargo; packaged cargo and
containers. (special, liquid and refrigerated cargoes)
b) Yes, they are. They intended to carry special, liquid and
refrigerated cargoes as well.
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Tramps are designed to carry bulk cargoes and timber. (general cargo)
Tramps must be of sufficient size. (must be able to cope with bad weather
conditions in any ocean)
The cargo spaces are holds and tweendecks. (deeptanks)
Holds and tweendecks are used to carry general cargo. (bulk cargoes)
Liners may have special cargo spaces. (refrigerated cargo spaces)
4. Answer the questions:
What cargoes can universal vessels carry?
What are liners intended for?
What is the deadweight of liners?
What speed do liners have?
What are tramps designed for?
What must their size be?
What speed does a modern tramp travel at?
What cargo spaces do universal vessels have?
What types of deeptanks are there?
Are universal vessels built nowadays?
What ships are further development of universal vessels?
When did multi-purpose vessels appear?
5. Speak on:
a) liners
b) tramps
c) cargo spaces
d) further development of universal vessels
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6. Find sentences with the verbs in the Passive Voice. Write out the passive
forms of the verbs.
7. Define forms and functions of the Infinitives
Most of them ( universal vessels ) are designed to carry certain types of
goods.
These ships must be of sufficient size to carry a profitable cargo a must be
able to cope with bad weather conditions in any ocean.
They must not be too large to enter the smaller ports of the words.
World shipping crisis of mid-70‘s made shipbuilders and ship owners design
new types of universal and specialized combined vessels.
8. Define forms and functions of the Participles.
Universal vessels can carry practically any types of cargoes, including
refrigerated goods and liquids.
Liners are intended to carry general cargo, packaged cargo and containers.
Speed is necessary but it increases running costs.
Conventional multi-deck vessels have holds divided horizontally by one or
two tweendecks.
UNIT 4
Hull Structure
In any kind of vessel the principal problem is the hull construction
corresponding to strength and rigidity requirements1. The hull of a sea-going
vessel must withstand water pressure and heavy masses of cargo. When the
ship is in dry dock the hull is subjected to new stresses from machinery and
engine operation2. Thus the principal stresses to which the hull of a vessel is
subjected depend on the longitudinal bending3 of the hull overall, its
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transverse deformation4 and various stresses acting in different parts of a
vessel.
The hull construction therefore must be strong and rigid enough to withstand
all stresses.
The hull structure includes longitudinal and transverse girders5. The
longitudinal girders are the keel, longitudinal, and side stringers6. The
transverse girders are floors7, frames8 and beams9. These girders are welded
together and form a framework10 to which the water-tight shell plating11 is
attached.
Notes
strength and rigidity requirements – требования прочности и жесткости
machinery and engine operation – работа механического оборудования и
двигателя
longitudinal bending – продольный изгиб
transverse deformation – поперечная деформация
longitudinal/transverse girder – продольная/поперечная балка
longitudinal stringer – продольная балка, side stringer – бортовой стрингер
floor – флор, настил (палубы)
frame – шпангоут, рама, рамная конструкция, остов, каркас, набор
(корпуса)
beam – балка, бимс, брус.
framework – рамная конструкция
water-tight shell plating – водонепроницаемая наружная обшивка
I. Comprehension questions:
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What is the principal problem in any kind of vessel?
Why must the hull construction be strong and rigid?
What girders does the hull construction include?
What is the watertight shell plating welded to?
II. Retell the text using the above questions as a plan.
III. Define the tense and the voice of the predicate in each sentence:
1. The research institute has completed the design of the new car-ferry. 2.
Provision has been made to install in anti-collision system on standard
tankers. 5. The water ballast system has been rationalized. 4. The engineers
have just repaired this pump. This equipment has not yet been repaired 6. An
auxiliary boiler has been installed on the cargo ship. 7. The first coastal
tanker has already been put into service. 8. This company has built and shoptested the most powerful marine steam turbine ever manufactured in Japan.
IV. State the part of speech of the underlined words.
1. In any kind of vessel the principal problem is the hull construction
corresponding to strength and rigidity requirements. 2. Thus the principal
stresses to which the hull of a vessel is subjected depend on the longitudinal
bending of the hull overall and various stresses acting in different parts of a
vessel. 3. These girders form a framework to which the shell plating is
attached.
UNIT 5
Bulkheads
Bulkheads1 are classified into watertight, oiltight and non-watertight2. Most
bulkheads provide three important functions within the ship. First, they act as
stiffeners3 for the entire hull structure. Secondly, they distribute the vertical
forces of weight and buoyancy4 through the hull's structure. Thirdly, they
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provide watertight sub-division. These functions are provided by the main
transverse bulkheads that extend continuously from bottom to the main deck.
The forward watertight bulkhead separates the forepeak and is called the
collision5 or forepeak bulkhead6. The afterpeak is separated by the afterpeak
bulkhead7. The fore and after peaks are intended to arrange a vessel's trim.
Longitudinal bulkheads are generally not continuous in the vertical direction
unless they are side bulkheads. They provide space for carrying liquid
cargoes. In such case, they will extend continuously from the bottom to the
second deck or deck above the water-line. To provide strength and rigidity of
the bulkheads they are strengthened8 with stiffeners.
Notes
bulkhead – переборка
watertight, oiltight and non-watertight
нефтенепроницаемая и (водо)проницаемая
–
водонепроницаемая,
stiffener – ребро жесткости
buoyancy – плавучесть
collision bulkhead – таранная переборка
forepeak bulkhead – форпиковая переборка
afterpeak bulkhead – переборка ахтерпика
to strengthen – укреплять(ся), усиливать(ся); to be strengthened with –
быть укрепленным чем-л.
1. Comprehension questions:
What kinds of bulkheads are there in the hull structure?
What are their functions?
What bulkheads are these functions provided by?
How is the forward watertight bulkhead called?
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Do longitudinal bulkheads provide space for carrying liquid cargoes?
Where are longitudinal bulkheads arranged?
II. Group the following words into pairs of antonyms:
fixed
to cool
to connect
inside
watertight
a top
left
outside
mobile
fore
to separate
after
above
nonwater-tight
to heat
below
a bottom
right
III. Make verbs from the following nouns and translate them:
requirement
construction
resistance
development
dependence
location
difference
pusher
refrigerator
performance
producer
container
compression
ice-breaker
IV. Find sentences with the verbs in the Passive Voice. State the tense forms
of the verbs.
V. State forms and functions of the Infinitives in the following sentences:
1. The fore and after peaks are intended to arrange a vessel‘s trim. 2. To
provide strength and rigidity of the bulkheads they are strengthened with
stiffeners.
UNIT 6
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Superstructures
The majority of vessels are provided with superstructures. These
superstructures may comprise the forecastle, the midship superstructure and
the poop; or only a forecastle and midship superstructure. The most important
superstructure is the midship superstructure because its position is amidships
where the bending moments are the greatest. The deck houses do not add to
the ship's strength. They are only subjected to local stresses caused by the
weight of the ship, water and etc, and accordingly are of light construction.
Aluminium is widely used for the construction of deckhouses instead of steel.
It gives a considerable saving of weight.
1. Comprehension questions:
Are all the vessels provided with superstructures?
What may these superstructures comprise?
What is the most important superstructure?
What stresses are deck houses subjected to?
What material gives a considerable saving of weight?
II. Choose from list B synonyms to the words of list A:
A. to comprise, main, generally, original, if, to call, a performance,
employed, nowadays, the majority
B. a work, initial, provided, utilized, to name, at present,
most of, to contain, chief, commonly
III. Translate the following derivatives:
to differ - difference - different; to insist - insistence-insistent; to depend dependence - dependent, to correspond -correspondence - correspondent; to
resist - resistance - resistant; to assist - assistance - assistant; to carry - carrier
-carriage.
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IV. State the part of speech of the underlined words in the following
sentences:
1. The most important superstructure is the midship superstructure because its
position is amidships where the bending moments are the greatest. 2. They
are only subjected to local stresses caused by the weight of the ship and
water. 3. Aluminium gives a considerable saving of weight.
UNIT 7
Propulsive Forces
The resistance to motion must be overcome by a propelling force. The types
of propelling machinery normally used by ships are the diesel engine, the gas
turbine, and the steam turbine. The diesel engine and gas turbine are
increasingly used in combination. To discuss further the power transmission
from the ship's power plant, it is useful to include some definitions:
Brake horsepower1 (BHP) is the power at the engine.
Propeller horsepower2 (PHP) is the power delivered to the propeller. It is
equal to the effective horsepower, plus the power losses in the propeller and
the losses in the intersection between the propeller and the ship. Shaft
horsepower3 (SHP) is the power measured in the shafting within the ship, by
a torsionmeter.
Propeller Devices4. The types of propulsive devices presently in use to a
greater or lesser degree may be grouped into four distinct categories:
I. Screw propellers: a) fixed-pitch screws5; b) controllable pitch propellers6.
II. Paddle wheels7.
Ill Jet propellers8: a) water jet through submerged nozzle9;
b) water jet through surface nozzle10.
IV. Vertical axis propellers11.
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Screw propellers. A propeller has from two to six blades projecting from a
hub which is keyed to and driven by the propeller shaft. There are two
general types of marine propellers in use today. The first type is fixed-pitch
propellers. In this type of propeller, the position of the blades relative to the
hub cannot be altered. The second type is the C. P. Propeller . Controllablepitch propellers are provided with a mechanism for altering the position of
the blades relative to the hub at any time. The selection of the number of
blades may be dictated by hull vibration consideration.
Notes
brake horsepower (BHP) (=effective
(тормозная) мощность двигателя
horsepower)
–
эффективная
propeller horsepower (PHP) – мощность на гребном винте
shaft horsepower (SHP) – мощность по валу
propeller device – движитель
fixed-pitch propeller/screw – гребной винт фиксированного шага
controllable (-pitch) propeller – гребной винт регулируемого шага (ВРШ)
paddle wheel – гребное колесо
jet propeller – водометный движитель, водомет
water jet through
выбросом/струей
submerged
nozzle
–
водомет
с
подводным
water jet through surface nozzle – водомет с надводным выбросом/струей
vertical-axis propeller – крыльчатый движитель
I. Comprehension questions:
What are the three main types of propelling machinery normally used by
ships?
How many types of propeller devices do you know?
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What types of screws are there?
How many blades can a propeller have?
II. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to functions of the
Participle:
1. Speaking about the new methods of work the engineer told us many
interesting details. 2. Having been carefully tested the device was put into
operation? 3. Metals being used in industry in the form of alloys have better
properties than pure metals. 4-.The amount of heat generated depended on the
quality of the fuel used 5. The material collected served as valuable
information. 6, Provision has also been made for the carriage of 100, 40-ft
refrigerated containers on the hatch covers.
III. Read and translate the following word-combinations:
suitable for the carriage of grain cargoes, a soft nosed stem, semibalanced
rudder, an electro-hydraulic four-ram steering gear, underdeck wing tanks,
transverse wash bulkheads, side-rolling hatch covers.
IV. Find in the text synonyms to the following word-combinations:
Principal dimensions, engine-room, to be driven by, a classique system, side
tanks, to be covered by, framing backed by transverses, waterproof hatch
covers, a cruising speed.
V. Read and translate the following text:
FIRST OF TWO 103500-ton BULK CARRIERS
The B. and W.-engined "Rudby" has the following principal particulars: length
0. a. 250m., length b.p.249 m., breadth - 40 m., depth - 20 m., corresponding
deadweight -105500 tons, service speed – 15,5 knots, block coefficient1 0.82, grain capacity -417500ft5, crew - 38.
This vessel was constructed under the supervision of Det Norske Veritas2. The
hull is divided into nine cargo holds all of which are suitable for the carriage
of grain cargoes without shifting boards, while Nos 1,3,5,7 and 9 holds are
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strengthened for ore cargoes. Accomodation and machinery spaces are
arranged aft while the hull, form incorporates a transom stern and a soft nosed
stem terminating in a bulbous bow. The fabricated steel stern frame is of the
open water type and is equipped with a semibalanced rudder which has an
effective surface area of some 630 ft2.
This is activated by an electro-hydraulic four-ram steering unit which is
capable of moving the rudder hard over 60° in 30 sec when the vessel is fully
loaded at service speed. A conventional system of framing is employed in the
"Rudby" hull construction - this comprising longitudinal framing supported
by transverses except at the side shell in way of the underdeck wing tanks,
the engine-room, the fore and aft peaks, these being transversely framed. The
hull is divided into its nine holds by vertical transverse bulkheads of
rectangular-corrugated steel.
Six underdeck wing tanks, three port and three starboard are arranged for
water ballast only. Each runs the length of three holds and is arranged with a
mid-length transverse wash bulkhead. The bottom plating of these tanks is
sloped 30° to the horizontal. Each hold is closed by a two-part, side-rolling,
watertight hatch cover of Mac-Gregor design.
Notes
block coefficient – коэффициент полноты водоизмещения
Det Norske Veritas – Бюро Норвежский Веритас (классификационное
общество)
V. State the tense forms of the verbs in the Passive Voice. Find sentences
where these verbs are used.
must be overcome, are used, is delivered, is measured, may be grouped, is
keyed and driven, cannot be altered, are provided, may be dictated.
24
UNIT 8
Bulkers1
Bulkers are single-decked ships or ships with no tweendecks in their holds
but fitted out with various types of special cargo handling equipment. The
cargo is often shot straight into the hold2 and discharged by grabs3, pneumatic
suction plants4 and often bulk handling methods. There are bulk carriers of
over 150000 dwt today but the largest of those in normal use are between
60000 and 70000 dwt known as Panamax size5, while ―handy size‖6 bulkers
are those in the 25000 and 30000 dwt range.
Cement Carrier ―Sergo Zakariadze‖. The vessel is designed to carry cement,
while other bulk cargoes, such as grain, ores, coal, sugar and bauxite can also
be carried. The ship is a single-screw motor vessel7 with bulbous bow8,
transom stern9 and six-tier superstructure10. The hull is all welded, of
combined framing11. The ship has seven holds with a total capacity of 27015
cu. m. Cargo holds numbers 2,3,5 and 6 designed for the carriage of cement
have a double skin12 along the sides and sloping bulkheads throughout the
length of the holds. The cement holds inner bulkheads are corrugated13. The
holds are sealed with hatch covers. The hatch covers have four fillers14 to
couple them with air chambers15 for handling cement.
On a ballast passage the vessel can take ballast16 in double bottom tanks
under the cargo holds in underdeck tanks located in the upper part of the
cargo holds, in the forepeak and after peak tanks. Ballasting operations are
tested with the help of two onboard ballast centrifugal electricity driven
vertical self-priming pumps17 with a capacity of 400 cu. m/h. The pumps and
the valves are controlled from a special panel in the Central Control Post18.
Remote control of the filling or emptying of tanks is also available, because
the double bottom tanks are fitted with indicators showing the lowest level in
the tanks while drainage sumps19 in the holds have devices signalling when a
sump is full.
The main particulars of the vessel are: length o. a. – 184.4 m., length b. p. –
172.0 m., breadth – 22.8 m., depth amidships20 – 14.1 m., summer draught –
25
10.1 m., deadweight – 23.940 t., main engine output21 – 11.200 h. p., ballast
speed – 15.5 knots, sailing range22 – unlimited.
Notes
bulker - балкер
the cargo is shot straight into the hold – груз насыпают прямо в трюм
grab - грейфер
pneumatic suction plant – пневматическая установка
Panamax size vessel – суда, имеющие … тоннаж, отвечающий
требованиям администрации Панамского канала.
handy size vessels – суда удобных в использовании размеров
single-screw motor vessel – одновинтовое дизельное судно
bulbous bow – бульбообразный нос
transom stern – транцевая корма
six-tier superstructure – шести-ярусная надстройка
combined framing – комбинированный набор (корпуса судна)
double skin – двойная обшивка
corrugated - гофрированный
filler – приспособление для наполнения
air chamber – воздушная камера
ballast - балласт
centrifugal self-priming pump - центробежный самозаливающийся насос
Central Control Post – центральный пост управления
drainage sump – осушительный колодец
26
depth amidships – высота борта в средней части судна
output - мощность
sailing range – район плавания
Exercises
1. Read the text. Be ready to give a good reading of the text.
2. Prepare 10 questions on the text at home. Put these questions to your
partner in class.
3. Speak on:
1. cargo handling equipment of bulkers
2. design, cargo handling equipment and ballasting system of the bulker
―Sergo Zakatiadze‖
4. Translate the sentences paying attention to the passive constructions. Name
the form of the verbs in the Passive Voice.
1. The cargo is often shot straight into the hold and discharged by grabs. 2.
The vessel ―Sergo Zakariadze‖ is designed to carry cement, grain, ores, coal
and bauxite. 3. The holds are sealed with folding-type hatch covers. 4.
Ballasted operations are effected with the help of two vertical centrifugal
self-priming pumps. 5. The pumps and the valves are controlled from a
special panel in the Central Control Post. 6. All the double – bottom tanks are
fitted with indicators showing the lowest level in the tanks.
5. Define the part of speech of the underlined words.
Remote control of the filling or emptying of tanks is also available.
The hatch covers have four fillers to couple them with air chambers for
handling cement.
Drainage sumps in the holds have devices signalling when a sump is full.
27
The cargo is often shot straight into the hold and discharged by grabs,
pneumatic suction plants and other bulk handling methods.
UNIT 9
Container Ships.
The use of containers has continued to increase in recent years.
Containerization means the consolidation of goods of single or mixed
commodity1 into a freight container which may be closed or open which
would be 10ft, 20ft, 30ft or 40ft in length by 8ft wide and 9ft 6 inch high in
external cross-section. A container is designed to be handled mechanically
throughout the transit2. Specially designed cellular container ships and
efficient port facilities are essential in order to take full advantage of the
system.
Ships that carry containers can range from the cellular type full container
ship3 or semi-container ship where some of the cargo spaces can be used to
carry containers and roll – on / roll – off container ships on which the
containers are mounted on the wheels or trailers and are then rolled on the
ship and stowed complete with their undercarriage4.
The cellular type full container ship is equipped to carry containers in the
holds and on the hatch covers. Within the holds of the vessel there is a
cellular structure of angle bars5 forming container guides into which the
containers are stored, one on top of another. The containers carried on deck
are secured to ensure that they will not shift. The only movement of the
container within the ship is vertical, thus loading and discharging is carried
out by vertical movement only. Heights of container stacks may be six high
in the holds and three high on deck. The number of cells depends on the
ship‘s breadth. The distinguishing features of container ships are very large
hatch covers and elimination of the tweendecks6. The fore and aft groups of
cells are separated by heavy web frames7 to support the cells and give the
rigidity8 to the vessel. Each cell is for one container stack and extends
28
vertically from the coaming level to the tank-top. The basic functions of the
cell-guide system9 are:
1. to facilitate the lowering and positioning of containers;
2. to distribute the lateral loads (arising from the rolling motion of the ship) to
the adjacent hull structure10.
Cellular type full container ships are serviced by shore-based or shipboard
gantry cranes11 and have the advantage of greater deadweight capacity.
Container ships have a high service speed ranging from 16 to 26 knots, and
even up to 30 knots, in dependence on the ship‘s deadweight.
Notes
goods of single or mixed commodity – товары одной или нескольких
разновидностей
throughout the transit – на протяжении всей перевозки
cellular type full container ship –специализированное контейнерное судно
ячеистого типа
complete with their undercarriage – вместе с тележками
angle bar - угольник
elimination of tweendecks – устранение твиндеков
web frame – рамные бимсы для членения групп ячеек по длине судна
to give rigidity – придать жесткость
cell-guide system – система вертикальных направляющих
to distribute lateral loads to the adjacent hull structure – для равномерного
распределения нагрузки на корпус судна при бортовой качке
gantry crane – портальный кран
29
Exercises
1. Read the text and notes to the text.
2. Give Russian equivalents to the following English word combinations.
in order to; to take advantage of; a great deal of; to be capable of; to differ
from; in dependence on.
3. Make up sentences using expressions from exercise №2.
4. Translate the following word-combinations:
container ship operation
full container service
overall transport costs
cell-guide system
shore-based crane
ship-board gantry crane
container handling
5. Translate the following sentences:
RO-RO ships are designed to carry wheeled vehicles.
Such service offers the maximum possibilities for reduction on overcall
transport costs, since individual packages are handled only twice.
By omission of tweendecks and using large hatches containers are stacked as
many as high, vertical guides being used for locating and retaining the
containers in position.
6. Finish up the sentences.
LO-LO vessels are serviced by…
Cellular type full container vessels are equipped to…
30
By omission of tweendecks and using large hatches, containers can be
staked…
Vertical guides are used for…
Cellular ships have the advantage of…
The distinguishing features of container ships are…
Container ships have…
7. Comprehension questions.
What does containerization mean?
What is container designed for?
What are the advantages of a standard container?
What kind of ships and port facilities are required to take full advantage of
containerization?
What are cellular type full container vessels equipped with?
How are containers stacked on board cellular type full container ships?
What is the advantage of cellular ships with shore – based cranes?
How are containers mounted on board RO-RO ships?
8. Read the text without a dictionary. Give the main idea of the text in
Russian.
All ships designed to carry unitized cargo (such as container /ships, RO/RO
ships and barge carriers) make up a part of different transport technological
systems. The term "transport technological system" includes a complex of
technical means functioning on the basis of coordinated technological,
organization and commercial measures providing maximum effective carriage
of goods on certain routes, from the shipper to the receiver. Thus, the
container transport technological system provides coordinated carriage of
containers by railway and sea transport means. The complex of technical
means of the container system comprises container ships (both ocean-going
31
and feeder ships), specialized port cargo handling complexes (container
terminals), specialized railway and motor road transport means, container
depots, containers and container maintenance and repair facilities.
9. Define forms and functions of the Infinitives in the following sentences:
The use of containers has continued to increase in recent years.
Specially designed cellular container ships are essential in order to take full
advantage of the system.
To support container ship operation a great deal of capital has been invested
in depots road and roll vehicles, ships and port terminals.
The basic function of the cell-guide system is to facilitate the lowering and
positioning of containers.
10. Define the part of speech of the underlined words in the following
sentences.
The basic function of the all-guide system is to facilitate the lowering and
positioning of containers and to distribute the lateral loads from the
containers (arising from the rolling motion of the ship) to the adjacent hull
structure.
Container ships have a high service speed ranging from 16 to 26 knots.
The distinguishing features of container ships are very large hatch opening.
The only movement of the container within the ship is vertical, thus loading
and discharging is carried out by vertical movement only.
32
UNIT 10
Trawlers
In fish harbour and on seaways one can meet many small fishing vesselstrawlers. There are two types of trawlers: side and. stern. The sizes of them
are usually very different. The length of the side trawlers1 is not more than
50-60 metres and they have special equipment for side trawling. The stern
trawlers rise and drop trawl through the special stern slipway2. Side trawlers
have superstructure aft and stern trawlers3 have it in the middle of the hull or
forward.
All trawlers are equipped with the powerful trawl winch4 and other special
installations including refrigerating and freezing. The capacity of them is
between 20 and 50 tons of the fish per day. Sometimes trawlers have
controllable pitch propellers. Latest giant vessels are equipped with air
conditioning installations. All trawlers have trawls made of synthetic fibre
nets.
Notes
side trawler – бортовой траулер
slipway – слип
stern trawler – кормовой траулер
trawl winch – траловая лебедка
I. Comprehension questions:
What types of trawlers are there?
What can you say about their superstructures?
What is the capacity of these trawlers?
33
What kinds of equipment do the trawlers include?
What are the trawls usually made of?
II. Define according to the suffixes to what part of speech these words
belong:
indirectly, powerless, capacity, equipment, liner , bulbous, echo-sounder,
permissible, superlarge, accommodation, extensive, steering, particularly,
basic, arrangement, provision, original, rudder, owner, rectangular,
refinement, powerful, resistance, stainless, various, effectiveness, different,
feature, possibility.
III. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the
functions of the Infinitives:
1. The cargo space to be divided into 5 holds will be utilized for the carriage
of mixed bulk cargoes. 2. To carry mixed bulk cargoes the cargo space is
divided into 5 main holds. 3. This vessel was the first to be equipped with
such engines. 4. To meet modern requirements the vessel was equipped with
modern machinery and cargo-handling equipment. 5. The tanker to be
constructed will carry two different types of petroleum products. 6. The
equipment to be supplied during 1998 to 2005 will consist of generators,
high-voltage and low-voltage distribution equipment, convertors and motors.
UNIT 11
Tankers
At present about 1/3 of the world‘s shipping tonnage is tanker tonnage.
Tankers are especially designed to carry liquids in bulk. Their construction is
different from that of dry cargo ships: they are built on a cellular system by
which the vessel is divided longitudinally and transversely into
compartments. Tankers are equipped with pipes, valves and pumps to transfer
cargo from/to the shore and from one tank to another when necessary. They
also vary in size from 2000 dwt coasting tanker1 to supertankers of 70000
34
dwt. The average size is between 20000 and 40000 dwt., and speeds vary
between 10 and 20 knots.
Nowadays there are also mammoth tankers2 of 70000 to 150000 dwt, very
large crude carriers3 (VLCC) of 150000 to 300000 dwt, ultra large crude
carriers (ULCC) of 300000 to 800000 dwt and even megatankers4 of
1000000 dwt and larger. VLCCs and ULCCs require 65 to 90ft channel depth
and sufficient space in which to turn. They are 300-400 metres long. The
deepest ports have depths of 45 to 60ft in dredged channels. Only 60 ports in
the world have depths of 65 ft and can accommodate most of the VLCC size
vessels.
A tanker spends most of time at sea, as the loading and discharging of liquids
is effected very vast. As tanker is never long in the port, overhauls5 and
repairs are difficult to be effected. More over, no repairs which might spark
off a fire6 can be made unless the tanks are free from gases which might
cause an explosion.
Notes
coasting tanker – каботажный танкер
mammoth tankers – гигантский танкер
very large crude carriers – танкер для перевозки сырой нефти
megatankers – мегатанкер
overhaul – капитальный ремонт, ремонт с переборкой
no repairs which might spark off a fire – огневые ремонтные работы
(резка, сварка)
Exercises
1. Read and translate the text using a dictionary.
35
2. Prepare 10 questions on the text at home. Put these questions to your
partner in class.
3. Speak on:
1. cargo handling equipment of tankers
2. classification of tankers
4. Read the text without a dictionary. Give arguments that tanker ―I. Broz
Tito‖ is ecologically clean.
Ecologically Clean Product Tanker "I. Broz Tito"
'The tanker is designed to carry oil and oil products of four grades
simultaneously. It is a one-deck single screw vessel with a forecastle and a
poop, with aft location of the engine room and the superstructure, with a bow
bulb, a bow thruster1 and a transom stern.
The vessel complies with SOLAS 74 and its 1978 Protocol, MARPOL 73/78*,
the requirements of the Oil Companies International Marine Forum to tanker
manifolds2 sanitation and labour protection rules as well as regulations
governing passage through the Suez, Panama and Kiel Canals, the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, etc.
In way of the cargo tanks two longitudinal bulkheads arc installed which,
together with the transverse corrugated bulkheads, divide the cargo space into
six central and five (on each side) wing tanks. There are also two slop tanks3. In
the section under the cargo space and the engine room the ship has a double
bottom arrangement. Each cargo tank is fitted with its own pump having a
maximum capacity of 250 m3/h. The pumps are hydraulically driven and
operated from the cargo handling Central Control Post. The cargo system
allows the loading of four different grades simultaneously with a maximum
capacity of 3,000 m3/h.
The cargo handling CCP houses measuring instruments and equipment for
remote handling4 of loading and discharging, ballasting and tank washing. To
gauge5 cargo levels the ship operates a radar system on microprocessors.
36
The ship is fitted with the systems of monitoring temperature in the tanks and
pressure in the piping.
Tank washing is carried out with the use of portable cleaning machines. Waste
water6 is successively passed through two slop tanks for separation. Prior to
discharge into the sea it undergoes checks7 by an alarm system monitoring
and signalling excessive contents of oil products in dumped water.
The ship has an incinerator, an installation to treat sewage and fecal
water8, and a bilge water separator9.
- SOLAS 74 and its W978 Protocol – Международная конвенция по
безопасности жизни на море, вступившая в силу в 1974 г., и
дополнение к ней, принятое в 1978 г.
* - MARPOL 73/78 Международная Конвенция по предотвращению
загрязнения моря с судов, вступившая в силу с 1973 г., и дополнение
к ней, принятое в 1978 г.
Notes
bow thruster – носовое подруливающее устройство
tanker manifolds – коллектор трубопровода
slop tanks – отстойная цистерна грязной трюмной воды
remote handling – дистанционное управление
to gauge – замерять
waste water – отработанная вода
to undergo checks – подвергаться проверке
incinerator…to treat sewage and fecal water – установка для очистки
сточных и фекальных вод
a bilge water separator – сепаратор трюмной воды
37
5. Translate the text using a dictionary.
6. Speak on:
the idea of the tanker
tanker design
automation systems and main installation of the tanker
why the tanker is ecologically clean
7. Find, read and translate sentences with verbs in the Passive Voice. Define
their forms.
8. Define the part of speech of the underlined words. State their forms and
functions in the following sentences:
Each cargo tank is fitted with its own pump having a maximum capacity of
250 m3/h.
The cargo handling CCP houses measuring instruments and equipment for
remote handling of loading and discharging, ballasting and tank washing.
The ship is fitted with the systems of monitoring temperature in tanks and
pressure in the piping.
Tank washing is carried out with the use of portable cleaning machines.
Prior to discharge into the sea it undergoes checks by an alarm system
monitoring and signalling excessive contents of oil products in dumping
water.
38
UNIT 12
Roll-on/Roll-off Vessels1
Ro-Ro vessels are designed to carry all sorts of rolled vehicles and motorcars
– by driving them on/off the ship and unitized cargo2 and lengthy/bulky cargo
units.
The types of access and distribution facilities are numerous: stern/bow doors
and side ports3, the doors being normally hydraulically operated; access
ramps4, internal ramps; hoistable platforms5, lifts; bulkhead doors. The actual
link between the shore and the ship consists of a bridge ramp hinged at the
shore end and supported at the other end in such a way that the ramp can be
adjusted to varying tide levels6. The ramp should be sufficiently wide to
provide at least two traffic lanes7 for the vehicles. The connection between
the ramp and the ship is by a secondary ramp. The latter may be a door or an
internal ramp.
Loading may be effected through the stern/bow doors or side ports. On some
medium-sized ships both bow and stern doors are provided, the ramp
arrangement at the bow being similar to that at the stern. Such arrangement
enables the vehicles to drive straight off the ship without having to be turned
or reversed8; hence the expression – ―drive-through‖ type vessel9.
Inside the vessel the vehicles are distributed throughout the cargo spaces by
either internal ramps10 or hoistable platform. Where space is available, fixed11
or movable ramps12 are used since they permit faster rates of loading than
mechanically operated vertical lifts. The fixed ramp has the disadvantage of
reducing parking space on the deck above and below it. It is of greater
advantage to use a hinge ramp which can be used as a closure13 for the deck
above.
If the stern bridge ramp is placed right in the direction of ship‘s fore-and-aft
center line, the ship can moor14 only stern to the berth15. When the ramp is
placed at an angle to the center line, the ship can moor either stern to or
alongside the berth. Such development in ship-to-shore access16 as slewing
ramp17 enables the ship to load and discharge rolled cargo directly astern,
over the port quarter18 or over the starboard quarter19. The advantage of the
39
slewing ramp is that it makes the ship independent of port facilities. The
slewing ramp moves round the stern through 80 deg. and is operated by
winches. Storage of the ramp is astern, and the stern opening forward of the
ramp is closed by a separate watertight door.
The advantages of RO-RO vessels:
independence of port facilities;
quick door-to-door service;
faster cargo handling rate and reduced turn round time;
as goods are in containers, the risk of damage or pilferage20 is reduced
The disadvantages of RO-RO vessels:
a considerable amount of cargo volume is occupied by vehicles and trailers;
a considerable space below the lower deck cannot be used for trailers.
Notes
Roll-on/Roll-off Vessels – судно с горизонтальной погрузкой/разгрузкой
unitized cargo – упакованный груз
side port – бортовой порт (проход)
access ramp – пандус, аппарель
hoistable platforms – подъемная платформа
tide level – уровень прилива
traffic lane – полоса движения
without having to
(разворачиваясь)
be
turned
or
reversed
–
не
поворачиваясь
hence the expression – ―drive-through‖ type vessel - отсюда – выражение –
судно со сквозным проездом
40
internal ramp – внутренняя аппарель
fixed ramp – пандус (аппарель)
movable ramp – шарнирная аппарель
closure – герметизация, закрытие
to moor - швартовать
berth – причал
ship-to-shore access – сход с корабля на берег
slewing ramp – поворотная аппарель
port quarter – скула левого борта
starboard quarter – стоянка правого борта
pilferage – мелкая кража
Exercises
1. Read the text without a dictionary and see how much of it you can
understand.
2. Read the text using a dictionary.
3. Put questions and get answers:
Model: A. Ask another student what RO-RO vessels are designed for.
B. What are RO-RO vessels designed for?
C. They are designed to carry rolled/wheeled vehicles.
Ask him:
how RO-RO vessels are loaded/unloaded;
41
what kind of access and distribution facilities he knows;
what kind of ramps he knows;
if he can explain what ―drive through‖ vessels are;
how vehicles are distributed throughout the ship;
what he can tell you about advantages/disadvantages of RO-RO vessels.
4. Read the text without a dictionary. Give the main idea of the text in
Russian:
The 22,690 dwt ocean-going RO-RO vessel "Magnitogorsk" (owned by the
Baltic Shipping Company in St. Petersburg) is designed to carry 20 and 40 ft
containers (including refrigerated ones), different wheeled vehicles,
automobiles, packaged goods, flats, packaged timber, rails and other cargo. The
vessel is loaded/unloaded through the stern door and the big ramp which is at a
36° angle to the ship's centre line. From the stern door fixed ramps lead up
and down to different decks. Loading equipment needed in ports always
follows on board the ship and comprises 7 fork-lift trucks1 (up to 20 tons
capacity), and two 40 ft. container vans2 having capacity of 30 tons each. The
holds are ventilated with a very efficient system 20 times an hour. The ship
has a sailing range of 30,000 nautical miles. Provisions are sufficient for 60
days. Since the ship is almost independent of port facilities, it can load and
discharge in any port of the world that will accommodate it.
Notes
fork-lift truck – вилочный погрузчик, автопогрузчик с вильчатым
захватом
container van - автофургон
5. Write out from the text ―Roll-on/Roll-off Vessels‖ sentences with the
Absolute Participle Construction. Translate these sentences into Russian.
42
6. Define the form of the verbs in the Passive Voice. Find sentences with the
passive forms of the verbs. Translate the sentences into Russian.
7. Define forms and functions of the Gerund in the following sentences:
RO-RO vessels are designed to carry all sorts of rolled vehicles and motor
cars – by driving them on/off the ship – and utilized cargo.
Loading may be effected through the stern/bow doors or side ports.
Such arrangement enables the vehicles to drive off the ship without having to
be turned or reversed.
The fixed ramp has the disadvantage of reducing valuable parking space on
the deck above and below it.
8. Define forms and functions of the Infinitive in the following sentences:
RO-RO vessels are designed to carry all sorts of rolled vehicles and motor
cars.
The ramp should be sufficiently wide to provide two traffic lanes for the
vehicles.
Such arrangement enables the vehicles to drive off the ship without having to
be turned or reversed.
It is of greater advantage to use a hinged ramp.
UNIT 13
Icebreakers
Russian people have been dreaming for years about building ships that could
sail across a frozen sea. The Russian Admiral Stepan Makarov, the creator of
the world's first icebreaker the "Yermak‖, was a keen advocate of the
development of the Arctic, "No other nation is as interested in icebreakers as
Russia", he wrote in his time.
43
After launching of the icebreaker ―Yermak‖ in 1899 several more icebreakers
were built. Until 1934 they were all fitted with steam engines, which,
although they did make long-distance cruises , in the arctic seas, could not
provide adequate power. Icebreakers with diesel-electric engines had greater
manoeuvrability. A new era in polar navigation came in 1959 when the
―Lenin‖, the world's first atomic powered icebreaker was built. The power
plant of the ―Lenin‖ is 44 thousand horse power. This enables her to sail over
heavy ice and manoeuvre in difficult ice-conditions.
And yet, the icebreaker "Lenin‖ was only a transitional stage in the
construction of such ships. The power of the icebreakers keeps growing. The
fleet of nuclear powered icebreakers was joined by the "Arktica" and the
‖Sibir", both with power plant of 75,000 hp and a displacement of 23,460
tons. Their top speed is 21 knots.
The new nuclear-powered icebreakers have prolonged the period of arctic
navigation. At the end of the 60s transport vessels could reach Dudinka
during only three months of the year. Since 1978 they have been able to reach
Dudinka - at the mouth of the Yenisei River - almost throughout the year.
The triumph of our nuclear-powered fleet came with the voyage of the
―Arktica‖ and the "Sibir" to the North Pole - a display of superb technical
strength and perfection of shipbuilding in Russia.
I. Comprehension questions:
What have Russian people been dreaming about for years?
Who was the first to design the world first icebreaker?
When was the ―Yermak‖ launched?
What engines were the icebreakers fitted with until 1934?
When did a new era in polar navigation come?
What is the power of the "Lenin" power plant?
44
What other nuclear-powered icebreakers were put into operation in the
1970s?
What was their displacement and top speed?
ІІ. Analyse and translate the following sentences;
Having been equipped with heavy cargo lifting gear, the ship is capable of
carrying a wide variety of dry cargoes in bulk or parcel form.
We know of these valves having been fitted to the carriers built in the U.S.A.
The crane is specifically designed for handling containers.
Many methods were tried but without obtaining any positive results.
The idea of creating a ship for operating under severe arctic conditions has
stimulated the appearance of icebreakers.
Our experiment is a step towards solving this problem.
Sailing in ice requires much skill.
III. Choose the proper word from those given in the brackets
1. The icebreaker is equipped with an atomic (reactor, engine, plant). 2. The
ship can sail any distance without calling at any (harbour, wharf, port). 3. The
giant (ship, vessel, derrick) is 134 metres long, 27 metres wide and as high as
a six-storey building. 4. The icebreaker "Lenin" has (powerful, powerless,
giant) atomic reactors. 5. The engine is equipped with (reliable, strong,
special) means of protection from the influence of radiation. 6. The "Sibir"
has many (advantages, disadvantages, features) over conventional
icebreakers.
45
UNIT 14
Hydrofoil Craft1
The hydrofoil craft is described as a hull supported, when operating, clear of
the water surface by the hydrodynamic lift of underwater wings or hydrofoils.
This type of dynamic support provides a greater reduction in resistance and
basically superior rough-water performance when compared to both planing
and displacement hulls in the same range speed.
Types of foils2. The two basic types of foil arrangements in extensive use are
surface piercing V-U-shaped foils and submerged foils.
Operation. Regardless of the type of foil, the basic action is essentially the
same. The boat starts from rest in a displacement condition and is
accelerated, generally through a conventional marine propulsion drive, to a
take-off speed where the weight of the boat is finally and completely
transferred to take off the foils. The lift on the foils brings the hull clear of the
water leaving only the propeller equipment and the effective foil surface
submerged.
Notes
hydrofoil craft – судно на подводных крыльях
types of foils – типы крыльев
I. Comprehension questions:
How is the hydrofoil craft described?
What does this type of dynamic support provide?
What are the two types of foil arrangements?
46
Does the basic action of the craft depend on the type of foil?
How is the hydrofoil accelerated?
II. Read and translate these word-combinations:
hydrodynamic lift of foils, basically superior performance, when compared
to, in the same range of speed, in extensive use, regardless of the type of foil,
to start from rest, finally and completely, effective foil surface.
III. Find in the text synonyms to the following words and expressions:
underwater wings, with no attention to the type of foils, substantially, usual,
to begin from rest, below the water surface.
IV. Translate the following text without a dictionary and reproduce it as close
to the contents as possible using:
hull supported by the hydrodynamic lift of hydrofoils, types of foils, to start
from rest, a conventional marine propulsion drive, to transfer the weight of
the boat to the foils, to bring the hull clear of the water
"Meteor"
A hydrofoil craft named "Meteor" built in the USSR is capable to carry 150
passengers at a speed of over 40 knots. She is designed for service on inland
waterways and she also can operate on some coastal routs. The "Meteor" was
built at the "Krasnoye Sormovo" shipyard, Gorki, and her principal
dimensions are as follows: length o.a. - '112 ft. 10 in, beam - 19 ft, draught on
hydrofoils - 5 ft 11 in, draught afloat - 7 ft 8 in. She has three passenger
saloons, all situated in the superstructure. The windows of the forward and
after saloons are arranged to give all round vision. The "Meteor" is of light
alloy construction part riveted and part welded. Her hull and superstructure
are stiffened by transverse bulkheads. The hydrofoils are made of stainless
steel and are welded. For propulsion the"Meteor‖ has two diesel engines
driving two screws and each producing 850 s.h.p.
47
UNIT 15
IARGEST FINNISH-BUIL/T SHIP
The 13,500/11,900-ton "Western Trader" with 6,300 b.h.p. Sulzer Machinery
and
A.C.Auxiliaries
The "Western Trader", completed as a closed shelterdecker of 15,500 tons on
a draught of 9.09 m. (29 ft 9 in.) for the Western Transport Corporation,
bears the distinction of being the largest ship yet built in Finland. She has
been constructed to the requirements for Lloyd's Class 100A1, and the hull is
of welded construction throughout, except for the riveted stringer angle1 and
bilge strake2. Longitudinal framing3 is adopted for the upper deck and in the
double bottom, with transverse framing4 elsewhere.
Centreline bulkheads are fitted in the holds, these being one-third of the
height, and trimming hatches5 are provided in the second deck for grain
cargo. A strong-room aft of No. 5 hold is strengthened and fitted with
necessary piping to enable it to serve as a ballast tank. The upper deck
hatches have Tell steel hatch covers and are served by twelve 5-ton and four
3-ton derricks. All 16 winches operate on alternating current and are of
Thrige manufacture as are also the 80 h.p. windlass with a slipring motor6
and the capstans7.
The accomodation, arranged amidships, provides berths for a complement of
44 and six spare, all living spaces being served by a mechanical heating and
ventilating system of a combined high-and low-pressure type. Sound
insulation is applied to the engine casing8 above the upper deck level.
Navigational aids include a Sperry Mk.XIV gyro compass9 with automatic
pilot and course recorder10, an Atlas echosounder11, a SAL log12 and Dacca
TM46 radar equipment.
Notes
48
riveted stringer angle – угольник палубного стрингера
bilge strake – скуловой пояс (наружной обшивки)
longitudinal framing – продольная рама (каркас)
transverse framing – поперечная рама (каркас)
trimming hatch – досыпной люк; люк для штивки груза
slipring motor – асинхронный электродвигатель
capstan – шпиль, кабестан
engine casing – кожух двигателя, машинный кожух
gyro compass – гироскопический компас, гирокомпас
course recorder – курсограф
echosounder – эхолот
log – лаг (т.е. прибор для измерения скорости; а тж. вахтенный журнал)
I. Comprehension questions:
What type of a ship is described in the text?
The hull of the ship is of welded construction, isn't it?
How is the vessel framed?
What hatches are provided in the second deck for grain cargo?
How many winches operate on alternating current?
How many persons does the accommodation provide berths for?
What do the navigation aids include?
II. Group the following words into pairs of antonyms:
to exclude reliable
automatic partially
conventional to include
thin
thick manual
unreliable
fully
unusual
III. Translate the following words pointing out their roots, suffixes and
prefixes:
49
discontinuous
inefficiency
strengthen
careless
a reconstruction
successful an arrangement
to surround
controllable
indirectly
to
unmanned submarine
IV. Read and translate these abbreviations:
i.e., e.g., etc., ft., in., b.h.p., p.h.p., mm., r.p.m., lb.
V. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the Gerund
1. The machine broke on account of its having been made of poor material. 2.
They have learned of his starting a series of new laboratory experiments. 3.
We were told about their having studied a number of problems connected
with the development of ship-building. 4. We know of this submarine having
been designed for exploration purposes. 5. They insisted on the experiment
being made to study the problem in detail. 6. The failure was due to the
operator's having been careless.
VI. State the tense forms of the verbs in the passive constructions
The ship has been constructed to the requirements for Lloyd‘s Class 100A1.
Langitudinal framing is adopted for the upper deck.
Centreline bulkheads are fitted in the holds and trimming hatches are
provided in the second deck for grain cargo.
The upper deck hatches are served by twelve 5-ton and four 3-ton derricks.
A strong-room aft of №5 hold is strengthened and fitted with necessary
piping.
50
UNIT 16
A 4 200-B.H.P. RUSSIAN SALVAGE TUG
At Galve, in Sweden, the Galve Varv recently completed the ocean-going
salvage tug "Pamir", the first of four similar ships for the Lifesaving Service
of Russia. Designed, constructed and equipped to Lloyd's Register class 100
Al "For towing services1‖, and with a hull specially strengthened for
navigation in ice, the tug also compiles with rules and regulations of the
Register of Shipping of this country. The main particulars of the "Pamir" are
as follows:
Length, overall
- 238 ft. 4 in.
Length, b.p. - 219 ft. 7 in.
Breadth
- 38 ft. 2 in.
Draught
- 12 ft. 2 in.
Gross register - 1,442 tons
Net register
- 419 tons
Speed
- 17 knots
Power
- 4,200 b.h.p.
The salvage and fire-fighting equipment2 installed on the "Pamir" includes
underwater television, diving gear3, underwater welding and cutting units4, a
decompression chamber5 and an 800-m3/hr. electrically driven air
compressor with 11 tappings6. There are three fire monitors7 served by two
fire pumps driven by one 560-b.h.p. Diesel engine, the pumps having an
output in series of 450 tons/hr at 20 kg./cm2, and, in parallel, of 900 tons/or.
Six portable fire extinguishers8 are also fitted.
For salvage purposes, there are two Diesel-driven pumps with a total capacity
of 2,600 tons/hr. and nine portable pumps with a combined capacity of 1,650
tons/hr. A towing winch9 is fitted on the after end of the "Pamir" with pull of
20 tons at 8 knots and a maximum of 40 tons.
51
The tug's propellers are of the KaMeWa variable-pitch type and each is
coupled to a 10-cylinder, four-stroke10, turbocharged M.A.N. Diesel engine11
developing 2,100 b.h.p. at 275 r.p.m. These engines are non-reversible12 and
are fitted with Woodward governors13.
Three-phase, 380-volt, 50-cycle alternating current14 is supplied by three 160kW. and two 75-kW. alternators15, each driven by a M.A.N. Diesel engine.
They are arranged for parallel operation and the necessary equipment is
available to enable direct current to be supplied to other ships.
Pumps are installed on the "Pamir" for supplying fuel oil16, lubricating oil17
and fresh water to other ships. Navigational equipment includes a Russian
design of radar.
Notes
towing/tug service – буксирная служба
salvage and fire-fighting equipment – спасательное и пожарное
оборудование
diving gear – водолазное устройство
welding and cutting units – приборы для сварки и резки
decompression
декомпрессии
chamber
–
декомпрессионная
tapping – заборное отверстие
fire monitor – лафетный стол
fire extinguisher – огнетушитель
towing winch – буксирная лебедка
four-stroke – четырехтактный
turbocharged engine – двигатель с турбо наддувом
non-reversible – нереверсивный
52
камера,
камера
governor – регулятор, управляющее устройство
alternating current – переменный ток
alternator – генератор переменного тока, синхронный генератор
fuel oil – нефтяное топливо, мазут
lubricating oil – смазочное масло
I. Comprehension questions:
What kind of a ship did the Galve Varv recently complete?
What services was the tug build for?
What are the main particulars of the "Pamir"?
What special equipment is installed on board the ship?
How many diesel-driven pumps are there for salvage purposes?
Where is a towing winch fitted?
What can be said about the tug's propellers?
And what are they coupled to?
What is the alternating current supplied by?
What are pumps intended for?
II. Stifle the passages of the text using your own sentences
ІІІ. Retell the text using the questions and the plan of Exercise II
IV. Read and translate the sentences (grammar analysis)
1. Successful trials having been completed the ferry went into operation. 2.
This engine is arranged, for running on heavy oil. 3. After carrying out the
expedition the research ship arrived at the port. 4. The cargo-handling
equipment being very extensive, the dockers unloaded the vessel ahead of
time. 5. A new motor cargo ship being built at this shipyard will be
strengthened in the bow for navigation in ice. 6. The fish holds have a
capacity of 8.829 cu.ft., all of them being served by a common hatch divided
into four sections. 7. Having been built for operation in confined waters of
53
docks, the floating crane has high manoeuvrability. 8. By using mooring
buoys a deepwater port can be created along a costline. 9. Barges can be
loaded with the principal different cargo. 10. All ships designed to carry
unitized cargo make up a part of technological systems. 11. Plating of 45 mm
thickness is used in the construction of multi-purpose vessels. 12. The cranes
are specifically designed for Arctic application with the machinery contained
within the closed and heated housing, the exposed components of the cranes
being of low temperature steel. 13. Centrifugal pumps comprise a class of
pumping machinery in which pumping of liquids or generation of head is
effected by rotary motion of one or more impellers. 14. Located on the aft
side of fishing gantry above the stern ramp there are two aft derricks
employed when shooting the net. 15. The hydrofoil has had no difficulty in
maintaining its projected cruising speed of 90 km/hr (56 knots).
V. Read and translate the following text.
Since June 1986 American coal has been forwarded from Rotterdam to
Portugal in a self-discharging ship (саморазгружающееся судно). The coal
is intended for a new power station in the port of Sines where there are no
facilities for unloading coal. The coal is brought to Rotterdam from the
United States in ordinary bulk carriers of 80,000 to 1000,000 dwt. Here the
coal is transferred in the 37,800 dwt self-discharging bulker "Atlantic
Superior". The ship, owned by Canada Steamship Line (CSL), is fully
occupied in carrying coal between Rotterdam and Sines.
The combined use of a large bulk carrier for the main stage of the voyage and
a smaller self-discharging ship for the transit stage enables benefits of
economies while at the same time investment (вложение капитала) in
unloading equipment in the port of destination is made unnecessary.
CSL has fourteen self-discharging vessels for carrying dry bulk cargoes. CSL
self-discharging ships unload their cargoes by means of a gravity hopper
system (система гравитационного хопра), consisting of conveyor belts
(ленточный транспортер) on the bottom of the hold, a lifting system to
bring the cargo up to the deck and a long boom with a conveyor belt to move
54
the cargo on to the quay. All this takes place at a speed of 6,000 tons per
hour.
The List of Abbreviations
a.c. = alternating current – переменный ток
b.h.p. = brake horse power – тормозная (эффективная) мощность
cu. = cubic – кубический
d.c. = direct current – постоянный ток
deg. = degree – градус, степень
deg. C = degrees Centigrade – градус Цельсия
dw. = deadweight – полная вместимость, дедвейт
etc. = et cetera – и так далее
ft. = foot/feet – фут, футы
h., hr. = hour – час
h.p. = high pressure – высокое давление
h.p. = horse power – лошадиная сила
in. = inch – дюйм
i.h.p. = indicated horse power – индикаторная мощность
kc/s = kilocycles per second – килогерц
lb. = libra (pound) – фунт
ltd. = limited – с ограниченной ответственностью
kva = kilovolt-Ampere – киловольт – ампер
kw = kilowatt – киловатт
kwhr, kwh = kilowatt hour – киловатт в час
55
m/h = miles per hour – миль в час
min. = minute – минута
p.h.p = propeller horse power – мощность на гребном винте
psi = pounds per square inch – фунтов на квадратный дюйм
r.p.m. = revolutions per minute – число оборотов в минуту
shp = shaft horse power – мощность на гребном валу
sq. = square – квадрат, квадратный
via = through – через
v.v. = vice versa – наоборот
56
FINNISH-BUILT CRUISE LINER
Shipping World and Shipbuilder
The vessel described in this article is the first to be completed of three
ordered, from the Helsinki shipyard of the Finnish builders by the Royal
Caribbean Cruise Line. This shipping company is jointly owned by I. M.
Skaugen & Co and Anders Wilhelmsen & Co, both of Oslo, and the Gotaas
Larsen Shipping Corporation of New York, and it is intended that this first
vessel, 'Song of Norway' , which will be based in the port of Maimi, will be
used in conjunction with her sister ships for short cruises in the Caribbean.
Each of this series of three ships will be propelled by four Wartsila mediumspeed diesel engines and the machinery arrangement is basically the same as
that of the 'Finlandia', see 'Shipping World & Shipbuilder', September 1967.
Since 'Finlandia' was built however, radical changes have taken place in both
the internal and external styling of such vessels as cruise ships, and this is
immediately apparent from the external appearance of the present ship. Of
note are the exaggerated clipper bow, the enclosed sun deck area amidships,
the tiered arrangement of sun deck at the after end, and the circular
observation room built on to the massive structure forming the funnel. These
features do not, however, detract from the ship's appearance but enhance her
function as a cruise vessel, and 'Song of Norway' , one of six passenger
vessels on order at Wartsila, will undoubtedly do much to establish the yard
as competent builders of this class of ship.
‗Song of Norway‘ has been constructed for classification by Det norske
Veritas 1 A 1 and also complies with the Norwegian 'Skibskontrollen's rules
and the requirements of SOLAS 1960, including the amendments
incorporated in 1966 and 1967. For vessel's operating from an American port
the requirements of the U. S. Department of Health Regulation and the U. S.
Coast Guard, as regards fire protection, escape and standards of ventilation
must be complied with, and this ship fulfills all of the relevant requirements.
In order to minimise the fire risk and to obtain the notation restricted fire risk,
the only significant amount of timber used in the ship's construction and
57
furnishing is in the oregon pine deck cladding and the teak handrails, all
furniture being incombustible. This latter requirement was met by completely
new lines of incombustible furniture being manufactured and supplied to the
ship by the Finnish company Asco Oy.
The ship has been designed by Wartsila in conjunction with the owners; final
design of external features such as the pronounced bow, and the observation
lounge built on to the funnel, being arrived at after careful investigation into
the weight and stability penalties involved. Internal design has been to the
owners' requirements.
The forefoot terminates in a ram form bow and the hull lines in this area and
at the stern, which is of the cruiser type fitted with twin semibalanced
rudders, can be seen from the accompanying lines plan. This drawing also
gives the position of the
bow thruster opening in the hull. The underwater hull shape was finally
arrived at after extensive tank testing to determine the best form to adopt.
These tests included experiments on models fitted with single and twin
rudder arrangements, from which it was decided that the additional cost and
complexity of twin rudders was justified.
On cruise vessel, where passengers require the use of large areas of deck
space, this is invariably made available at the after end. In order to ensure
that the after decks would be soot free, wind tunnel tests were undertaken so
that the path taken by the exhaust gases when leaving the funnel could be
observed. The funnel shape ultimately adopted performs the function of
carrying exhaust gases and soot clear of the decks, in addition to providing a
structure to which the observation room, named 'Viking Crown', could be
attached. This room was added fairly late in the design stage and a penalty of
the addition of 100 tons of fixed ballast has had to be paid for its inclusion.
Because of damage stability considerations the maximum allowable height of
the ship's centre of gravity was 11.42 m. The inclining test revealed that the
actual figure attained is 11.33 m. In addition, the final dead-weight of 3151
tons is only 151 tons greater than the contractual deadweight of 3000 tons.
58
Steel for this ship has been supplied from the steelworks at Rautaruuki in
northen Finland, and apart from where required by the classification society,
no higher tensile steel has been used. Similarly, only small amounts of
aluminium, for the forward mast and parts of the funnel, have been used.
It is noticeable that there are no windows in the forward facing part of the
superstructure below the boat deck. This is partly for strength reasons and
partly because the view would largely be obstructed by the foredeck anyway.
Notes
1. order (v) - заказывать
order (n) - заказ
But: in order to – для того, чтобы
2. both ..... and -и .... и, .
3. of note ... - примечательно
4. as regards - что касается,
5. to meet the requirements –отвечать требованиям
6. to be fitted with – быть оборудованным чем либо
7. consideration – учет, рассмотрение
8. to supply - поставлять
9. apart from - кроме
10. high tensile steel – сталь с высоким сопротивлением на разрыв
11. to make available – делать доступным
59
Grammar
Look through the passage beginning with: On a cruise vessel ....
and find there:
1. Participles I and II
2. Gerund
3. Infinitive
and define their functions
Translate the passage in writing.
Find
a) sentences with Independent Participle Construction
b) sentences with predicates in the Present Perfect Passive
Passenger accommodation
There are six decks arranged for passenger use, the lower three A- , B- , and
C - decks being given over to cabins, with the exception of an entrance hall
and one or two shops situated on A- deck. This is a single-class ship capable
of accommodating 870 persons and the majority of cabins are two-berth with
private toilet and shower. There are nine de- luxe cabins ranged along the
port side on the boat deck, and these are larger than the standard cabin and
have the refinements of a bath and refrigerator fitted. A very compact
combined toilet, shower and wash basin cabinet have been developed by the
builders especially for ships of this type and these units, which are fitted with
60
their own piping which only needs connecting to the ship's system, have been
used throughout the accommodation, except for the nine de-luxe cabins.
The usual range of cabin services, telephone, radio and television outlets, etc
are provided for. Hanging space for clothes is closed off by curtaining,
obviating the fitting of wardrobe doors.
Although basically a single-class ship, a range of 12 fare prices is available
because of price differentials depending on the choice of location of the
cabins within the vessel, whether there is natural daylight in the cabin or not,
etc. On A- , B-, C - decks there are two passageways running almost the
length of the ship which divide the vessel into three, as can be seen from the
general arrangement drawing. These passageways can of course be sectioned
off by fire doors. As an aid to recognition, each passageway has been given a
Norwegian name- Haakon VII's Gate for example.
Principal Particulars
Length o. a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168.3 m
Length b. p.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137.33 m
Length on WL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143.83 m
Breadth, moulded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.0 m
Breadth at LWL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.0 m
Draught to LWL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 m
Draught, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 m
Depth, moulded to
A deck
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 m
Depth, moulded to
B deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 m
Depth, moulded to
C deck
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 m
61
Depth, moulded to
D deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 m
Deadweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3151 tons
Displacement on design
WL, moulded including
appendages
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11518 m3
Gross tonnage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18400
Block coefficient on
design WL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5327
Prismatic coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5717
Midship section coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9318
Waterline area coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7171
Passenger capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Machinery
output 4 x 4500 bhp at 410 rev/min
Service speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 knots
Trial speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7 knots
____________________________________________________________
The ship has two main staircases, one forward and one aft, each stairway
being flanked by two lifts. At each deck level the stairways have mimic
diagrams which show the observers' position within the ship. The colours of
the lines used on the diagrams for the different decks correspond with the
colour of carpeting to be found on that deck.
62
Passenger accommodation and public rooms are to the design of the Danish
designer M. Hammer and are intended to particularly appeal to American
taste.
Starting at the top of the ship, the Viking Crown observation lounge and bar,
abaft the funnel, can hold 50 people and from here partial views of the
forward part of the ship and views of the after decks can be had. This circular
room is some 27 m above sea level.
On the bridge deck, so called 'sun walks' have been provided which overlook
the pool area of the deck below. At bridge deck level just aft of the mast,
tiered seats have been arranged facing aft to form seating for an open-air
cinema.
Amidships on the sun deck is the large heated swimming pool. This is filled
with sea water and the entire area around the pool is enclosed by screens for
protection against the wind. Forward of the pool is a bar and aft two sauna
baths.
Nine extra-large cabins are arranged along the port side of the boat deck, and
these are all named after famous explorers.The aftermost cabin connects with
a small writing room called 'Grieg's Room' , and when conferences are held
aboard, this cabin and the adjoining room would be used as the cabin and
conference office respectively for the conference director. Across the passage
way, which has observation windows set in the panelling for viewing into the
swimming pool, are located the hospital forward, the officers mess and aft the
'Peer Gynt Suite' . This latter space which is L-shaped is used as a card room,
library and cocktail lounge.
Aft on this deck is the Lounge of the Midnight Sun which is fitted with a
circular bar and has a small circular dance floor. This space for 215 persons
can be divided off so that part can be used as a lido terrace bar serving the
lido situated aft of the lounge and the rest used as a nightclub. Predominantly
dark colours, black , purple and dark blue have been used in this space for the
groups of tables and sofas, each of which is intended to accommodate only
small parties of people. Atmosphere is provided by carefully chosen lighting
effects which include lights which shine through the table tops, and a system
of projectors concealed in the deckhead which project woodland scenes, etc
on to screens around the room.
63
Notes
Mind the following words and word-combinations: aft, abaft, after
mimic diagram – мнемоническая схема
lido – бассейн под открытым воздухом
set - 1. установка 2) набор, комплект 3) ряд
the rest - остальное
deckhead – подволока
Pay attention to the different meanings of the word "range" : 1) диапазон, 2)
линия,3) ряд, 4) длина, 5)дальность плавания
Grammar
1. Look at page 5 and state: what part of speech these words belong to:
line 3: situated
line 4: accommodating
line 9: piping, connecting
line 12: hanging, curtaining, fitting
Find sentences with Independent Participle Construction
Principal public rooms
The principal public rooms are located on the restaurant deck, the most
important spaces being named after musical shows. Right forward is the ' My
64
Fair Lady ' lounge which has an orange and yellow and orange and red colour
scheme. This lounge can accommodate 450 persons and has space for an
orchestra. There is also a dance floor and a large cocktail bar having a pantry
and store space behind.
Aft of this lounge is the main dining room, called the 'King and I' which seats
304 persons. Leading from this, aft on the starboard side is the terrace dining
room which can seat 124. Opposite this smaller dining room is а very large
galley, which serves the whole ship.
Noticeable in the 'King and I' room, which is brightly coloured in lime green
and turquoise, are two large stainless steel buffet tables having hot and cold
sections. During the day these are used by waiters to serve from and in the
evening function as most convenient self-service counters.
Right aft on the restaurant deck is the multi-purpose room 'South Pacific'. It is
possible, by means of fоlding doors, to divide this space for use as a lounge,
convention hall or а cinema with a capacity for 262 persons. During the day
these doors are opened to form one large space which can accommodate a
total of 430 persons. At the forward end of this room there is a projection
booth and tiered seats lead down to groups of tables which fill in the
remainder of the space to the stage. Tables, chairs and settees are arranged
along each side and the whole space is tastefully decorated in shades of
orange, yellow and brown.
Side doors port and starboard at A - deck level give on to the main entrance
hall just aft of amidships. From here a central passageway leads forward past
the shopping area to the forward main staircase and aft to the after staircase.
The long twin passageways mentioned previously, which give access to the
accommodation spaces, flank this central passageway. Right forward on this
deck, forward of the superstructure, is the crew's swimming pool.
Accommodation for senior ship's personnel is forward on the boat and sun
decks with the crew's accommodation on the lower decks.
Grammar
65
Find in the passage sentences with Independent Participle Construction and
translate them according to the rules.
Cruise ship design consideration
In a ship such as 'Song of Norway' intended for cruising in hot climates, an
effective air-conditioning system is essential. This ship is completely airconditioned, having a system whose capacity is close to that of the much
larger liner 'France'. The system is of Svenska Flaktfabriken design and all
cabins have individual thermostatic temperature control. Compressors for the
system are Turbopark 37 type units of York make having a total cooling
capacity of 4 340 000 kcal/h. Another factor to be considered in a cruise ship
, which may spend several days in a port of call, is compliance with
regulations concerning discharge of sewage. This ship has sufficient tank
capacity to hold treated sewage, not shower water, accumulated over a fourday period. This has involved the provision of nine separate tanks.
Wherever possible throughout the vessel Wartsila or associated companies
have supplied equipment for the ship, including such items as glass doors,
deck cranes, watertight sliding doors, steering gear, etc, which are usually of
sub-contractors supply, and this has enabled them to control delivery of these
items to ensure that no major delays occurred through late deliveries.
There is a combined wheelhouse chartroom, the deck of which is carpeted.
The front bulkhead has been kept clear of instrumentation, this being housed
in free-standing consoles for or attached to the after bulkhead. To the left is a
console containing the Burk-Nautik manoeuvring recorder and Walker log in
addition to instrumentation connected with the Anschutz automatic pilot and
course recorder. Centrally placed is the Anschutz steering stand. To the right
of this is the propulsion console for control of the twin KaMeWa controllable
pitch propellers and the KaMeWa bow thruster. The bow thruster is driven by
a 1000 hp motor of Stromberg supply and the unit develops a lateral thrust of
11 tons. Similar propulsion stands are situated on each bridge wing. A 16-in
Raytheon radar set stands to the right of the wheelhouse propulsion console.
66
The chartroom contains a further Raytheon radar set, Sal log, Simrad echosounder and Plath visual direction finder. A Loran receiver of Japan Radio
Co. supply and radio telephone of Nera make are also fitted. On the back of
the chart table is the control panel for the Sperry Gyrofin retractable fin type
stabilisers.
Two large control and indicator panels on the after bulkhead show the state of
the fire alarms and fire doors and of the ship's various lighting systems.
Boats having a total capacity of 1208 persons form the main part of the ship's
life saving equipment.
Deck gear, windlasses, etc. have been supplied by Pusnes Mekaniske
Verksted and the vessel has a cathodic protection system of Skarpenord
design. Paints have been supplied by international Jotun Fabrikker.
Notes
capacity: 1. вместимость, 2. производительность.
keep clear of= without
unit : 1.единица, 2. узел, блок, агрегат
provision – обеспечение, запас, условие
bow thruster – носовое подруливающее устройство
fin type stabilisers – стабилизаторы качки крыльчатого типа
Grammar
State the function of " that " in the sentence
..... whose capacity is close to that of ...
Propelling machinery
67
Propulsion machinery for this twin screw ship consists of four medium-speed
Sulzer 9ZH 40/80 diesel engines built under licence by Wartsila. Each is
fitted with three Brown Boveri VTR 320U turbo-chargers. The engines are
connected in pairs, through reducing gearing type GVA 1400 H. and
Pneumaflex KAE 360 elastic clutch / couplings to two four- bladed KaMeWa
controllable pitch propellers having a diameter of 4000 mm. Service rating of
the engines is 4500 bhp at 410 rev / min, to give a service speed of 21 knots.
Fuel having a viscosity of 600 secs Redwood No.1 will normally be burnt but
fuel of 800 or 1000 secs can be used if necessary. Separators for fuel and
lubricating oil are of Wartsila type. A Graviner oil mist detector is fitted.
Notes
propulsion machnery –двигатель, энергетическая установка
blade – лопасть винта
twinscrew - двухвинтовой
gearing – зубчатая передача, редуктор, привод
viscosity - вязкость
separators –сепараторы, фильтры
Redwood second – секунда Редвуда (мера вязкости)
Control equipment
Control of the machinery installation and principal auxiliaries is centralised
in a soundproofed and air-conditioned control room located at C - deck level,
above the main engine room. The monitoring and control installation has
been designed to the requirements of Det norske Veritas for the classification
68
EQ, although full advantage cannot be taken of this as for passenger vessels
the regulations require that the engine room be manned.
A SAAB 110/04 Mk II monitoring system having about 200 analogue
transducers and 160 on/off alarm functions protects the machinery
installation. This equipment is housed in a large console standing in the
centre of the spacious control room and in front of this is the main engine
control stand. Also in the control room are panels for control and indication
of the state of freshwater tanks, the air - conditioning system, heating and
lighting and bilge and engine water systems. There is also a small cabinet for
control of the fin stabilizers.
The main control console is in seven sections. From the left these comprise
an alarm logger, steam and exhaust gas boiler condition indicators,
instrumentation indicating temperatures and pressures of engines Nos. 3 and
4 instrumentation for systems required by all four engines, fuel and
lubricating oil for example, a panel showing the condition of engines Nos. 1
and 2, further boiler gear gauges with a subsidiary panel for bow thruster
control and finally a second alarm logger.
The panels dealing with the engines, in pairs, also show the condition of the
rest of the power train, the gear-box, clutches and shafting.
To find out the temperature or pressure at any of the position monitors it is
only necessary to press the required button and the reading is shown in digital
form on an electronic counter.
Starting of the main engines must take place from the engine room although
provision is made at the stand in the control room for each engine to be
clutched in or out. Propeller pitch setting and engine speed can also be
controlled from here as well as from the bridge.
Electricity requirements are met by six 940 kVA alternators driven by
Wartsila 814 Tk diesel engines. These supply electricity at 420 V. There is an
emergency generating set having an output of 250 kVA. These alternators
and other electrical equipment for 'Song of Norway' including transformers,
motors, the fire alarm and fire door closing gear, distribution board,
equipment for special lighting effects, etc. have all been supplied by Oy
Stromberg Ab. The generators are designed to run with an output of about
69
550 kVA, and should this go above 600 kVA on those in circuit , then
another generator cuts in automatically and will cut-out when the output
drops to 500 kVA. For operation of the bow thruster it is necessary to have at
least four generators on load . When manoeuvring it is possible to switch in
additional generator on 'secured running', thereby ensuring that the bow
thruster is immediately available for example without the possibility of
loosing this power at an awkward moment due to a temporary drop in overall
power requirements. Steam is obtained from two Wartsila Steambloc 600 M
donkey boilers, each of which has a capacity of 6.3 ton/h at a pressure of 8
kp/cm2 . Two waste heat boilers also of Wartsila supply , have a capacity of 3
ton/h each.
The ship's fresh water supply is obtained from an Atlas AFGU No.9
evaporator utilising the waste heat from the main engine cooling water and
two Alfa-Laval/Griscom Russell Steam-driven evaporators. These three units
can supply a total of 300 tons of water per 24 hours.
Notes
exhaust gas boiler - утилизационный паровой котел
subsidiary - вспомогательный
power train – силовая цепь
gear - box – коробка передач
clutch- сцепление , муфта
shafting - валопровод
alternator – генератор переменного тока
distribution board – распределительный щит
should - если
on load – под нагрузкой
evaporator – опреснитель
70
Grammar
Write out of the passage terms consisting of three or more words and
translate them.
Sea trials
Preliminary trials with 'Song of Norway' commenced about three months
before the delivery date. Local vibrations in important deсk areas were
measured during these trials and by the addition of small amounts of
stiffening in these areas and also in the bridge wings very satisfactory noise
and vibration levels throughout the ship have been obtained.
During early speed trials in calm water at an engine output of 18000 bhp ,
when on an even keel at a draught of 6.3 m. a speed of 21.7 knots was
attained. The ship's hull had not been cleaned prior to these trials, however,
and the performance suffered because of eight months accumulated marine
growth on the hull.
At the official trials under the same ship conditions the speed attained was
21.35 knots, but on this occasion the trials were run in Beaufort 5-7
conditions. Under ideal conditions it is estimated that the contractual speed of
21 knots would be exceeded by about one knot.
Notes
Beaufort scale – an international scale of wind velocities ranging from 0
(calm) to 12 (hurricane force).
In the US an extension of the scale from 13 to 17 for winds over 64 knots is
used.
71
Captain R.W. Goode and Mr. J.M. Logan
PROPULSION GAS TURBINE EXPERIENCE ON THE COAST GUARD
HAMILTON CLASS HIGH ENDURANCE CUTTERS
The Authors
CAPT. R.W. GOODE, a native of Maine, graduated from U.S.C.G academy
in 1944. He served in the Asian and European Theaters on board a troop
transport as assistant engineer officer. Other tours at sea have included
engineering and deck duty on various Coast Guard Cutters employed in
search - and - rescue and ocean station programs. He attended MIT Graduate
School from 1949 to 1952 and was awarded the degree of Naval Engineer.
During the years 1960 - 1964, he was head of the electrical and nuclear
engineering courses at the Coast Guard Academy.
Mr. Logan received a B.S. degree from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1943. He
held engineering positions both in and out of the marine field before joining
the Coast Guard Naval Engineering Design Branch in 1957. He was project
engineer on several classes of new ship machinery designs including the
subject 378-ft. HAMILTON Class High Endurance Cutters. Presently, he is
Chief, Machinery Technical Section, Design Branch of the Naval
Engineering Division.
EDITORS NOTE: Presented at the Gas Turbine Conference and Products
Show, Cleveland, Ohio, March 9-13, 1969, of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
Introduction
72
This paper will review the engineering problems encountered with the P &
WA FR4A gas turbine on the Coast Guard 378-ft. H a m i l t o n Class
Cutters, Fig. 1. It is only fair to say that the majority of the problems were in
the associated systems rather than within the gas turbine itself.
No effort will be made in this paper to describe in detail the overall
machinery plant design as this has been documented in a previous paper.
However, a brief description will be made of components and systems
involved in the shaking-down process experienced on the ships, along with
the solutions of the numerous problems encountered.
The Coast Guard has taken delivery of six Hamilton class cutters at this
writing, with three more due under an existing contract.
Gas Turbine Starting System
The first marine application of a hydraulically started large aircraft type gas
turbine was on the USCGC Hamilton. The hydraulic starting system consists
of a variable displacement piston pump powering a variable displacement
piston starting motor. Both pumps, one per turbine, are timing belt-driven by
the front end of each ship service diesel generator set. The capability of
unlimited motoring is well suited for the demands of prolonged water
washing.
The positive starting characteristics of hydraulic starting should have
guaranteed reliable starts; this assumption proved to be wrong. This is not a
reflection on hydraulic starting, since starting problems were due to use of
No.2 diesel fuel instead of the usual JP-5. P & WA proposed that an air boost
system be incorporated into the fuel system to provide reliable starts. This
retrofit involved setting aside one of the three diesel starting air tanks (250
psi) for gas turbine use. The air boost feature requires air at 150-250 psi
during the starting cycle. Air is introduced into the secondary fuel line to the
nozzles and exits through the nozzle secondary openings to provide improved
atomization of the fuel. This modification resulted in consistently reliable
starts. Initially, it was proposed that the fuel be heated to overcome the
73
starting problem, but the success of the air boost system on the CG cutters
proved this to be unnecessary.
Notes
variable displacement piston pump – поршневой насос переменной
производительности
variable displacement piston motor –поршневой двигатель переменной
производительности
timing belt - driven – с синхронным ременным приводом
diesel generator set – дизельная генераторная установка
unlimited motoring – неограниченный моторесурс
water washing - промывка
should – в сочетании с перфектным инфинитивом означает что действие
должно было бы иметь место , но не произошло
assumption - предположение
to be due – зд. быть обусловленным
air boost system – система воздушного наддува, бустерная система
retrofit – модификация; переостнастка
involve – влечь за собой
feature - особенность
nozzle - сопло
psi – фунт на кв. дюйм
Fuel System
74
The fuel is transferred from the storage tanks to a 30,000 - gal service tank by
a 140 gpm transfer pump discharging through a Bowser - Briggs coalescing
type filter - separator. A centrifuge was not feasible because we required
propulsion equipment to be designed to high impact shock Standards ( MILS - 901 ). This ruled out all but one large industrial centrifuge ( 10,000 gph ).
A fuel boost pump ( 70 gpm ) takes suction from the service tank and
discharges through a second slightly smaller, filter - separator to the gas
turbines. The fuel filtration system became troublesome almost immediately.
The ships were plagued by rapid plugging of the transfer coalescer filter
elements. The element life was limited to approximately 10 - 20 thousand
gal. This required changing 20 coalescer elements and 9 separator elements at
a cost of over $400 and 3 to 4 hr. for each changeout. The short filter life was
intolerable, especially in view of the 300-gph fuel rate when cruising in the
turbine mode. Each coalescer filter element had a nominal dirt holding
capacity of 2 lb. when the differential pressure reached 15 psi. This meant
that the transfer coalescer elements were taking out approximately 40 lb. of
dirt per 20,000 gal of fuel. Extremely dirty fuel storage tanks were first
suspected, which seemed plausible since the ship had only recently left the
building yard. Investigation, however, revealed the tanks to be reasonably
clean. The elements were sent to a laboratory for testing and found to have
trapped only a few ounces of dirt, but contained slime-like matter which
caused blockage and the resulting P of 15 psi.
The slime was the product of microbiological growth which, in turn, was
direct result of ballasting the fuel storage tanks when empty of fuel.
Whenever sea water ballast was removed prior to taking on fuel, a small
amount of water would remain providing the ideal environment for the
growth of microorganisms at the fuel/water interface. Microorganisms in
diesel fuel manifests itself as sludge and slime. These microbial slimes cause
excess water and particulate matter to become suspended in the fuel. It was
this growth that primarily caused the exceedingly short filter life.
Microbiological growth has been a problem in marine, railroad, and aircraft
fuel systems for years, but has gone largely unrecognized. Investigation into
the " state of the art " regarding microbicides revealed that a fuel soluble
boron compound, developed by Standart Oil Co. (Ohio) and marketed by
U.S. Borax under the name Biobor JF, was effective in inhibiting the
formation of the bothersome slime. Biobor JF was added to the storage tanks
75
in amounts equalling 270 ppm; experience to date has shown Biobor JF to be
compatible with both the gas turbines and the diesel engines.
The filter element life, though now improved, continued to have relapses as
the fuel quality taken on at some ports proved to be very erratic. It was felt
that efforts should be made to use the coalescer filters for water removal
instead of a combination water and particulate filters. A pre filter was
purchased and installed ahead of the transfer coalescer filter. Initially, the
filter opening size was equal to the coalescer elements (MIL-F-8901).
However, it was found that the fine dirt continued to be trapped in the
coalescer elements . The prefilter elements were replaced with finer elements,
and were able to trap most of the fine particulate, leaving the coalescer
elements with the principal function of removing water and extending the
elements life. The prefilter consisting of four elements went as long as
130000 gal. between changeouts. This reduced the elements cost to 0.02 cent
per gal. of fuel, which is felt to be an acceptable price to pay to maintain a
high degree of filtration.
Notes
coalescer filter коалесцирующий фильтр
blockage - закупорка
storage tank – цистерна для хранения топлива
service tank – эксплуатационная цистерна
gpm – галлон в мин
transfer pump – насос подачи топлива
coalesing type filter - separator – фильтр- сепаратор коалесцирующего
типа
feasible - приемлемый
high impact shock Standards – стандарты высокой ударной вязкости
76
troublesome - аварийный
plugging - закупорка
element life – срок службы элемента
cost - стоимость
intolerable - неприемлемый
turbine mode – режим турбины
plausible - вероятный
ounce - унция
slime- like – похожий на ил
ballasting – балластировка, заполнение балластом
interface – поверхность раздела двух сред
manifest itself – проявлять себя , проявляться
" state of the art " – состояние вопроса
fuel soluble boron compound – растворимое в топливе соединение бора
compatible - совместимый
Air Intake System
The gas turbine inlet air vent is located on the 02 deck, where the intake air
passes down through a 9 ft. by 6 ft. duct to a 10 ft. by 13 ft. plenum chamber
located forward of the engine room. The turbine inlet bellmouth extends into
this plenum.
The air intake system was designed with a maximum air inlet restriction of 4
in. of water gage as the governing parameter. The air intake system was
model - simulated and tested by the manufacturer. The specified full power
rating ( 18,000 shp ) produced an air restriction of 2 1/2 in. H 2 O. An excess
capacity was designed into the system to allow for a demister, if required.
77
The purpose of a demister, is to minimize the ingestion of salt spray with the
inlet air and the resulting sulfidation. An inertial type air inlet demister
manufactured by the Farr Co. has been considered and a prototype has been
installed on a 210 - ft. CODAG cutter for evaluation.
Corrosion of the compressor inlet guide vanes and inlet casing of both gas
turbines became a problem on the first Cutter. The inlet vanes and casing are
constructed of nickel cadmium plated steel. Long periods of exposure to the
weather in the shipyard plus the original water wash procedure combined to
remove part of the protective cadmium plating. The gas turbine installation
angle is approximately 5 deg, down by the output coupling. This angle
cancels the flare of the inlet casing, allowing the water remaining after
washing to accumulate in the forward casing. To alleviate this condition, a
detergent compound ( HARCO 141 ) was added to the distilled water wash.
In addition, the turbine was motored with the anti - icing system on for 15
min after completing the wash. This procedure is now standard on all cutters
with excellent results.
The following factors influenced the decision not to install an air inlet
demister at this time:
( a ) The protected location of the air inlets on the 02 deck.
( b ) The improved water wash procedure.
( c ) The use of air inlet covers during periods of turbine shutdown to prevent
air circulation.
A turbine inlet screen is provided in the plenum chamber. This consists of a
cylindrical 1/2 - in. mesh stainless steel screen installed fore - and - aft
enclosing the gas turbine bellmouth and attached at each end to the forward
and after walls of the plenum. There was fear that the mere presence of the
screen together with the structural frame would generate flow distortions and
increase the inlet restriction. Pressure measurements taken during trials have
shown that the screen has no detrimental flow or pressure effects. In addition,
the manufacturer expressed concern that icing might become a problem and
cause a section of the screen to be ingested into the turbine. However, the
screen is sufficiently oversized to allow 3/4 of the area to be blocked without
air starvation. In the event icing is expected, the lower quadrants of the screen
78
can be removed as a safeguard. However, to date icing has not been
experienced.
Notes
air vent – вентиляционное отверстие
duct – канал, воздухопровод
plenum chamber – воздушная (нагнетательная) камера
inlet bellmouth – входной раструб
restriction - ограничение
water gage – водяной манометр
model - simulated and tested – смоделированный и испытанный на
модели
demister – устройство для удаления паров из воздуха
ingestion – зд. смешивание
sulfidation - сульфидация
guide vane – направляющая лопатка
casing – кожух, корпус
cadmium plated – с кадмиевым покрытием
coupling - муфта
cancel – сводить на нет, устранять
flare - выпуклость
detergent compound – состав, содержащий моющие присадки
Exhaust System
79
The original design had the gas turbine exhaust through a 6 - ft. dia. pipe to a
9 ft. by 6 ft. vertical duct leading to and through the stack. The governing
design parameter for the exhaust system centered on the P & WA desire to
limit the exhaust back pressure to 6 in. of water gage. The exhaust system
was designed to provide a cushion to enable the turbine rating to be increased
in the future. Trouble developed immediately when the turbine commenced
smoking. The smoking problem was compounded with the low exhaust gas
velocity resulting from the generous stack design. This allowed the smoke to
waft out of the stack and down onto the deck. It became necessary to reduce
the exhaust stack diameter in order to increase the exhaust gas velocity. Into
the initial 9 ft. by 6 ft. duct was inserted 6 - ft. - dia. steel exhaust pipe, which
resulted in the desired increase in velocity with an increase in the back
pressure level to approximately 7 in. H2 O.
Fuel additives ( combustion improvers ) were investigated together with the
possibility of modifying the combustion can design to eliminate the smoke.
The prospect of having the CG Cutters produce an over - the horizon
signature when in turbine mode was not acceptable. P & WA developed an
improved burner can configuration together with new burner nozzles and
nuts. The burner cans have re - distributed air inlet holes to allow additional
air in the primary zone. The new burner cans and burners were installed on
one CG cutter with remarkable results; the smoke emitted was now less when
cruising in the gas turbine mode than in the diesel mode. It is planned to
retrofit the other cutters with this modification.
Notes
stack – дымовая труба
back pressure - противодавление
cushion – воздушная подушка
velocity = speed - скорость
waft out - стелиться
80
additives - присадки
combustion can – камера сгорания
over - the - horizon signature – запредельная характеристика
burner can – камера сгорания.
nozzle - сопло
nut - гайка
Gas Turbine Enclosure
Each gas generator is provided with an insulated enclosure, the purpose of
which is to attenuate noise and insulate against heat. The enclosure consists
of a demountable frame fitted with removable insulated panels with a hinged
door on each side for access. The bottom of the enclosure is fitted with
adjustable louvers for cooling air intake and the top with two openings
connected through dampers via a duct to the engine room exhaust ventilation
system. Air at the rate of 12,000 cfm is drawn from the engine room through
the bottom louvers and exits through the top openings. The specification
limited the outer surface temperature of the enclosure to a maximum of
1500 F.
The enclosure was not originally equipped with a built-in fire-fighting
system. Reliance was placed on the engine room fire-fighting equipment
consisting of CO2 and water. In addition, the relatively small quantities of oil
in the lube and hydraulic oil system were originally thought to be insufficient
to require a built-in fire-fighting capability. However, we reconsidered and
decided that the large fuel rate (1500 gph) could feed a large fire if a F.O.
line were ruptured and ignition occurred.
The coast Guard investigated various fire fighting systems for the enclosure.
Foam and water were ruled out because of thermal shock to the turbine
casing (up to 1000 0 F). Dry chemical (purple ―K‖) was ruled out because of
the cleaning chore involved after use and the thermal shock of the water
required to prevent re-flash. CO2 was found to be the ideal agent for the 500
cu.ft enclosed space resulting from closing the louvers and dampers.
81
The enclosures were retrofitted with a CO2 smothering system complete with
fire detector and CO2 -actuated inlet and outlet damper shutoff and fuel
shutdown valve. The CO2 release is manual and located in the engine room
control booth. The follow-on ships have enclosures with a fire wall to
separate the turbine hot section from the oil piping as an added precaution.
Notes
enclosure - кожух
demountable frame – разборный каркас
hinged door – шарнирная дверь.
adjustable louvers – регулируемые жалюзи
dampers - амортизаторы
built - in fire - fighting system – встроенная система пожаротушения
lube – зд. смазка
ignition – зд. возгорание.
chore = work
smothering system – система объѐмного пожаротушения
shutoff – выключение, отключение
shutdown – выключение, остановка
valve – клапан
The Clutch
Each gas turbine drives a reduction gear pinion through a flexible coupling
and an air - actuated friction - dental type clutch. This clutch incorporates
82
friction disks to synchronize, the free turbine shaft with the pinion gear shaft.
When synchronized, the dental portion automatically engages to ensure a
solid mechanical lockup, relatively free from the danger of a sudden,
unexpected disengagement and capable of absorbing maximum load torque.
The Coast Guard has a more stringent clutch plate ( friction disk ) torque
requirement than is customary. The specifications required the turbine clutch
to have the capacity to engage a stationary propeller shaft with the turbine
idling. The torque required for this far exceeds that needed to synchronize the
two rotating shafts. This requirement exposed a weak link in the clutch
design installed on the first cutter. Repeated casualties due to overheating and
warping of the clutch plates were a continuing problem. Once the plates
warped, operation in the diesel mode ( turbine clutch disengaged ) caused the
plates to rub, thus generating heat and further warping.
The turbine clutches were finally removed and shipped back to the factory to
correct design deficiencies. Detailed examination at the factory revealed that
some clutch plates were not being adequately lubricated and cooled.
Furthermore, the geometry of the plates made them susceptible to warping
when heated. Additional oil passages were provided to ensure adequate flow
of lube oil to all clutch plates. The plates were also stress - relieved by cutting
notches on the id and od edges. Lastly, the internal air tube assembly was
redesigned to prevent leakage. A modified clutch was then assembled and,
when tested successfully, the assembled unit was scribe- marked for optimum
indexing of component parts. To further decrease the possibility of over heating, the time required to engage was increased by adjusting the reducing
valve in the supply air line. The clutches were then installed on our first ship
and have operated successfully since.
The gas turbine clutches on the eight follow - on ships were of a different
manufacture but they also required similar re -design in the area of the clutch
plates and the actuating control system.
As a normal operating procedure, the gas turbine clutches will be engaged
only with both the turbine and the pinion shaft operating or stopped.
However, in an emergency, the clutches have the capability to clutch in a
stationary propeller shaft to an idling gas turbine.
Notes
83
reduction gear - редуктор
pinion - шестерня
flexible coupling – гибкая муфта
torque – крутящий момент
clutch - сцепление
stationary - неподвижный
idling - холостой ход
warping – коробление, искривление
ship- отгружать
stress - relieve – снимать напряжение.
notch – паз, канавка
assembly – зд. в сборе
leakage - утечка
scribe-mark - размечать
result in – приводить в результате к
Gas Turbine Alignment
The alignment of the gas turbine presents special problems because of large
thermal growth. The power turbine axial growth, measured at the output
coupling is 1/2 in. The gas generator axial growth, measured at the
compressor inlet, is 1 1/2 in. The unique feature of the turbine alignment
procedure is that, in the uncoupled condition, the power turbine output shaft
is unsupported at the coupling end. The nearest supporting bearing is at the
84
after end of the last stage turbine rotor. The output shaft extends forward
from the coupling into and through the exhaust elbow for a distance of
approximately 8 ft. and connects to a flexible diaphragm coupling located
adjacent to the last stage turbine rotor. When aligning the gas turbine, the
output coupling is supported by a cradle suspended by a spring scale.
Experimentation by P & WA has determined that approximately 300 lb. of
upward force is required to position the coupling on the axial center line. The
alignment of the gas turbine output to the reduction gear input coupling is
predicated on a hot (normal running condition) misalignment tolerance of
0.002 in. The large turbine growth might lead one to expect a substantial cold
offset misalignment. However, the compensating effects of the reduction gear
growth result in essentially zero cold offset. This simplified the alignment
procedure; however, after delivery of the first cutter, it was found that,
despite careful shipyard efforts, misalignment of approximately 0.010 in.,
was found to exist. Fortunately, this was within the flexible coupling design
capabilities. Though P & WA stipulates a misalignment tolerance not to
exceed 0.002 in., the true misalignment tolerance is 0.05 in. because of the
presence of the internal diaphragm-type coupling. In the course of examining
what would be required to re-align if necessary, we conclude that the large
turbine sub-base would have to be repositioned to allow re-alignment. It
would be far more convenient to build an alignment adjustment capability
into the power turbine trunnion mounts and this should be considered in
future designs.
Notes
alignment - центровка
thermal growth – термическое расширение
output coupling – выходная муфта
compressor inlet – входное устройство компрессора
uncoupled condition – в разъединѐнном положении
85
unsupported – без опоры
supporting bearing – опорный подшипник
stage - ступень
output shaft – выходной вал
exhaust elbow – выхлопной патрубок
flexible diaphragm coupling – гибкая диафрагмовая муфта
cradle - опора
scale - шкала
misalignment tolerance – допуск на децентровку
cold offset – смещение при охлаждении
re -align – повторная центровка
sub -base – подложка, основание
trunnion – ось качания или поворота
mount - установка
high - speed dash
характеристики
–
capabilities
высокоскоростные
стартовые
maintenance – техническое обслуживание
Conclusion
The large aircraft- type gas turbine lends itself to the requirements of the
CODOG configuration. Its high power - to- weight ratio and rapid start up
capability make it an uncommonly favourable choice for vessels requiring
high-speed dash capabilities. Many of the problems encountered with gas
turbines and associated systems are a result of adapting to a marine
propulsion environment. It is expected that our follow-on ships with the
86
modifications described above will be provided with reliable, lowmaintenance gas turbine propulsion.
BRITAIN‘S LARGEST TRAWLER –―LORD NELSON‖
A 238-ft. Stern Trawler Arranged for Part-freezing of the Catch
To meet the challenge brought about by dwindling catches and narrowing
fishery limits British distant water trawler owners are investing in vessels of
an entirely
new design concept with more efficient methods of fishing
and equipped with freezing equipment to preserve the catch. In this way the
trawler can remain on the grounds until the holds are full. Though initially
costly, it is felt that this type of vessel must be introduced if fish prices are to
remain at an acceptable level while, at the same time, preserving or
improving the quality.
Last month we were able to inspect one of the first trawlers of this type,
the ―Lord Nelson‖, recently completed by Rickmers Werft, one of the
Associated Fisheries companies. Although three larger vessels arranged for
stern trawling are in service with the British fleet they are also arranged as
factory ships and stay on the grounds for up to three months, so that the
―Lord Nelson‖ is the largest British-owned purely fishing trawler now in
service. She is also the first distant-water trawler especially designed to
freeze part of her catch at sea and is the first British distant-water trawler to
be built for stern fishing. There are both wet and refrigerated fish holds and
the vessel will be able to remain at sea for longer periods than the normal 21
days for other distant-water vessels.
Propulsion is by a Mirrless Monarch engine driving a bridge-controlled
Liaaen variable-pitch propeller and electrical requirements at sea are met by
a double generator unit built on to the main propeller shaft.
87
2. Early Design Modifications
When the vessel was originally designed and during the early building
stages, the main emphasis was still on the wet-fish side. Consequently a
trials speed of 15 knots was necessary and this figure determined the
minimum waterline length, the speed/length ratio being just under unity. A
fishmeal plant was also incorporated in the original design, this being
arranged abaft the engine-room. However, while the vessel was still on the
stocks, overproduction in Peru caused a collapse in world fishmeal prices. To
this factor was coupled the extension of the territorial limits around Iceland
and other countries making it clear that the more distant fishing grounds
would have to be used with consequently longer trips. Therefore, it was
decided to dispense with the fishmeal plant and increase the freezing
equipment and cold store capacity. The space occupied by the proposed
fishmeal plant and store was converted into a wet-fish hold with a section for
liver boilers and an engine store. In addition, the forward wet-fish hold was
shortened and the cold store enlarged.
Stern trawling had already been chosen by the owners for the original
design as they felt it would provide a more efficient system of fishing and
would incorporate a sheltered working space in which to gut and prepare the
fish.
The vessel is constructed of mild steel in accordance with, and under the
special survey of Lloyd‘s Register of Shipping for their classification 100A1
―stern trawler‖. It is a two-deck vessel, the second being the freeboard deck..
Consequently, the rules for open shelter decks were adhered to in respect of
strength, and trawler rules elsewhere .
Following the builders‘ standard practice since 1950 , the hull is allwelded and was erected on the berth in sections of up to 35 tons in weight .
88
Due to the vessel‘s relatively high speed , the shell plating forward of the
fish rooms from the bottom up to the upper deck is increased in thickness. A
cellular double bottom is arranged below the forward fish room , cold store
and forward part of the engine room.
The stern trawling arrangement is of Rickmers Werft‘s usual pattern ,
developed and improved since 1956, the ―Lord Nelson‖ being the 10 th stern
trawler built by this yard.
The electric trawl winch, which is powered by a 350-h.p Siemens electric
motor, has two large drums with a capacity of 1200 fathoms of 3 in. circ.
trawl warp and two small drums for the bridles.
On emptying the cod-end, the catch is fed down to the working deck
through a pneumatically operated hatch at the head of the ramp, which opens
or closes in about five seconds. After gutting, the fish are taken forward by a
system of conveyer belts through an automatic fish washing machine either
into the fish receiving troughs for the freezers , or into the forward wet-fish
hold. When the catch is large, the after wet-fish hold is used as a buffer store
from which the fish can afterwards be removed by a second conveyer and fed
back into the normal system. The conveyer belts and fish-washing machine
were supplied by Walker and Co., stainless steel being used in the
construction of the troughs and drum.
Notes
Stocks – стапель
Trawl warp –вайер рыболовного трала
Bridles - стропы
Trough-лоток
Fishmeal plant-установка для изготовления рыбной муки
Fish ground- район рыбного промысла
To dispense with –обходиться без
89
To adhere to -придерживаться
Cod-end- куток рыболовного трала
Conveyor belt- транспортер
Grammar
1. Find in the text sentences with
a) Independent Participle Construction
b) Gerund and Verbal noun
c) Modal verbs and constructions expressing modality
3. Torry-Hall Plate Freezing System
When each receiving trough is full, the fish are placed by hand into one of
a series of vertical plate freezers for freezing into blocks. This arrangement,
known as the Torry-Hall System, was developed after successful trials on the
trawler ―Northern Wave‖ some years ago. For the version in the ―Lord
Nelson‖, a block size of 42in. by 21in. by 4 in., weighing 90 lb(41kg) was
selected as being the largest which could easily be handled in the frozen fish
hold while at the same time preserving the convenient size of pound. The unit
has six stations in two groups of three, each formed by four special multichannel extruded aluminium double-sided plates suspended vertically from
their top edges on patent gas-tight trunnion connections. These plates provide
contact of the evaporating refrigerant over nearly the whole surface area of
the plates, thereby enabling a shorter freezing-cycle time to be used. Such'
connections enable the plates to be hinged about the centreline of the
90
trunnions and they can, therefore, move apart at the bottom to release the
frozen fish blocks formed between them.
Refrigerant at -40°F. (~40°C.) flows through the channels formed in the
plates from the inlet to the outlet trunnion connections for about 3,5 hours,
each group of four plates being fed in parallel from manifolds into which the
trunnions are inserted. The rectangular slots between the plates form the
moulds or stations in which the fish blocks are frozen, and the bottoms of the
stations are closed during the freezing cycle by bottom doors hinged into a
horizontal position, one door for each group of three stations. Mechanical
linkages between the bottom doors and the freezer plates secure the latter in
their closed (parallel) position during the freezing cycle. At the end of the
cycle, by which time the centre of the block should be below -5°F. (-21°C.),
hot gas is passed through the freezer plates for two or three minutes to release
them from the blocks and at the same time, the bottom doors are dropped into
their open (vertical) position. This, through the linkages, moves the plates
apart to release the blocks which drop onto nets in the frozen fish hold, from
which they are removed for stowing. With the 16 freezers fitted there are 32
independent sections of three stations and based on a total cycle time of 3,5
hours, including the time required for filling, one section should be loaded
every seven minutes; however, it is more likely that, in practice, groups of
two or three sections will be loaded at longer intervals.
Notes
Pound- зд. упаковка
Trunnion – цапфа, штырь, ось качания или поворота
Trunnion connection- осевое соединение
Mould- форма
Manifold- магистраль
Station- место, позиция
Move apart- раздвигать .
91
4. Frozen Fish Hold
The size of the frozen fish hold is sufficient to store approximately 2,350 kits
(145 tons) actual frozen weight of gutted headless whole fish at -20°F. (29°C.) while the wet fish holds can accommodate about 2,700 kits (170 tons)
of fish packed in ice at 32°F. (0°C). Cork insulation has been fitted in the
frozen fish hold to a thickness varying from 11 in. (285 mm.) to 6 in. (155
mm.). In addition, the space left between the frames and beams and
elsewhere by the cork have been filled with glass wool. The deckhead and
certain other parts of the forward wet fish hold have also been heavily
insulated to reduce the work involved should this hold be later converted into
a part of the frozen fish hold. The cork is protected by a reinforced cement
covering on the bottom and elsewhere by a watertight plastic Aquaseal
compound which was painted afterwards with Tensulac aluminium paint.
These materials were supplied by Berry Wiggips and Co., Ltd., London.
Polyurethane foam has been used as the insulant for the lightweight loading
doors and hatch plugs in conjunction with moulded glass-fibre frames.
After the fish blocks drop into nets after freezing they are taken by hand for
stowage until the end of the voyage. Eventual discharging is by means of a
paternoster-type continuous swing-tray elevator supplied by Webb
Conveyors and Automation, Ltd., and which has a theoretical capacity of 12
blocks per minute. This elevator, with two loading stations in different
heights, is housed in an electrically heated insulated trunk in the cold store
which extends into the superstructure, where the blocks slide out through a
heavy watertight steel door in the bridge front above the upperdeck, thus
facilitating easy transport by chutes over the ship's side.
Designed to maintain a frozen fish hold • temperature of —20° F, the Hall
Freon 12 refrigerating plant is fully automatic: the larger compressors have
eight cylinders each of 7-in. (178 mm.) bore and 5,5 in.. (140mm.) stroke;
and run at 750 r.p.m. Dry sumps are arranged with separate oil tanks from
which special vane-type oil pumps draw the oil required for the forcedlubrication and suction-valve lifting systems. The smaller compressor has six
cylinders of 3,5in. (95 mm.) bore and, 3-in. (76 mm.) stroke and operates at
92
1,500 r.p.m. This machine is normally run only after freezing is finished to
maintain the frozen fish hold temperature during the homeward voyage. The
condensers are of the conventional shell and tube type with steel shells.
Notes
Kit- комплект
Deckhead- подволока
Polyurethane foam-пенополиуретан
Plug- заглушка
Chute-лоток, желоб
Vane type oil pump- лопастной насос для смазки
Sump- отстойник
shell and tube condenser- кожухотрубный конденсатор
Grammar
Find in the passages 3 and 4 sentences containing verbs Should and Would
and analyze them.
5. Deck Machinery and Steering Gear
Apart from the trawl winch previously mentioned the vessel is equipped with
a Gemmel and Frow docking winch and an anchor windlass supplied by A.S.
Bremerhaven. The streamlined and balanced spade-type rudder is operated by
an electro-hydraulic rotary-vane steering gear. The section of the rudder stock
93
between the rudder and operating gear is protected against corrosion by
specially designed stainless steel bushes.
6. Accommodation and Navigation Arrangements
Although it is intended to operate the vessel with a crew of 24 to 26 men, 32
berths have been arranged in addition to which there is a two-berth sick-bay
and a spare bunk in the second engineer's cabin, so that ample reserve is
available. A particularly high standard of comfort has been achieved and a
Thermotank air heating system is arranged for each cabin.
In common with most modern trawlers, the " Lord Nelson " is equipped with
a comprehensive range of navigating and fishing aids and these include the
following:—
Bloctube control pedestal incorporating an electrically
operated engine-room telegraph and the propeller pitch control.
Two Kelvin Hughes magnetic compasses.
Anschutz gyro compass with auto pilot, course recorder and separate
repeaters.
Marconi radar and radio installation comprising:
Radiolocator IVA True Motion radar with radar track indicator.
Globesman telegraphy/telephony transmitter with two Atalanta receivers.
Argonaut V.H.F. transmitter. Gannet II telephony transmitter and Guardian
receiver with direction indicator.
Lodestar automatic direction finder with compass stabilization.
Mimco sound reproducing equipment for entertainment, intercommunication
for trawling operations, etc.
Fishgraph model-E echo sounder with black-line device and two projectors.
94
Seagraph II echo sounder. Fishscope echo sounder for sea bed inspection.
Lifesaving equipment installed includes a J. Samuel White and Co., glassfibre reinforced plastics lifeboat. This may be launched on either side of the
vessel by one of two Schat single-arm davits.
7. Machinery Installation
Propulsion is by a Mirrlees Monarch type-ALSDM6 six-cylinder
turbocharged, direct reversing, four-stroke engine developing 2,000 b.h.p.
continuously when running at 250 r.p.m. This unit is directly coupled to a
Liaaen three-bladed, controllable-pitch stainless steel propeller; a description
of its design and operation appeared in the July issue of The Motor Ship.
Features of the main engine include limit stops to maintain rotational speed
between 250 r.p.m. and 185 r.p.m. a Bryce Berger, E-size fuel pump and Vtype injectors.
Built on to the intermediate shafting is a double generator unit (280 kW. and
260 kW.), designed to supply D.C. current for the winch motor and ship's
auxiliary services respectively at speeds varying from 250 r.p.m. to 185
r.p.m.
Aft of the shaft generator units is the servo-mechanism for the controllablepitch propeller which was manufactured under licence by Theodor Zeise of
Hamburg. The servo-unit is bridge-controlled through a Bloctube mechanical linkage though an engine-room control is also provided for emergency
and port use. There are two auxiliary generator units comprising Mirrleess
type-TLAS naturally aspirated three-cylinder engines rated continuously at
157 b.h.p. at 600 r.p.m. and each coupled to a McClure 105-kW., 220-volt
D.C. generator. The 'harbour duty generator is driven by a McLaren type-M4
four-cylinder engine continuously rated at 63 b.h.p. at 750 r.p.m. All the
generator units are connected through a Siemens-Schuckert dead-front
switchboard and, under normal steaming and fishing operations, the entire
95
ship's service power is supplied by the self-exciting shaft-driven units which
are provided with voltage control for variations in shaft speed.
For emergency propulsion in the event of main engine failure, the two
Mirrlees engine-driven generators are arranged to run in series, driving back
on to the shaft-driven trawl-winch generator which then becomes motorized.
As a normal winch generator, this unit has an output of 400 volts, 725 amp.
and 290 kW. though as an emergency propulsion motor, the rating is 450
volts, 460 amp. and 190 kW.
Notes
Bush- вкладыш
Bunk- койка
Davit- шлюпбалка
Dead-front switchboardтоковедущими частями
распределительный
щит
с
закрытыми
8. Anticipated Increase in Catches
The " Lord Nelson " was built at a cost of £450,000, this probably being the
highest price paid so far in Great Britain for a strictly trawling vessel. This
would compare with an estimated figure of £300,000 for a starboard-side
fishing trawler of about 200 ft. in length. It is stressed, however, that this
vessel has been built with the intention of obtaining practical experience with
stern trawlers and freezing techniques and it is hoped that the estimated 33%
increase in catches together with an anticipated higher-quality fish, will fully
justify the investment.
96
Automation reliability in Australian ships
Sir,-I should like to offer the following comments based on our experience of
automated main propulsion systems over the past years in both steam and
motor ships. These comments are made in the light of continuous association
with automated systems that date from the planning of the ―Bass Trader‖
which entered service in April 1961.
The equipment installed has generally fulfilled expectations and justified
the additional expenditure, despite early development problems having been
encountered in some cases. We have found equipment installed during the
last five years has been extremely reliable but the most common defects ,
amongst the relatively few encountered, have been associated with the
malfunctioning of pressure or temperature sensing devices.
In several cases, we have found that the secondary and consequential
effects of breakdown failures have been minimised or completely avoided
due to the immediate actuation of automatic protection equipment. While this
has not been reflected in reduced maintenance costs, it has been a significant
factor , in such cases, in avoiding extremely costly delays in our voyage
schedules.
We do not regard data loggers as an essential component of an automated
system, particularly if an alarm print-out is provided. However, data sheets
can be of value in assessing the adequacy of maintenance procedures and in
evaluating performance characteristics. Simplicity should be achieved as is
practicable. In this context , we consider that the multi-engined installation ,
particularly when associated with electric power generation by the main
engines , offers distinct benefits. Electronic controls have proved to be at
least as reliable as pneumatic, particularly since our operations personnel
have become more familiar with the required maintenance and repair
techniques. In this regard , special training courses in marine electronics
sponsored by The Australian National Line have made a significant
contribution in the operation of such equipment in our fleet.
Improved cargo handing techniques have led to quicker turn-round times
in port , which , in turn , have necessitated placing a greater volume of in the
97
hands of shore-based contractors, often during hours which incur high
penalty rates. Automation has assisted in off-setting the resultant additional
costs by releasing engine-room personnel from routine watch-keeping duties
and enabling the shipboard maintenance effort to be improved. Hull
maintenance has been adversely influenced by reduced manning scales but
this can be countered in part by the selection of higher quality protective
coatings and improved methods of applying them.
We encounter very few problems in the maintenance of automated systems
and a major factor in this is made by introducing standard package designs at
the earliest practicable stage. The UMS concept is, in our experience , a fully
practical and reliable proposition . We now have in service installations
ranging from 2000 hp to 26000hp, both direct-coupled and multi-engined,
and reliability factors are in no way inferior to comparable installations
operated by traditional watch-keeping methods.
98
Module 2. Chemical matters
SPECIALITIES AT THE FACULTY OF PHYSICS
AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
The faculty of Physics and Chemical Engineering is one of the oldest
faculties of Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University named after R. E.
Alexeyev. There are six departments at the faculty now. These are:
Biotechnology, Physical and Analytical Chemistry.
Organic Chemistry and Structure of Substance.
Physics and Technology of Electronic Materials and Components.
Technology of Electrochemical Processes.
General and Inorganic Chemistry.
Industrial Safety and Ecological Engineering.
The Faculty of Physics and Chemical Engineering trains the students in four
basic
specialities:
―Chemical
Engineering‖,
―Electronics
and
Nanoelectronics‖, ―Biotechnology‖ and ―Technosphere Safety‖.
All the departments of the faculty are headed by doctors of sciences,
professors. Along with training specialists, the scientists of the faculty carry
out intensive research work. The range of scientific problems is wide and
multifunctional: scientific bases development for technological processes of
producing a number of organic compounds; methods of application of
different metal coatings; development of new and improvement of existing
systems of chemical power supplies; medical devices; differe5nt approaches
for products analysis; technological processes development for producing
printed plates, integrated circuits and many others. There is a post-graduate
course and a doctorate at the faculty.
For many years, the faculty was known as Chemico-Technological, as the
basic scientific direction and the students‘ specialization was Technology of
Electrochemical Processes. Now it is one of the two specializations of
Chemical Engineering Speciality.
99
TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES
The chemical industry in general and electrical chemistry, in particular, is a
comparatively young branch of our national economy. The real burgeoning of
the chemical industry began in the pre-war period, when the nitrogen, cokechemical, aniline dye, forest chemistiy, potassium, and apatite branches were
set up; at the same time the foundation was laid for synthetic rubber,
synthetic fibre, plastics, and imitation leather industries.
After the Second World War the chemical industry advanced by leaps and
bounds: in 1950 the pre-war output level was surpassed by 80 per cent, the
production of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium fertilizers increasing by
120, 90 and 40 per cent respectively.
Year by year our chemists are steadily expanding the technological
possibilities of complex utilizing raw materials. New branches of organic
synthesis have been set up on the basis of processing coals and the byproducts of oil refining.
Chemical processing methods made it possible to utilize rationally
industrial waste, to speed up technological processes (for example,
hydrometallurgical), and to ensure their continuity and automation.
The close links between science and industry enabled the chemical
industry to make great progress. N. D. Zelinsky‘s works formed the basis for
synthesizing a large number of new chemical compounds. There are
thousands of them now, and ‗they are extremely important for the economy
of our country. Our scientists elaborated a new method of extracting phenol
and acetone simultaneously from benzene and propylene. Both of them are
necessary for manufacturing plastics, textile, fibres, organic glass and other
chemical products. Together with physicists chemists have elaborated an
industrial method for manufacturing artificial diamonds, which are 40 per
cent harder than natural.
Special attention should be paid here to electrochemistry, which gave
rise to technology of electrochemical processes. Electrochemistiy is a science
that deals with direct transformations of electrical energy into chemical and
vice versa when electric current is passed through an electrolyte.
Electrochemistry, chiefly electrolysis, is widely employed in our century of
electricity and chemistry; and this has permitted organizing and perfecting
electrochemical methods of plating metals. Electroplating refers to coating by
electrolytic means a metal part that lacks certain qualities, such as appearance
100
and resistance to wear and corrosion, with thin layer of metals, alloys of
superior qualities, oxides and salts. Electrochemical methods are widely used
in galvanic processes to give desirable properties to various surfaces by
depositing thin layers of certain metals oxides salts. They may be of different
kinds: chromium plating, copper plating, zink plating, nickel plating,
cadmium plating, tin plating (tinning), silver plating, gold plating (gilding)
and others. Such finishing coatings give the surface high corrosion resistance,
hardness, wear resistance, fire resistance and attractive decorative
appearance.
Additionally, almost all non-ferrous metals, annual output of which is
considered to be about 30 million tons, are either produced or purified by
electrochemical methods. The main advantage of these is high purity of the
metals produced and the economy gained. Different plastics, and synthetic
fibres that are widely used in all branches of industry are produced on the
basis of chlorine and alkalies. These valuable products are also manufactured
by means of electrochemistiy. Besides, advanced technological processes
have been introduced at our chemical enterprises: chemical reactions in gas
phases, catalysis under high temperatures and pressures, utilization of oxygen
and hydrogen in oxidation and reduction reactions, development of
electrochemical and electrothermal methods, employment of biochemical
processes.
Chemotronics is a new field of electrochemistry application which
deals with development of electrochemical information transducers.
Chemical power supplies is a vast scope of electrochemistry, aimed at
designing various systems of electric cells, accumulators, electrochemical
generators and methods of their manufacturing. So production of storage
batteries and cells for electromobiles would be impossible without
electrochemistry. Accumulators are used in watch-making industry and
medicine as well. And successful space conquering would also become
problematic without compact powerful accumulators and cells.
Electrochemical methods are widely employed for desalinating water
processes, waste water purification systems and systems of electrolyte
regeneration, for solving ecological problems as well as metals recovery from
processing wastes. A remarkable part of physics and chemistry research
methods is based on the background of electrical chemistry.
The students specializing in ―Technology of Electrochemical
Processes‖ study a lot of special subjects, such as: applied electrochemistry,
electrochemical processes, structural materials, nature of materials,
examination and modeling electrochemical processes methods, etc. Engineers
101
of this qualification can work in various fields of science and engineering.
These may be enterprises of machine- building and chemistry as well as
radio-electronics, metallurgy and other branches of industry.
Words and phrases to be remembered:
the faculty of Physics and Chemical
Engineering
Инженерный
Физико- Химический Факультет
Physics
and
Technology
of
Electronic
Materials
and
Components
Физика
и
Технология
Материалов
и
Компонентов
Электронной
Техники
Technology of Electrochemical
Processes
Технология
Электрохимических производств
imitation leather industry промышленность кожзаменителей
by leaps and bounds - скачками,
очень быстро
phosphate fertilizers - фосфорно
кислые удобрения
raw materials - сырьѐ
by product - побочный продукт
industrial waste - промышленные
отходы
deal with - иметь дело с,
заниматься
Electroplating - металлопокрытие,
гальваностегия
resistance to wear and corrosion сопротивление износу и коррозии
cadmium plating - кадмирование
desirable
свойства
properties
-
depositing thin layers - нанесение
тонких плѐнок
high
corrosion
(wear,
fire)
resistance - высокая коррозийная
(износо, жаро) стойкость
attractive decorative appearance красивый внешний вид
reduction reaction - реакция
восстановления
electrochemical power supply химический источник тока
electrochemical
information
transducer
электрохимический
преобразователь информации
Cell- элемент
storage battery - аккумуляторная
батарея
space conquering - освоение
космоса
Desalinating
опреснение,
обессоливание
waste water purification system система очистки сточных вод
metals recovery from processing
wastes - извлечение металлов из
отходов роизводства
Structural
materials
конструкционные материалы
нужные
102
Exercises
Find the following word - combinations in the text. Try to memorize
them.
В течение многих лет; основное научное направление; настоящий
расцвет химической промышленности; синтетический каучук; уровень
довоенного производства; год за годом; комплексная утилизация сырья;
методы химической переработки; непрерывность и автоматизация;
новый метод извлечения фенола и ацетона; промышленный метод
получения
искусственных
алмазов;
прямое
преобразование
электрической
энергии
в
химическую;
совершенствование
электрохимических
методов;
электролитическим
способом;
электрохимические методы; гальванические производства; различные
поверхности; цветные металлы; ежегодное производство; при высоких
температурах и давлении; реакции окисления; разработка различных
систем; прикладная электрохимия; материаловедение; изучение и
моделирование электрохимических процессов.
Agree or disagree with the following statements. Use some of the
speech patterns listed below.
I agree with you; I am of the same opinion; That‘s fight; Exactly so; I
disagree with you (on that point); You are wrong; Far from it; On the
contrary; To my mind (In my opinion); I shouldn‘t (wouldn‘t) say so; As far
as I know (remember); I think, that...
The faculty of Physics and Chemical Engineering is a very young one.
There are six departments at the faculty now.
The faculty of Physics and Chemical Engineering trains the students in
two basic specialities.
The real burgeoning of the chemical industry began in tsarist Russia.
The foundation for synthetic rubber and fibre was laid in the pre-war
period.
After the Second World War the chemical industry advanced very
intensively.
Chemical processing methods facilitated rational utilization of
industrial waste.
Science did not promote developing the chemical industry.
103
Benzene and propylene are necessary for manufacturing plastics.
It was organic chemistry that gave rise to technology of electrochemical
processes.
Electrochemical methods are widely used in galvanic processes.
Almost all ferrous metals are produced by electrochemical methods.
Chemotronics deals with the development of electrochemical
information transducers.
Chemical power supplies is a vast scope of Ecological Engineering.
Our successful space conquering would be practically impossible
without electrochemistry.
Electrochemical methods are widely used for desalting water processes.
Students specializing in ―Technology of Electrochemical Processes‖
study a number of special subjects.
Answer the following questions:
What faculty do you study at?
How many departments are there at the faculty of Physics and
Chemical Engineering? What are they?
What basic specialities does the faculty train the students in? Which is
your future specialization?
The chemical industry is a comparatively young branch of our national
economy, isn‘t it?
When were the nitrogen, coke-chemical, aniline dye, forest chemistry,
potassium, and apatite branches set up?
In what way did the chemical industry advance after World War II?
What kind of technologies are our chemists steadily expanding in the
chemical industry year by year?
On what basis have new branches of organic synthesis been set up?
What made it possible to speed up some technological processes?
What enabled the chemical industry to make great progress?
104
Whose works formed the basis for synthesizing a large number of new
chemical compounds?
What have our chemists elaborated together with physicists?
Electrochemistry gave rise to technology of electrochemical processes,
didn‘t it?
What does electrochemistry deal with?
Where are electrochemical methods widely used?
What is electroplating? What kinds of electroplating are known to you?
What valuable products are produced or purified by electrochemical
methods?
What kind of advanced technologies have been introduced at our
chemical enterprises?
What does chemotronics deal with?
Where else is electrochemistry widely employed except the chemical
industry?
What special subjects do the students specializing in ―Technology of
Electrochemical Processes‖ study?
Read the dialogue. Reproduce it in pairs. Make up your own one.
A: As far as I know you are a student of the faculty of Physics and
Chemical Engineering, aren‘t you?
B: Exactly so. And my future speciality is ―Technology of
Electrochemical Processes‖. And what about you?
A:
As for me, I am a second-year student of the same faculty.
B:
Really? But I haven‘t seen you at the lecture.
A: I am specializing in the second basic speciality of the faculty. It is
―Electronics and nanoelectronics‖.
В: I see. And if I am not mistaken there are seven departments at our
faculty, aren‘t there?
A:
No, not really. There are six departments at the faculty now.
В:
I see.
105
Speak on the following:
I am a student of the Physics and Chemical Engineering Faculty.
Electrochemistry is the basis of ―Technology of Electrochemical
Processes‖.
My future speciality provides a variety of career opportunities.
Supplementary Texts for Independent Reading
Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that applies the
physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and physics) and/or life sciences (e.g.,
biology, microbiology and biochemistry) together with mathematics and
economics to processes that convert raw materials or chemicals into more
useful or valuable forms. In addition, modern chemical engineers are also
concerned with pioneering valuable materials and related techniques – which
are often essential to related fields such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and
biomedical engineering. Within chemical engineering, two broad subgroups
include 1) design, manufacture, and operation of plants and machinery in
industrial chemical and related processes ("chemical process engineers"); and
2) development of new or adapted substances for products ranging from
foods and beverages to cosmetics to cleaners to pharmaceutical ingredients,
among many other products ("chemical product engineers").
Energy and Processing
Heat, light and our ability to travel – all consume energy and all are
indispensable to the quality of our lives. Our sources of energy are mainly
based on fossil fuels – oil, natural gas and coal – and in time these will be
exhausted. Chemists contribute to the conservation of natural energy sources,
by finding more efficient ways of using combustible fuels and investigating
technology that uses renewable resources, particularly sunlight. Chemical
engineering, in turning chemists‘ ideas into products by design of processes
and manufacturing plants, also conserves energy. New processing improves
the efficiency of chemical transformation, minimizing energy consumption
and environmental impact.
Existing energy supplies
Energy consumption in Europe will grow, as in other parts of the world.
This growth will be sustained by a combination of primary sources:
106
petroleum oil, from our own continent and imported from other parts
of the world
other fossil energy sources - natural gas and coal
nuclear energy - fission and fusion
natural renewable resources - wind, water, direct transformation of
solar radiation (photo-voltaic cells, photolysis, etc.), agricultural energy
(biomass in general, atmospheric, oceanographic and earth-crust
temperature differences)
Chemistry research in the fossil fuel area is targeted on the search for
new efficient heterogeneous (solid) catalysts for the production and
refinement of vehicle and aircraft fuels. The chemical industry strives with
increasing success to minimise the environmental impact and energy cost of
the refining processes while maximising the energy content of the fuels
produced. Heterogeneous catalysts are also employed with increasing
effectiveness in the conversion of exhaust gases from unavoidable
combustion processes into relatively benign substances.
Chemists and chemical engineers in the nuclear industry are engaged in
the manufacture of nuclear fuels, which is primarily a chemical rather than a
metallurgical process. They are also involved in spent fuel reprocessing, the
separation and recovery of uranium and plutonium by solution chemistry.
The miniaturisation of nuclear reactors through micro-engineering and microchemical techniques, particularly exploiting new materials technology, will
have substantial advantages for the decommissioning and decontamination of
future redundant nuclear power plants. Chemists play a key role in nuclear
waste monitoring, management and control.
Future Energy sources
The development of new energy technologies will occur either because
of a major change of primary energy sources which significantly affects
existing technology, or because new scientific developments make energy
generation or new raw materials economically and environmentally more
attractive. The most probable scenario will be that of a combination of these
effects causing a shift in the emphasis of the technology mix over time, in
part dictated by geopolitical and economic issues. Primary sourcing is
certainly not the only focus for energy research and development. Conversion
from one form of energy to another will also provide an important part of the
supply spectrum.
107
But what of these new energy sources? There is enough energy to
supply society at an acceptable level from the following sources:
The sun, our unfailing solar generator, drowns us in energy: ca. 100
megawatts per person - equivalent to the power output of a moderate-sized
power station. However, the collection, conversion and distribution of this
'free' energy is a massive challenge, requiring a breakthrough in photovoltaic cell-efficiency which can nevertheless be confidently expected. With
fossil-based energy prices expected to increase rapidly due to economic and
environmental pressures, these cells will become economic for more than
local applications. New materials for solar cells with optimum absorbance
characteristics for the solar spectrum are a particular target for chemistry.
Non-fossil fuel sources will provide a cleaner and practically
inexhaustible supply of energy. However, this will require the scientific and
engineering communities to develop systems of high reliability and lower
risk and the education of the public to accept that the benefits outweigh any
remaining minimal risk. The conversion of wind, water, earth-crustal,
oceanographic and atmospheric temperature differences to electricity,
particularly for local uses, is already in progress and has relatively little
direct interaction with chemistry. Farming of agricultural biomass could
provide an additional source of carbon-based fuel for the next century, but
while its great advantage is that nature assembles the desired carbon
skeleton in the organic fuel components, the disadvantage is the low energy
conversion efficiency and the low availability of water in arid areas. For
such parts of our planet, however, solar radiation is at a maximum. It does
not seem likely, however, that bio-derived energy could ever provide a
significant proportion of mankind's energy requirements.
For transportation, conversion to a form of energy with high energy
content per unit weight, little risk and easy logistics in distribution, filling
and use is essential. At present and in the foreseeable future, this energy will
be in liquid form, especially for long-range and heavy-duty traffic, but for
local and low-duty traffic the electric vehicle has a bright future (see Caring
for our planet). Photolysis of water by catalytic means may well lead to the
construction of vast plants for automotive fuel production. The hydrogenbased economy is a possibility, certainly for electricity production, although
for automotive purposes the problem of the heavy weight of hydrogen
carriers must be overcome. However, the use of metal hydrides as storage
media may provide a solution.
The Carbon Products Industry
108
The carbon products industry is an extremely diverse industry
supplying critical materials and components to some of the United States'
most essential industries such as aluminum, steel, chemicals, aerospace,
electronics, recreation, and environmental protection.
A large portion of the carbon products industry is built on recovering
and processing byproducts from other primary operations. This is good from
a waste utilization viewpoint, but it means that availability and quality of
essential feedstocks for much of the carbon industry are subject to priorities
in other business sectors.
What is a Carbon Product?
Essentially any organic material can be thermally transformed to
carbon. The carbonization process uses heat to convert organic precursors
into a carbon polymer. Some selected precursors can then be transformed into
a three-dimensional graphite structure or near-graphite structure. Differences
in properties of the final carbon products depend on the raw materials used,
on the extent of completion of overall chemical and physical ordering
processes, and upon whether the thermal transformation takes place from the
vapor, liquid, or solid phase.
Carbon products can be grouped according to the extent of material
processing: Raw Material, Carbon Precursors, and Finished Carbon Products.
Figure 1 presents an overview of the processing flow from raw material to
finished carbon product.
Coal tars and petroleum cokes are the principal raw materials used in
the carbon products industry. These materials are by-products of refining and
other coal and oil processing operations. In the United States, approximately
1.8 million metric tons of coal tar and 24 million metric tons of petroleum
coke are produced each year (the U.S. processes 72% of world-wide
production of petroleum coke).
109
Pitches and cokes, which are derived from coal and petroleum tars or
heavy aromatic liquids, are the two main carbon precursor materials for the
production of bulk carbon and graphite products, and for the manufacture of
carbon blacks. Pitches have a glass-like character and cokes are infusible
solids. Bulk carbon and graphite products, such as electrodes, are produced
by first blending calcined coke as a filler and liquid pitch as a binder. This
"green" material is then thermally processed through a series of progressively
higher temperatures to achieve the final desired properties. Petroleum coke is
the largest single precursor material in terms of quantity for manufactured
carbon and graphite products.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the third students‘ specialization of Physics and
Chemical Engineering Faculty.
Biotechnology is a science dealing with the use of biological processes
in technology and industry. The term derives from the Greek words ―bios‖
meaning life, ―teken‖ - art, and ―logos‖ - word, subject, science. Biological
processes are those which utilize biological objects of various nature
(microbial, plant, or animal) for example, manufacturing a range of products
110
having medical, food and other applications - antibiotics, vaccine, ferments,
feed and food proteins, polysaccharides, hormones, glycosides, amino acids,
alkaloids, biogas, fertilizers, etc.
Biotechnology is based on the integral use of biochemistry,
microbiology, and practical engineering with the aim to realize industrially
the abilities of microorganisms, cultures of tissue cells and their parts. It‘s
closely associated with general biology, microbiology, botany, zoology,
anatomy and physiology, bio-, organic, physical and colloidal chemistry,
immunology, bioengineering, electronics, medicine technology, genetics, and
other sciences.
As a science biotechnology has been forming with the development of
mankind. Its origination and progressing can be loosely subdivided into four
periods: empiric (from the Greek ―empeirikos‖ - experiment) or prehistoric;
etiological (from the Greek ―aitia‖ - cause); biotechnical and gene-technical
(from the Greek ―genesis‖ - birth, origin).
The first (empirical) period is the longest, covering about 8,000 years.
Ancient tribes used by intuition techniques of baking bread, brewing beer and
honey alcoholic drinks, fermenting milk and cabbage, preparing silage. The
period saw long accumulation of mycology phenomena (from the Greek
―mykes‖ - fungus).
The second (etiological) period embraces the second half of the 19th
and the first third of the 20th cc (1856 - 1933). It is connected with the
research conducted by Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895), a great French scientist,
founder of scientific microbiology and several microbiological disciplines
(industrial, medical, sanitary, analytical). The latter is associated with the
discovery by Pasteur of molecular asymmetry (stereoisometry). He created
the scientific basis for vaccination and vaccine therapy, proposed a new
method of sterilization, termed ―pasteurization‖ after his name, etc.
An outstanding mycologist A. de Bari (1831 - 1888) was working in
parallel with Pasteur first in Germany and later in France. He is the founder
of physiological mycology and mycophytopathology - science about fungal
diseases (from the Greek ―fition‖ — plant and ―pathos‖ — disease). Among
his followers were the scientists F.M. Balfur, I V. Baranetsky, M. S. Voronin,
A. Koch, A.S. Faminitsin and others.
This very period produced a new scientific discipline of virology.
The third (biotechnical) period was marked by development of
industrial biotechnical equipment which was linked with appearance and
progress in manufacturing of antibiotics (1939 - 1945). Such medicines as
111
penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, a range-of amino acids, etc. were
obtained during the period.
By 1950 J. Monod (France) had developed the theoretical basis of
continuously controlled cultivation of microbes. In the 1950s M. Stephenson,
I. Malek, N.D. Jerusalemsky and others conducted an immense research on
continuous cultivation of microorganisms. At the same period a bioreactor,
which is still being used, was designed and put into operation. During about
40 years of the third period, all the required equipment, including its major
unit-bioreactor, was designed, constructed and put into work. The equipment
is still in use.
The fourth (gene-technical) period in biotechnology started in 1972.
That year P. Berg and his colleagues in the U.S. created the first recombinant
DNA molecule. No doubt, current results in biotechnology would have been
impossible without the fundamental research of DNA structure carried out by
F. Crik and J. Watson.
In 1982 human insulin came into market. It was produced by colon
bacilli, carrying artificially built-in ―blueprints‖ (i.e. genetic information)
about this hormone.
The gene-technical period is characterized by development of intensive
(instead of extensive) processes on the basis of orientated fundamental
research (with producents of antibiotics, ferments, amino acids, vitamins);
acquisition of superproducents; creation of producents carrying absurd
genetic information; creation of bizarre organisms non-existing in nature;
development and introduction of ecologically pure and, if possible, wasteless
technologies; automation and computerizing of biotechnological processes,
etc.
During the previous 10-15 years biotechnology has developed
drastically, its spheres have become clear-cut. These are medical, immune
biotechnology, biogeotechnology, engineering enzymology.
Medical biotechnology deals with processes, which end up with
creation of bioobject-helped means or substances of medical application.
These are antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids, nucleosides, etc.
Immune biotechnology covers production of vaccine, immune
modulators, immune mediators, mono-clonal antibodies, etc.
Biogeotechnology is a subdiscipline focusing on usage of
microorganisms for minerals recovery, e.g. non-ferrous metals, oil; for
oxidizing of methane in coal mines, etc.
112
Engineering enzymology is based on employment of catalytic functions
of ferments (or ferment systems) in isolated state or integrated into live cells
for obtaining corresponding purpose products. Here bioobject is a ferment (or
a group of ferments). Common practice is to use immobilized ferments. In
this case their fermentation activity is stabilized and prolonged.
In scientific literature, one can come across other terms for
biotechnological processes, for example, ―Biotechnology of Animal Cell‖,
―Economics Biotechnology‖, ―Fermentation and Bioengineering‖, ―Industrial
Microbiology‖, ―Agricultural Biotechnology‖, ―Biochemical Engineering‖
etc.
Yet, it is more sensible to subdivide biotechnology into microbial, plant
or phyto biotechnology, and animal or zoo biotechnology, the latter includes
biotechnological processes based on use of human cells.
Microbial biotechnology is the leader in the number of realized
processes.
Biotechnology is a modem and top-priority speciality taught to future
qualified technologists of the foodstuff industry. The basis of the training is a
range of chemistry-biological subjects: biology and microbiology;
biochemistry; theoretical and general biotechnology; foodstuff
biotechnology; processes and apparatuses of biotechnological facilities, etc.
Besides, according to the State Standards, one envisages broad generalscientific education with advanced study of physics and mathematics;
computer technology; economics and management. Senior students
specialize, with the help of would-be employers, in the following processes:
meat-and-dairy; oil-and-fat; baking; distilling or alcoholic beverage industry;
beer brewing; cheese-making; pharmacy; proteins and vitamins; cosmetics,
etc.
Having obtained an MSc degree in Biotechnology, you‘ll be able:
to work out and create new technologies of medicaments‘
manufacturing;
to modernize current technologies of pharmaceutical industry with the
aim to cut costs of products;
to organize mass production of biologically active substances for
pharmaceutical and food industries:
to develop up-to-date technologies of products‘ manufacturing with
higher taste qualities, prolonged terms of storage and sale in oil-and fat,
113
dairy, sweets, baking industries using new generation of food additives on the
basis of biologically active substances;
to work out ameliorated competitive technologies of production of
synthetic washing agents, cosmetic and medical creams, balms, shampoos on
the basis of biologically active substances;
to organize scientific research on synthesis of new biologically active
substances with set qualities and their introduction into industry.
Biotechnology specialists have an opportunity to be employed by a
very great variety of local industries such as engineers, technologists or in
management.
Words and word-combinations to be remembered:
utilize
biological
objects
применять
биологические
объекты
to
realize
industrially
реализовать в промышленности
its origination and progressing - ее
становление и развитие
etiological period - этиологический
период
gene-technical
period
геннотехнический период
fermenting milk - изготовление
кисломолочных
продуктов
(брожение молока)
accumulation
of
mycology
phenomena - накопление фактов в
области микологии
founder of scientific microbiology основоположник
научной
микробиологии
pasteurization - пастеризация
have medical, food and other
applications - иметь медицинское,
пищевое и другое назначение
cultures of tissue cells - культуры
клеток тканей
empirical period - эмпирический
период
biotechnical
period
биотехнический период
brewing beer - изготовление
(варение) пива
fermenting
cabbage
изготовление квашеной капусты
(квашение капусты)
fungus - гриб(ок)
vaccination
вакцинопрофилактика
(вакцинация)
physiological
mycology
физиологическая микология
fungal diseases - грибковые controlled cultivation of microbes заболевания
управляемое
культивирование
микробов
conduct an immense research - recombinant DNA molecule проводить
большой
объем рекомбинантная молекула ДНК
научного исследования
114
colon bacilli - кишечные палочки orientated fundamental research (pi. от colon bacillus)
направленные фундаментальные
исследования
acquisition of superproducents - absurd genetic information получение суперпродуцентов
бессмысленная
генетическая
информация
creation of bizarre organisms - creation of bioobject-helped means
создание необычных организмов or substances - создание с
помощью биообъектов средств
или веществ
mono-colonal
antibodies
- integrated into live cells - в составе
моноклональные антитела
живых клеток
biotechnology of animal ccll - a range of chemistry-biological
биотехнология животной клетки
subjects
цикл
химикобиологических дисциплин
advanced study of - углубленное according to the State Standards - в
изучение
соответствии с Государственным
Стандартом
medicaments’ manufacturing - alcoholic beverage industry производство
лекарственных ликероводочная
отрасль
препаратов
промышленности
mass production - серийное pharmaceutical
industry
производство
фармацевтическая
промышленность
food additives - пищевые добавки prolonged terms of storage длительные сроки хранения
biologically active substances - ameliorated
competitive
биологически активные вещества technologies
улучшенные
конкурентоспособные технологии
Exercises:
Choose
the
Russian
equivalents
from
the
right
the term derives from
baking bread
of various nature
preparing silage
a range of products
vaccine therapy
food proteins
sterilization
medicine technology
mycophytopathology
prehistoric period
virology
115
column:
manufacturing of antibiotics
вирусология
was put into operation (work)
доистoрический период
current
biotechnology
results
выпечка хлеба
in
силосование кормов
был внедрен в практику
вакцинотерапия
стерилизация
производство антибиотиков
название происходит от...
различной природы
технология
лекарств
изготовления
пищевые белки
современные результаты в
области биотехнологии
ряд продуктов
микофитопатология
Choose
the
English
equivalents
медицинского назначения
иммобилизованные ферменты
the
right
улучшенные
качества
column:
вкусовые
исследование структуры ДНК
добыча полезных ископаемых
заданные свойства
человеческий инсулин
не существующие в природе
можно встретить
пищевая промышленность
искусственно
встроенная
генетическая информация
безотходные технологии
будущие
работодатели
from
(потенциальные)
определились ее сферы
снизить
продукции
116
себестоимость
research of DNA structure
mineral recovery
human insulin
immobilized ferments
artificially built-in ―blueprints'‘
one can come across
non-existing in nature
foodstuff industry
wasteless technologies
would-be employers
its spheres have become clear-
to cut costs of products
cut
higher taste qualities
of medical application
set qualities
Complete the sentences choosing the correct ending for each sentence:
The
term
derives from ...
―biotechnology‖
Biological processes are those ...
... the theoretical basis of
continuously controlled cultivation of
microbes.
117
An outstanding mycologist A.
The gene-technical period is
de Bari was working in parallel with characterised by...
...
Senior students specialize...
Ancient tribes used by intuition
techniques of ...
It is more sensible to subdivide
biotechnology into ...
Biotechnology specialist have
an opportunity to work in different
industries as ...
Biotechnology is based on
integral use of ...
It is closely associated with ...
Louis Pasteur proposed a new
method of ...
Having graduated from the
university ...
As a science biotechnology has
been forming with ...
By 1950
developed ...
J.
Monod
had
The basis of the training is ...
The
etiological
period
embraces the second half of the 19th
and ...
During about 40 years of the
biotechnical period all the required
equipment ...
Engineering
based on ...
enzymology
is
Medical biotechnology deals
with ...
118
…
microbial,
plant
or anatomy and physiology» bioorganic,
phytobiotechnology, and animal or physical and colloidal chemistiy, etc.
zoobiotechnology.
... employment of catalytic
... development of intensive functions of ferments.
processes on the basis of orientated
... the Greek words ―bios‖
fundamental research.
meaning ―life‖, ―teken‖ - ―art‖, and
…
sterilization
termed ―logos‖ - ―word, subject, science‖.
―pasteurization‖ after his name.
... a range of chemistry…
the
development
of biological subjects.
mankind.
... the first third of the 20th
Pasteur first in Germany and century.
later in France.
... which utilize biological
... processes, which end up with objects
of
various
nature,
creation of bio object-helped means manufacturing
products
having
or substances of medical application. medical, food and other application.
... biochemistry, microbiology,
... baking bread, brewing beer
and
honey
alcoholic
drinks,
and practical engineering.
fermenting milk and cabbage,
... you will be able to organize preparing silage.
mass production of biologically
... engineers, technologists or in
active substances for food industry.
management.
... was designed, constructed
... in the meat-and-dairy, oiland put into work.
and-fat, cheese-making and other
...
general
biology, industries
microbiology,
botany,
zoology,
Answer the questions below:
What does biotechnology deal with?
What do biological processes imply?
What kind of sciences is biotechnology based on (upon)?
What other sciences is it closely associated with?
Why has a science biotechnology been forming with the development
of mankind? (It is closely connected with practical survival activity of a
man.)
119
How many periods can the development (progress) of biotechnology be
subdivided into?
What period is the longest and covers about 8,000 years?
What kind of technologies did ancient tribes learn to use during the
empirical period?
What famous (well-known) names is the etiological period connected
with? What did they found?
What discoveries was the third (biotechnical) period marked by? Who
are the authors of them?
When did the fourth (gene-technical) period in biotechnology start?
What is this period characterised by?
What spheres of biotechnology have become clear-cut during the
previous 10- 15 years?
What processes does medical biotechnology deal with?
What kinds of products does immune biotechnology cover?
What does biogeotechnology focus on?
What is engineering enzymology based on?
Biotechnology
is an integral part of modern foodstuff industry, isn‘t
it?
What kinds of special and general subjects does the curriculum of
biotechnologists training include?
In what kinds of processes do senior students - biotechnologists
specialize?
In what branches of national industry (what industries) will you be able
to work after graduating from the university?
Read the following dialogue in pairs. Try to reproduce it. Compose
your own one, please.
A: I am sure that biotechnology is a very promising field of science
and technology.
В: I am of the same opinion. That is why I am specializing in
biotechnology.
120
A:
And what year student are you?
B: I‘m in my fourth year. And we are having a number of special
disciplines now. It is a great variety of chemical-biological subjects.
A: Good for you! And I‘m only in my first year. We are practically
dealing with general subjects so far.
B: Oh, there‘s nothing to worry about. Time is getting short. In some
four-five years you‘ll obtain a MSc degree and become a biotechnology
specialist. By the way, where would you like to work?
A:
I think in pharmaceutical industry. And what about you?
B:
As for me, I would prefer food industry.
Say what information you have learned about:
biotechnology as a science
the four periods of biotechnology progressing
outstanding scientists-biotechnologists
special subjects of biotechnology
spheres of biotechnology application
Supplementary Texts for Independent Reading
Industrial biotechnology
Industrial
biotechnology
(known
mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is
the application of biotechnology for
industrial
purposes,
including
manufacturing, alternative energy (or
"bioenergy"), and biomaterials. It includes
the practice of using cells or components of
cells like enzymes to generate industrially
useful products. The Economist speculated
(as cited in the Economist article listed in the An industrial biotechnology plant for
"References"
section)
industrial the production of modified wheat
starch and gluten
biotechnology might significantly impact the
chemical industry. The Economist also suggested it can enable economies to
become less dependent on fossil fuels.
121
The industrial biotechnology community generally accepts an informal
divide between industrial and pharmaceutical biotechnology. An example
would be that of companies growing fungus to produce antibiotics, e.g.
penicillin from the penicillium fungi. One view holds that this is industrial
production; the other viewpoint is that it would not strictly lie within the
domain of pure industrial production, given its inclusion within medical
biotechnology.
This may be better understood by calling to mind the classification by
the U.S. biotechnology lobby group, Biotechnology Industry Organization
(BIO) of three "waves" of biotechnology. The first wave, Green
Biotechnology, refers to agricultural biotechnology. The second wave, Red
Biotechnology, refers to pharmaceutical and medical biotechnology. The
third wave, White Biotechnology, refers to industrial biotechnology. In
actuality, each of the waves may overlap each of the others. Industrial
biotechnology, particularly the development of large-scale bioenergy
refineries, will likely involve dedicated genetically modified crops as well as
the large-scale bioprocessing and fermentation as is used in some
pharmaceutical production.
Industrial biotechnology and climate change
The relationship between industrial biotechnology and climate change
cuts across three major spheres of climate change science and policy:
impacts, mitigation, and adaptation. The impacts of a changing climate on
agriculture and land use will affect the availability of biomass and food
production.
Populations
of
developing
countries
will
suffer
disproportionately, especially since some of the regions that may be most
negatively affected are part of small island states and in already impoverished
areas of sub-Saharan Africa. With respect to mitigation, the expansion of
industrial biotechnology can offer new opportunities for fossil fuel
substitution and carbon sequestration. If genetic modification is employed,
the linkages to both mitigation and adaptation would be even more direct. A
given crop might be adjusted so as to yield better characteristics for energy
production (e.g. more fibre, faster growth, less lignin). With respect to
adaptation, varieties might be developed that require less water or are
otherwise more suited to the new climate. Biomass and industrial
biotechnology can address greenhouse gas emissions while at the same time
providing a more sustainable foundation for the developing world‘s transition
from an agrarian to an industrial economy.
Novel implementation platforms and identification of existing
technologies that are under-utilised or inefficiently utilised will generally be
122
preferred to developing new technologies, particularly in smaller and/or
poorer developing countries.
The following options could be considered:
Improving the efficiency of biomass to energy conversion (e.g.
advanced cogeneration, biomass gasification)
Creating biomass resource options from agricultural or process wastes
Use of agricultural or process wastes as inputs to industrial processes
Substitution for products made from fossil sources (e.g. fertilisers, bioplastics)
The above options tend to have medium-to-large economies-of-scale.
Alternatively, in the context of poverty reduction in rural areas, there may be
a preference for options aimed at expanding energy services (e.g. biogas for
cooking) and/or creating income-generating opportunities (e.g. small-scale
agro-industrial plants). At the same time, smaller-scale options with many
end-users require more effort for replication and dissemination, and thus
entail higher transaction costs. Detailed analysis of impacts, adaptation, and
enhanced sequestration are quite complicated and beyond the scope of this
report. Mitigation options through the Kyoto mechanisms (Emissions
Trading, Joint Implementation, and CDM) are of greatest near-term interest,
not only because of the opportunities to obtain financial support, but also
because expanded platforms for industrial biotechnology can address longterm sustainable development goals at the same time that they offer
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions. Since only Annex 1 parties have
Kyoto obligations, Emissions Trading and JI are only indirectly related to
developing country crediting via the linkages from GHG credits that are
generated.
Industrial or white biotechnology uses enzymes and micro-organisms to
make bio-based products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed,
detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and bioenergy (such as biofuels or
biogas). In doing so, biotechnology uses renewable raw materials and is one
of the most promising, innovative approaches towards lowering greenhouse
gas emissions.
The application of industrial biotechnology has been proven to make
quite significant contributions towards mitigating the impacts of climate
change in these and other sectors. In addition to environmental benefits,
biotechnology can improve industry performance and product value and, as
the technology develops and matures, white biotechnology will yield more
123
viable solutions for our environment. These innovative solutions bring added
benefits for both our climate and our economy.
Industrial biotechnology is based on renewable resources, can save
energy in production processes, and can significantly reduce CO2 emissions.
The impact that biotechnology has on industry is confirmed by scientific
studies and reports, such as the OECD‘s report on the application of
biotechnology to industrial sustainability and, most recently, by the World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report on the potential of industrial
biotechnology to cut CO2 emissions and help build a greener economy.
The WWF report concludes that the full climate change mitigation
potential of biotechnology processes and bio-based products ranges from
between one billion and 2.5 billion tons CO2 equivalent per year by 2030.
This represents more than Germany‘s total reported emissions in 1990. Many
low-carbon technologies are already available, and future innovations offer
greater potential. Forward-thinking companies have already discovered the
potential of biotechnology to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
However, in order to fully realise the potential of biotechnology it will
be critical that international policy makers create a fully supportive
biotechnology legislative framework.
Industrial biotechnology can be used to:
Create new products, such as plant-based biodegradable plastics;
Replace petroleum-based feedstocks by processing biomass using
biorefineries to generate electricity, transport fuels or chemicals;
Modify and develop new industrial processes, such as by using
enzymes to reduce the amount of harsh chemicals used in textiles and the
pulp and paper industry;
Reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing; for example by
treating industrial wastewater onsite using biological mediums such as
microbes;
Provide energy savings by adding enzymes in detergents, allowing
clothes to be washed in lower temperatures; and
Provide water savings through more efficient processes such as using
enzymes to break down chemicals and reduce subsequent washing steps in
the textile industry.
124
Industrial biotechnology is also a key enabling technology to realise a
Bioeconomy, a sustainable economy that uses biological resources (such as
biomass) as an input to industrial processes, and bio-based processes to help
industries become more environmentally sustainable. A major driver for a
Bioeconomy is the expected decrease in the global supply for cheap and
easily extractable oil. A Bioeconomy could be expected to increase food
security, reduce the environmental impact of agriculture and fisheries, and
generate sustainable growth and jobs. Please see the Bioeconomy and
Industrial Biotechnology page for more information.
TECHNOSPHERE SAFETY
The fourth basic speciality of the Physics and Chemical Engineering
Faculty is Technosphere Safety.
Man‘s experience has proved that any newly created human activity
must be useful for his existence. Yet, this activity may be a source of
negative impact or harm, resulting in injury, illness and, in some cases,
disability and death. Any human activity may be harmful: work in industries,
various types of leisure, entertainment, and even the activity related to
studies. Thus, human practice makes it valid that any activity is hazardous.
The axiom that any activity is hazardous is the base for the scientific
problem, which deals with ensuring man‘s safety. This axiom has at least two
important conclusions needful to form safety systems: it is impossible to
develop (find) an absolutely safe man‘s activity (e.g. considering man‘s work
in industries it is impossible to develop the absolutely safe equipment or
process); no activity can ensure the absolute man‘s safety (zero risks are nonexistent).
Hazards are processes, phenomena, objects that have a negative impact
on man‘s life and health.
All kinds of hazards (negative impacts) arising during labour are
divided into the following groups: physical, chemical, biological and
psychophysiological (social).
Hazardous and harmful physical factors: running vehicles and
mechanisms; various handling equipment and transferred loads; unprotected
running components of industrial equipment; flying particles of treated
materials and tools; electric current; elevated temperature of equipment and
treated materials; elevated or lowered air temperature in working areas; high
humidity; excessive noises, ultrasounds and various radiations, etc.
125
Chemical hazardous and harmful industrial factors are divided into the
following groups: of general toxicity; irritating; sensibilizing (causing
allergies); cancerogenic (causing tumors); mutagenic (affecting the sexual
cells of a body). This group includes various vapours and gases: vapours of
benzene (benzol) and toluene; carbon oxide; sulphurous-acid anhydride;
nitrogen oxides; aerosols of lead and other elements; toxic dusts, formed, for
example, while cutting beryllium, leaden bronze, brass, and some plastics. This
group also includes aggressive liquids (acids, alkalies) that may cause chemical
burns of skin.
Biological hazardous and harmful industrial factors: micro-organisms
(bacteria, viruses, etc.) and macro-organisms (plants and animals) whose
impacts on workers cause injury or illness.
Psychophysiological hazardous and harmful industrial factors: physical
strains (static and dynamic) and nervous-psychic strains (of mind, hearing,
vision, etc.).
The operation of a modern industrial establishment, its main and
auxiliary equipment, communications, sewage-works depend to a great extent
on the personnel‘s correct and timely actions. What is more, our artificial
environment - technosphere - which usually comprises objects, that make up
an integral technical system, is in itself a source of emergencies, fires, blasts,
and other dangers. 1996 alone saw 214518 persons injured in industrial
accidents, 5425 of them died. The conclusion is evident: efficient measures
are required to protect a man from the technosphere created by himself.
Comfortable labour conditions, safety and protection of human health
is the top priority task for any industry and type of activity. On completion of
studies at the Technosphere Safety speciality, students are awarded a degree
of an engineer and are able to determine high(er)-technogene-risk zones;
choose human protection systems as for particular kinds of technological
processes and equipment; work out suggestions on updating technologies and
reconstruction of industrial plants; carry out research on protection against
harmful and dangerous factors on die basis of modern means and methods of
safety; train safety personnel.
Education includes grounding in labour protection and studying the
fundamentals of technological processes and equipment on the base of
specialized chairs. It ensures good knowledge of modern production and
provides a wide choice of careers:
Labour protection in manufacturing, steel and chemistry industries;
Jobs in state supervision and control of production safety;
126
Development of documentation on safety of technological processes
and equipment;
Expertizing in safety matters;
Attesting and control of labour conditions;
Jobs as engineers in manufacturing, steel and chemistry industries.
In 2001 our University opened the Safety of Technological Processes
and Production speciality which became an answer to the challenge put by
the problem of production safety. In fact, human societies have developed
through creation of new technologies directed at satisfying ever- increasing
needs, human safety being completely ignored although the last century has
formulated an axiom of potential danger of any human activity.
21-st century, if not to become the last one in the history of mankind,
should change the scheme of life, making safety of human activity a must
(prerequisite) for survival.
So nowadays attention is high to education in the field of safety and
risks, to professional skills of those who dedicate their life to protection and
safety of society.
Scientists have been studying human safety in various conditions since
ancient time. Aristotle and Hippocrates wrote about these problems in their
works in the 300s B.C. Paracelse, Agricola and М. V. Lomonosov are the
founding fathers of safety in mining. Academician Legasov and many other
Russian scientists have greatly contributed to development of safety theory
and worked out the concepts of means and ways of human protection.
At present safety problems require qualified specialists, true
professionalism, which envisages profound studying of methods and means
of analysis, danger forecasting, ability to design and use effective means and
methods of protection as well as to run complex ergotechnical systems such
as ―human being - machine - environment‖.
Today one of the major directions of state policy in labour protection is
training specialists, possessing a unique range of law, economics and
technical knowledge related to industrial safety control (managers‘ risk).
Studying the fundamentals of technological processes, industrial
equipment, human physiology, industrial ecology, ergonomics, design and
law gives good knowledge of modem industries and provides wide career
opportunities:
127
All hierarchy of positions in industrial safety departments;
Technical inspection of state-municipal technical supervision;
Jobs in private firms rendering services of system safety and labour
protection;
Scientific research in the field of technogene risk and technological
safety control.
Try to memorize the words and word-combinations listed below:
Technosphere
Safety
–
Техносферная Безопасность
Safety of Technological Processes
and Production - Безопасность
Технологических Процессов и
Производств
a source of negative impact or
harm - источник негативного
воздействия или вреда
activity related to studies деятельность,
связанная
с
получением знаний
Hazardous
опасный,
рискованный
ensuring
man's
safety
обеспечение
безопасности
человека
non existent - не существующий
handling equipment - движущиеся
машины и механизмы
treated
materials
обрабатываемые материалы
-
artificial
environment
искусственная среда обитания
industrial accidents - несчастные
случаи в промышленности
to determine high(er) technogene
risk zones - определять зоны
повышенного
техногенного
риска
suggestions
on
updating
technologies - предложения по
совершенствованию технологии
train safety personnel - готовить
персонал
по
вопросам
безопасности
grounding in labour protection фундаментальная подготовка по
охране труда
control of production safety органы
управления
по
безопасности производства
expertising in safety matters проведение
экспертизы
по
вопросам безопасности
directed
at
satisfying
ever
increasing needs - направленные
на
удовлетворение
все
возрастающих потребностей
128
Harmful - вредный, губительный
Irritating
действия
-
раздражающего
vapours of benzene (benzol) and
toluene - пары бензола и толуола
sulphurous acid anhydride
сернистый ангидрид
-
cause injury or illness - вызывать
травмы или заболевания
physical strains - физические
перегрузки,
физическое
перенапряжение
nervous psychic strains - нервно
психические перегрузки
sewage
works
очистные
сооружения
Exercises
dedicate life to protection and
safety of society - посвятить жизнь
защите
и
обеспечению
безопасности общества
envisage profound studying of ... предусматривать
глубокое
изучение
wide career opportunities широкая деловая ниша (широкие
возможности для карьерного
роста)
state
municipal
technical
supervision - государственный
городской технический надзор
(госгортехнадзор)
firms rendering services - фирмы
по оказанию услуг
Match the words and word-combinations in left list with the ones in the
right column:
Table
1:
newly created human activity
1.
требуются
эффективные
меры
2.
нулевых
существует
an answer to the challenge
рисков
не
Continuing
3.
управление технологической
безопасностью
result in injury and illness
129
психофизиологические
causing tumors
4.
факторы
efficient measures are required
5.
создаваемый
человеческой деятельности
вид
a unique range of ...
6.
формирование
безопасности
систем
technological safety control
7.
при обработке резанием
development of documentation
8.
потенциальная
любой деятельности человека
excessive noises
9.
покрова
химические ожоги кожного
high air humidity
10.
опухолей
вызывающие
while cutting
11. вспомогательное
оборудование
contribute to
12.
надзора
various types of leisure
13.
органы
опасность
развитие
государственного
ответ на вызов
deal with
14. уникальный
(диапазон)
running vehicles and mechanisms
15.
человека
комплекс
абсолютная безопасность для
a must (prerequisite) for survival
16.
отлетающие частицы
different radiation
17.
перемещаемые грузы
18. современное промышленное
предприятие
chemical bums of skin
psychophysiological factors
19.
источник аварии
20. агрессивные
(кислоты, щелочи)
zero risks are non-existent
formation of safety systems
жидкости
21.
внести вклад в ...
22.
приводить к травматизму и
End
potential
danger
of
any
human
130
заболеваниям
activity
23. разработка
технической документации
auxiliary equipment
нормативно-
state supervision
24.
повышенные уровни шума
a source of emergencies
25.
высокая влажность воздуха
flying particles
26.
различные виды отдыха
aggressive liquids (acids, alkalies)
27.
различные виды излучений
modern industrial establishment
28. обязательное
выживания
an absolutely safe man‘s activity
29.
решать
transferred loads
30. движущиеся
механизмы
условие
иметь дело с, рассматривать,
машины
Rearrange the following sentences according to the contents of the text.
Translate them into Russian, please.
21st century should change the scheme of life, making safety of human
activity a prerequisite for survival.
Scientists have been studying human safety in various conditions since
ancient times.
At present safety problems require true professionalism, which
envisages danger forecasting.
Hazards are processes, phenomena, objects that have a negative impact
on man‘s life and health.
This group includes numerous vapours and gases.
1996 alone saw 214518 persons injured in industrial accidents.
This group also includes aggressive liquids that may cause chemical
bums of skin.
131
и
Man‘s experience has proved that any newly created human activity
must be useful for his existence.
No activity can ensure the absolute man‘s safety.
Paracelse, Agricola and М. V. Lomonosov are the founders of safety in
mining.
Comfortable labour conditions, safety and protection of human health is
the top priority task for any industry and type of activity.
Our University opened this speciality in 2001 which became an answer
to the challenge put by the problem of production safety.
All kinds of negative impacts arising during labour are divided into four
groups.
The operation of a modem industrial establishment depends to a great
extent on the personnel‘s correct and timely actions.
Education includes grounding in labour protection.
Academician
Legasov and many other Russian scientists have
greatly contributed to development of safety theory.
The conclusion is evident: efficient measures are required to protect a
man from the technosphere created by himself.
Today
one of the major directions of state policy in labour
protection is training of specialists possessing a unique range of law,
economics and technical knowledge related to industrial safety control.
Answer the following questions:
What field are you specializing in?
What has man‘s experience proved?
Any human activity is hazardous, isn‘t it?
What does this scientific problem deal with?
Is it possible to develop an absolutely safe equipment or process?
What do hazardous processes, phenomena or objects imply?
What groups are all kinds of hazards divided into?
What can you say about hazardous and harmful physical factors?
132
What do chemical hazardous and harmful industrial factors comprise?
What do biological and psychophysiological hazardous and harmful
industrial factors imply?
What does the operation of a modern industrial establishment depend
upon? Give your grounds.
0ur artificial environment is a serious source of danger, isn‘t it?
What measures are necessary for a man‘s protection from the
technosphere, created by himself?
What is the top priority task for any industry and type of activity?
What can the students awarded a degree of Safety of Technological
Processes and Production engineer 1) determine; 2) choose; 3) work out; 4)
carry out?
They are also able to train safety personnel, aren‘t they?
What does education at the Technosphere Safety speciality include?
What does this education ensure and provide?
When and why did our University open the Safety of Technological
Processes and Production speciality?
What should the 21st century change in human safety?
Who wrote much about protection and safety of society in their works?
Who are the founding fathers of human safety in mining?
What sort (kind) of contribution did academician Legasov make to the
development of safety theory?
What does true professionalism of human safety specialists envisage?
What is one of the major directions of state policy in labour protection?
What kinds of career opportunities does studying the fundamentals of
technological processes provide?
Which one would you prefer?
Read the dialogue in pairs. Try to memorize the replies. Make up your
own dialogues or polylogues.
A:
Hello, what can I do for you?
133
B: How do you do. I am a school leaver and I‘d like to become a
student of your faculty.
A:
I‘m glad to hear that, you have made a good choice. Can I help
you?
В: I am sure you can. As far as I know, there are four major
specialities at the faculty: Biotechnology, Electronics and Nanoelectronics,
Chemical Engineering and Technosphere Safety. The fact is, I cannot make
my choice.
A: But it is up to you to decide. All these specialities are very
interesting and promising.
B:
And which is the youngest one?
A: Electronics and Nanoelectronics. It was opened only in 2011.
Nanoelectronics refers to the use of nanotechnology on electronic
components, especially transistors that are so small that inter-atomic
interactions need to be studied extensively.
B:
That‘s exactly what I‘m interested in. Thank you.
Retell the text according to the plan below:
Human activity as a source of harm and danger.
Absolute man‘s safety (zero risks).
Major hazardous and harmful physical factors.
Significant chemical hazardous and harmful industrial factors.
Main biological hazardous and harmful industrial factors.
Psychophysiological hazardous and harmful industrial factors.
Technosphere
as
a
source
of
danger.
Wide choice of careers for the students specializing in Safety of
Technological Processes and Production.
Professional skills of those who devote their lives to protection and
safety of society.
Scientists‘ contribution to the development of safety theory.
Wide career opportunities for Technosphere Safety specialists.
Supplementary Texts for Independent Reading
134
Green Chemistry from Theory to Practice
Environmental issues in the past were considered
as part of the economic system and the rapid
exploitation of natural resources. It took many years to
consider the established ways that materials were used
(feedstocks), the initial design of chemical processes,
the hazardous properties of products, the energy consumption and other
parameters involved in the manufacture of products (life cycle, recycling,
etc). Green Chemistry was for many years a relatively abstract idea with no
basic principles and definitions of practical applications. Now, the term
Green Chemistry has been defined as ―the invention, design and application
of chemical products and processes to reduce or to eliminate the use and
generation of hazardous substances for workers and consumers‖.
The Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry
The most important aims Green Chemistry were defined in twelve
principles. The number twelve is highly significant and symbolic (like the
twelve months of the year) as a complete sum of the most important things
that we have to do to accomplish a multiple task.
Green Chemistry has to cover a broad section of chemical and
technological aspects in order to offer its alternative vision for sustainable
development. Green chemistry had to include fundamental ways to reduce or
to eliminate environmental pollution through dedicated, sustainable
prevention programs. Green Chemistry must focus on alternative,
environmentally friendly chemicals in synthetic routes but also to increase
reaction rates and lower reaction temperatures to save energy. Green
Chemistry looks very carefully on reaction efficiency, use of less toxic
solvents, minimizing the hazards of feedstocks and products and reduction of
waste.
Paul T. Anastas, an organic chemist working in the Office of Pollution
Prevention and Toxins at the EPA, and John C. Warner developed the
Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry in 1991. These principles can be
grouped into ―Reducing Risk‖ and ―Minimizing the Environmental
Footprint.‖ Risk has been a legacy of some chemical industries in the past.
Hazardous chemicals to humans and environmental pollution risk was
connected with new chemical products and that gave a ―bad name‖ to
synthetic chemical materials. The environmental footprint is more to do with
energy consumption, the climate crisis and depleting natural resources.
135
A. Green Chemistry aims to Reduce Risk in the Laboratory
Use Safer Chemicals,
Design Less Hazardous Synthesis Methods
Use Safer Solvents and Reaction Conditions
Accident Prevention (minimize the potential for explosions, fires, etc.)
B. Minimizing the Environmental Footprint
Waste Minimization and Prevention
Use of Catalysts Instead of Stoichiometric Quantities
Reduce the Use of Chemical Derivatives
Synthetic Efficiency (Atom Economy)
Taking Advantage of Chemicals Designed for Degradation
Establishment of In Process Controls for Pollution Prevention
Use of Renewable Feedstocks
Encourage Energy Efficiency 20
The Twelve Principles of GC can be analysed fully in the following set
Principle No. 1. Prevention: It is better to prevent than to clean or to
treat afterwards (waste or pollution). This is a fundamental principle. The
preventative action can change dramatically many attitudes among scientists
developed in the last decades. Most of the chemical processes and synthetic
routes produce waste and toxic secondary substances. Green Chemistry can
prevent waste and toxic by products by designing the feedstocks and the
chemical processes in advance and with innovative changes.
Principle No. 2. Maximise synthetic methods, Atom Econοmy: All
synthetic methods until now were wasteful and their yields between 70-90%.
Green Chemistry supports that synthetic methods can be designed in advance
to maximize the incorporation of all reagents used in the chemical process
into the final product, eliminating the need to recycling the byproducts The
concept of Atom Economy was developed by Barry Trost of Stanford
University (USA), for which he received the Presidential Green Chemistry
Challenge Award in 1998. It is a method of expressing how efficiently a
particular reaction makes use of the reactant atoms.
136
Principle No. 3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses: Green
Chemistry must strive, wherever practical, to design safer synthetic methods
by using less toxic substances as well as the products of the synthesis. Less
toxic materials mean lower hazards to workers in industry and research
laboratories and less pollution to the environment.
Principle No. 4. Designing safer chemicals: Designing must become a
fundamental aim of Green chemists to effect the desired function and
properties of the chemical product while minimizing their toxicity to human
and the environment. At present, there are around 100.000 chemical
substances and materials in the market. Most of these substances have been
characterized as to their physiochemical properties and toxicities, but there is
lack of ecotoxicological data for most of them. From the 1980s there are
more stringent regulation and new chemicals are monitored more effectively.
Principle No. 5. Safer solvents and auxiliary substances: Solvents,
separation agents and auxiliary chemicals used in synthetic chemistry must
be replaced or reduced with less toxic chemicals. Green Chemistry initiated
big changes in chemical laboratories and in the last decade there are less toxic
solvents in chemical laboratories and alternative techniques.
Principle No. 6. Design for energy efficiency: Chemists must
recognize that until now there was very little thought to energy requirements
in chemical synthetic chemical processes Designing more efficient methods
is a necessity and if possible synthetic methods should be conducted at room
temperature and pressure to reduce energy requirements.
Principle No. 7. Use of renewable raw materials and feedstocks:
Starting raw material for synthetic processes are mostly petrochemical
substances and products of refining. Raw materials must have very low 21
toxicity and if possible to be renewable, rather than depleting. We know that
there are many practical problems in finding renewable raw materials. Green
chemists must change the manufacturing process by discovering renewable
chemicals. Development with depleting natural resources is a negative aspect
of economic growth.
Principle No. 8. Reduce intermediate derivatives: Chemists must
aim for reducing unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups,
protection/deprotection techniques and temporary modification of physical
and chemical processes) in the synthetic routes. These derivatizations use
additional reagents, are wasteful and produce large amounts of by-products
and waste. The principle reminds chemists to change their old ways of
mproducing chemicals with more chemical steps and additional materials.
Designing new chemical synthetic routes are desirable.
137
Principle No. 9. Catalysis, catalytic reagents: The use of catalysts is
well known that can change dramatically the efficiency of chemical reactions
and the yield of products. Catalytic reagents with great selectivity can be
superior to stoichiometric reagents. New catalysts and more emphasis on
catalytic processes is the future of green chemistry techniques.
Principle No.10. Design products which degrade easily: Most
chemical products and consumer items do not degrade very easily, thus
causing environmental problems.. Green Chemistry aims at designing
products so that at the end of their useful life to break down into innocuous
materials. Persistence into the environment is a negative aspect of many
consumer products (e.g. plastic products) and this can be reversed by
designing products which degrade in a short time.
Principle No. 11. Real- time analysis for pollution prevention:
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real time,
in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous
substances
Principle No. 12. Inherently safer chemistry for accident
prevention. Raw materials and chemical substances used in chemical process
should be inherently safe, i.e. their properties and their degradation products
to be nontoxic and not dangerous (e.g. to explode, to be flammable, allergic
to humans, cause burns to skin, etc). Green Chemistry aims to stop the use of
dangerous materials for the health and safety of workers and the consumer.
These principles are obviously very difficult to apply immediately for
many chemical processes. After twenty years of Green Chemistry initiatives
and industrial applications it is amazing to see many creative innovations at
various scientific and industrial processes. The cooperation of chemists,
engineers, material scientists, bioscientists and technologists has achieved
interesting results. The interdisciplinary approach has expanded the fields of
green chemistry and produced some excellent non-toxic materials and
feedstock savings in chemical industries.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable Development.
In the last 250 years chemistry has improved our quality of life, and
made thousands of useful products and materials possible. But this
achievement has come at a price: for the global environment and
nonrenewable natural resources. Sustainability is at stake and continuation of
the quality of life is under threat. Many chemicals work their way up the food
chain and circulate round the globe, pesticide residues were found in the
138
tropics and in the Arctic; flame retardants from electronics are now
commonly found in aquatic organisms, especially in marine mammals.
Green chemistry and its principle want to change all these negative
impacts and through design, innovation and green processes to restore the
planet‘s sustainable development A typical example is the use of
nonrenewable fossil fuels Today‘s chemical industry relies almost entirely on
petroleum as the primary building block to create chemicals. This type of
chemical production typically is very energy intensive, inefficient, and toxic,
resulting in significant energy use, and generation of hazardous waste. One of
the principles of green chemistry is to prioritize the use of alternative and
renewable materials including the use of agricultural waste or biomass and
non-food-related bioproducts.
The term ―sustainable chemistry‖ proposed in the beginning was
changed into ―green‖ because it contains the meaning of radical change,
innovation, rejection of old attitudes and practices.
From the beginning many international organizations embraced the
principles of Green Chemistry and recognised its significance in chemical
processes and in particular for the chemical industry. Environmental
Protection Agency, with its internationally recognised advances in
environmental protection and the American Chemical Society adopted the
aims and principles of Green Chemistry. The Royal Society of Chemistry in
Great Britain was also from the beginning on board the green chemistry
movement.
Green Chemistry initially promoted safer chemicals and protection of
the environment, but at the same time introduced the principles of energy
efficiency, atom economy in chemical processes with reduction of waste.
These green chemical principles concerning economical benefits were the
first to be taken up by big chemical industries in their research and
development departments. Green chemistry applications made financial sense
in many syntheses of chemical substances, use of green solvents and
renewable feedstocks. Also, new green techniques, like the supercritical CO2
replacing volatile organic solvents, catalysis and lower temperature reactions
showed great promise and higher yields. Reduction of waste in chemical
processes is also part of the ―green‖ changes in industry due to higher
environmental taxes. Some governments introduced lower taxes for industries
which applied voluntarily alternative ―greener‖ methodologies. Scientific
papers in the fields of green chemistry, alternative syntheses, green solvents,
catalysis and waste minimization increased exponentially in 1991-2010
period. Green Chemistry principles give great emphasis to the scientific term
139
―hazardous‖, for processes and the life cycle of chemical substances. Green
chemistry is a way of dealing with risk reduction and pollution prevention by
addressing the intrinsic hazards of substances rather than dealing with the
conditions of their use that might increased their risk (e.g. exposure in the
working environment, or uses of the products with exposure potential)
Risk, in its most fundamental terms, is the product of hazard and
exposure:
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝑓(𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑 ∗ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
To calculate the risk associated with a certain substance we have to
quantify its hazard (how toxic or dangerous to humans and the environment it
is) and multiply it with a quantifiable exposure (dose, time, etc.). In the past,
all common approaches to risk reduction focused on reducing exposure to
hazardous substances and regulations often required increases in control
technologies and treatment technology (i.e. personal protective equipment in
order to reduce risk by restricting exposure). Green Chemistry goes to the
heart of risk prevention or adequate reduction in advance before the
substance is made or used. Green Chemistry demands to design products and
use raw materials with lower hazardous properties as practical as possible.
Green chemistry takes into account the difficulties and practical
considerations in industrial processes, but puts first prevention than remedial
action afterwards.
The definition of Green Chemistry and Its Principles illustrates another
important point about the use of the term ―hazard‖. This term is not restricted
to physical hazards such as explosiveness, flammability, and corrosibility, but
includes acute and chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, environmental pollution
to water, air and soil (aquatic organisms, mammals, etc.) and ecological
toxicity.
140
Module 3. Machine building
The Milling Machine
Eli Whitney, of New Haven, Conn., invented one of the first milling
machines in 1812. While it looks incredibly simple, it replaced the slow,
antiquated process of hand-filing parts — thereby paving the way for
interchangeable part production. Whitney used this milling machine and the
concept of interchangeable parts to produce large quantities of muskets for the
U.S. Army.
In 1861, Joseph R. Brown— Brown & Sharpe Co., Providence, R.I. —
built a universal milling machine for the purpose of machining grooves in twist
drills — a job that was still being done by hand-filing. The machine also proved
capable of other types of spiral-milling, gear-cutting, and other metal-cutting.
Brown‘s machine caused a mild sensation on the American manufacturing scene because it incorporated many technological advances. It
featured increased power and rigidity, an improved feed system, a better cross
feed, and the use of stop nuts. The most significant advance, however, was the
introduction of the column and knee principle. This new design concept solved
the problem of vertical adjustment of the cutter relative to the workpiece.
By 1867, Brown & Sharpe milling machines featured micrometre dials,
graduated in thousandths. Both the cross feed and the vertical movement screw
connections had graduated circles on a plate and a pointer behind the crank to
indicate a setting on these graduations.
The Cincinnati Milling Machine Co. brought out its No. 3plain milling
machine in 1898. It is a column and knee machine, like Brown‘s early model,
but it had a larger capacity for heavier industrial applications. The No. 3 had an
automatic feed system with a powered table movement of 33 inches, a vertical
range of 20 inches, and a cross motion of nine inches. It also had 10 spindle
speeds.
141
Figure 1.
Cincinnati’s
milling machine
Figure 2. Whitney’s
milling machine
Figure 3. Brown and
Sharpe’s first
universal milling
machine
The Lathe
The lathe is one of the most useful and versatile machines in the
workshop, and is capable of carrying out a wide variety of machining
operations. The main components of the lathe are the headstock and tailstock at
opposite ends of a bed, and a tool-post between them which holds the cutting
tool. The tool- post stands on a cross-slide which enables it to move sidewards
across the saddle or carriage as well as along it, depending onthe kind of job it
is doing. The ordinary centre lathe can accommodate only one tool at a time on
the tool-post, but a turret lathe is capable of holding five or more tools on the
revolving turret. The lathe bed must be very solid to prevent the machine from
bending or twisting under stress.
The headstock incorporates the driving and gear mechanism, and a
spindle which holds the workpiece and causes it to rotate at a speed which
dependslargely onthe diameter of the workpiece. A bar of large diameter should
naturally rotate more slowly than a very thin bar; the cutting speed of the tool is
what matters. Tapered centres in the hollow nose of the spindle and of the
tailstock hold the work firmly between them. A feed-shaft from the headstock
drives the tool-post along the saddle, either forwards or backwards, at a fixed
and uniform speed. This enables the operator to make accurate cuts and to give
the work a good finish. Gears between the spindle and the feed-shaft control the
speed of rotation of the shaft, and therefore the forward or backward movement
of the tool-post. The gear which the operator will select depends onthe type of
metal which he is cutting and the amount of metal he has to cut off. For a deep
142
or roughing cut the forward movement of the tool should be less than for a
finishing cut.
Centres are not suitable for every job on the lathe. The operator can
replace them by various types of chucks, which hold the work between jaws, or
by a front-plate, depending onthe shape of the work and the particular cutting
operation. He will use a chuck, for example, to hold a short piece of work, or
work for drilling, boring or screw-cutting. A transverse movement of the toolpost across the saddle enables the tool to cut across the face of the workpiece
and give it a flat surface. For screw-cutting, the operator engages the leadscrew, a long screwed shaft which runs along in front of the bed and which
rotates with the spindle. The lead-screw drives the tool-post forwards along the
carriage at the correct speed, and this ensures that the threads on the screw are
of exactly the right pitch. The operator can select different gear speeds, and this
will alter the ratio of spindle and lead-screw speeds and therefore alter the pitch
of the threads. A reversing lever on the headstock enables him to reverse the
movement of the carriage and so bring the tool back to its original position.
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A centre lathe
144
LESSON 1
Words to be remembered
lathe chuck - токарныйпатрон, wobble - качаться; биение, jaw кулачок /патрона/, screw - винт, wear - износ, shank-хвостовик, faceplate разметочнаяплита, планшайба.
Read the following words:
wobble ['wɔbl], turn [tɜːn], screw [skruː], jaw [ʤɔː], independent
ˌɪndɪ'pendənt], universal [ˌjuːnɪ'vɜːs(ə)l], wear [wɛə], insert ['ɪnsɜːt] , pressure
['preʃə], mechanical [mɪ'kænɪk(ə)l], kind [kaɪnd], equip [ɪ'kwɪp].
Translate the following derivatives paying attention to the prefix "re":
remake (v), reuse (v, n), reread (v), readjust (v), reconstruct (v).
Explain the difference between the following grammar forms:
is turning - is turned; are using - are used; is moving - is moved.
Explain the derivations of the following words:
to use - usage - useful - useless; to prepare - preparation - preparative;
metal - metallic.
Lathe Chucks
The lathe chuck is used for chucking the work that is for clamping it so
that it will rotate without wobbling while turning. It should be screwed on the
headstock spindle while the lathe is stopped. There are two kinds of lathe
chucks: the four-jaw independent chuck and the three-jaw universal chuck.
If the work is perfectly round it may be chucked in the so-called threejaw universal chuck all the jaws of which are moved to the centre by turning the
145
screw. The four-jaw independent chuck has four jaws and each jaw has to be
moved separately; it is mostly used to hold a work that is not perfectly round.
The jaws of the chuck are made of hardened and tempered steel to prevent
their wear. The tapered shank-of the chuck is inserted into the taper hole of the
headstock spindle.
Magnetic chucks are adapted to work which is difficult to hold in chuck
jaws, either on account of its shape or because the pressure of the jaws may
distort the work. The magnetic chucks have no jaws, as the work is held by
magnetic force instead of by mechanical means, Some workpieces are so
shaped that they cannot be held in a chuck, and work of this kind is often
clamped to a faceplate. Most lathes are equipped with two face- plates: one
small plate is used for driving workpieces turned between centres, and a large
one is used to hold heavy or irregularly shaped pieces.
Exercises
I. Giving answers to the following questions,describe the lathe chucks.
What is a chuck?
What types of chucks do you know?
What purposes are chucks used for?
What kind of work are magnetic chucks adapted to?
How is the work held in a magnetic chuck?
How many faceplates are most lathes equipped with?
II. Compose questions to words written in bold.
1. He was looking for the new reference-book on elements of machines
everywhere. 2. For a number of years scientists will be working at improving
the machine-tool efficiency. 3. In machining operations the tool is moving и
to the work.
III. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the Participles.
146
1. When fastened in a lathe chuck, the work turns without wobbling. 2.
All standard chucks are constructed entirely of steel having a solid steel body,
and all the moving parts are made of hardened alloy steel to withstand wear. 3.
Standard chucks can be furnished with either two or three simple jaws. 4. They
are mechanically operated by an automatic mechanism which gives the operator
total freedom of both hands for handling the work.
IV. Ask your friends if
1. the lathe chuck will rotate without wobbling while turning. 2. the jaws
of the chuck are made of hardened and tempered steel to prevent wear. 3. most
lathes are equipped with two faceplates. 4. the jaws are moved to the centre by
turning the screw.
Dialogue
- As far as I know, the lathe chuck should be screwed on the headstock
spindle.
-That‘s right. It should be screwed on the headstock spindle while the
lathe is stopped.
-And how many lathe chucks are there?
-Well, there are two kinds of lathe chucks: the four-jaw independent
chuck and the three-jaw universal chuck.
-As far as I remember, the jaws of the chuck are made of hardened and
tempered steel.
-Exactly so. The jaws of the chuck are made of hardened and tempered
steel to prevent their wear.
-Will you tell me a few words about magnetic chucks?
-Certainly. The magnetic chucks have no jaws, as the work is held by
magnetic force instead of mechanical means.
LESSON 2
147
Words to be remembered:
the live centre -подвижныйцентр,the dead centre -неподвижныйцентр,to prevent - предотвращать,wear - износ,to alignцентрировать,to test - испытывать, to measure - измерять,to install устанавливать,a tapered shank - коническийхвостовик,to heat нагревать,friction - трение,running centre - вращающийцентр.
Read the following words:
piece [piːs],
centre ['sentə], together [tə'geðə], dead[ded], rub [rʌb],
wear [wɛə], during ['djuərɪŋ], perform [pə'fɔːm], each [iːʧ], angle ['æŋgl], clean
[kliːn], both [bəuθ], turner ['tɜːnə],cut[kʌt], alignment [ə'laɪnmənt],
measurement ['meʒəmənt], same [seɪm], should [ʃud], install [ɪn'stɔːl],
excessive [ɪk'sesɪv ], [ek-], call [kɔːl].
Underline the suffixes and prefixes and translate Into Russian:
to adjust, adjustable, adjusting, adjustment; to continue, continual,
continuance, continuation, discontinuation, discontinuance, to discontinue; to
divide, divided, division, divisor, to subdivide, subdivisible, subdivision.
Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the
underlined words.
1. We have provided our plants with various safety devices. 2. Provided
the plant fulfills its plan ahead of time all the workers will get premiums. 3. The
plants provided with such, machinery have higher labour productivity.
Lathe Centres
When machining a piece of work on a lathe the former is usually mounted
between the lathe centres.
The two lathe centres are used to support the work: one - the live centre is
held in the headstock spindle and turns together with the spindle and the
work,the other - the dead centre is held in the tailstock spindle and in most
148
cases does not turn and rubs against the workpiece. The point of the dead centre
should be hardened to prevent its wearing during the operations performed on
the lathe.
Good work depends to a great degree upon the condition of the lathe
centres. Bach point must have an angle of 60 degrees and the centres as well as
the spindle holes must be very clean.
Both lathe centres should always be aligned, i.e. the points are to meet
when the tailstock with its centre is moved up to the headstock centre. A turner
tests the alignment of the centres by taking a cut and then measuring both ends
of the cut by a micrometer. Both measurements being the same, the centres are
aligned and the turning may go on. Having got different measurements the
worker has to change the position of the dead centre by turning the screw again,
then another cut must be made for another test. This should be repeated until
both measurements are the same.
Usually the centre consists of a cone oh which the work is installed and of
a tapered shank. Works ate being machined at high speeds, a dead centre and
the work will.be heated up so as to cause excessive wear from friction. In such
cases the so called running centres are used.
Comprehension.
1. What is the most widely used method of holding work in the lathe? 2.
Where are the two lathe centres mounted on the lathe? 3. What kinds of centres
are used on lathes? 4. What is the alignment? 5. How does the turner test the
alignment?6. What does the centre consist of? 7. What will cause excessive
wear?
Use the following words and phraso3 in sentences of your own:
to mount, live centre, dead centre, headstock, tailstock, to align, the point,
to prevent, should be hardened, condition, high speed, wear, to cause, running
centre, to use.
Find in the text English equivalents for:
149
предотвращать, шпиндель задней бабки, шпиндель переднейбабки,
вращающийся центр, хвостовик, неподвижный центр, нагревать,
центрировать.
Make up as many questions as possible on the basis of the following
sentences:
1. Metals have attained an important place in engineering practice. 2. The
Introduction of this method will have led to a rapid increase of production in
our country.
Write out of the text sentences illustrating the Absolute Participle
Construction.
Form one sentence of each pair of sentences using Absolute Participle
Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. A piece of work has been delivered to the shop. The work was
machined on the lathe. 2. The turner has got different measurements. The turner
has to change the position of the dead centre. 3. The worker has turned a special
screw in the tail- stock. The worker removed the tailstock centre from the tailstock Spindle. 4. The point of the dead centre has been hardened. The point of
the dead centre increased its wear resistance.
LESSON 3
Words to be remembered:
machine tool - станок, lathe - токарныйстанок, drilling machine сверлильныйстанок, milling machine - фрезерныйстанок, to fasten = to
clamp - закреплять, lathe centre - токарныйцентр, cotter - резец, feed подача, tool post - резцедержатель, carriage - каретка, gear - шестерня, bed станина, headstock - передняябабка-tailstock - задняябабка, ways направляющие, to chuck - зажимать в патроне.
Read the following words:
150
important [ɪm'pɔːt(ə)nt], lathe [leɪð], kind [kaɪnd], fasten ['fɑːs(ə)n], axis
['æksɪs], mechanism ['mekənɪz(ə)m], automatic [ˌɔːtə'mætɪk], gear [gɪə], chuck
[ʧʌk], properly ['prɔp(ə)lɪ].
Form all possible derivatives from verbs. Translate them:
to produce, to cut, to operate, to combine, to chuck, to rotate, to remove,
to form, to perform, to reduce.
Grоup the synonyms:
to clamp, shape, different, form, to do, various, to fasten,to perform.
Give the three principal forms of the following verbs:
to be, to make, to become, to take, to design, to feed, to clamp, to mount,
to have, to fit.
Lathes
The most important of machine tools used in industry are lathes, drilling
machines and milling machines. Other kinds of metal-working machines are not
so widely used in machining metals as these three.
A lathe is a machine tool for cutting metal from the surface of a round
work fastened between the two lathe centres and turning around its axis. In
turning the work a cutter moves in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of the work or at an angle to this axis, cutting off the metal from the surface of
the work. This movement of the cutter is called the feed. The cutter is clamped
in the tool post which is mounted on the carriage. The carriage is the echanism
feeding the cutter in the needed direction. The lathe hand may feed the cutter by
hand or may make it be fed automatically by means of special gears.
The largest part of the lathe is called the bed on which the headstock and
the tailstock are fastened at opposite ends. On the upper part of the bed there are
special ways upon which the carriage and the tailstock slide.
The two lathe centres are mounted in two spindles: one (the live centre) is
held in the headstock spindle while the other (the dead centre) - in the tailstock
spindle. Not all works should be fastened between the two centres of the lathe.
A short work may 6e turned without using the dead centre by simply chucking
it properly at the spindle of the headstock.
151
Comprehension.
1. What are the most important machine tools? 2. What is a lathe used
for? 3. What is a round work fastened? 4. How does the cutter move in turning
the work? 5. What is feed? 6. Where do we clamp the cutter? 7. How may the
cutter be fed? 8. What is the largest part of the lathe? 9. Where are the two lathe
centres mounted? 10. What are the principal parts of a lathe?
Form sentences using the following words.
1. are, to support, two, used, the work, lathe centres.
2. in order to, the tailstock spindle, to facilitate, is, measurements,
graduated.
Use the following sentence in all the tenses.
These machines produce many kinds of works.
Change the verbs in the following sentences into passive form.
1. We fasten a round work between the two lathe centres. 2. To develop a
new method of cutting metal we shall carry out several experiments. 3. People
produced differe.it metals in different, ways.
Translate from English into Russian.
1. This machine-tool is much spoken about. 2. The quality of a metal
product is influenced by almost every operation in its manufacture. 3. He was
asked to show the first-year student the new equipment of the laboratory. 4. At
the plant they will be shown the operation of various kinds of machine-tools.
Find the Participles in the text, define their form and function and
translate into Russian.
152
Translate the following sentences into Russian. Explain the use of the
Participle Constructions.
1. The lathe chuck being used, the work rotates without wobbling. 2. New
machines may have three or more heads, each having numerous spindles. 3.
The metal being too hard, the drill could not work efficiently. 4. The automatic
lathe is the logical development of the turret lathe, the general principles of both
being the same.
Dialogue
-Can you remind me of the most important of machine tools?
-Certainly, I can. The most important of machine tools used in industry
are lathes, drilling machines and milling machines.
-Could you tell me anything about the feed?
-Willingly. In turning the work a cutter moves in the direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the work. This movement of the cutter is called the feed.
-If I am not mistaken, the largest part of the lathe is called the bed on
which the headstock and the tailstock are fastened at opposite ends.
-That's right, I quite agree with you.
LESSON4
Words to be remembered.
engine lathe - универсальныйтокарно-винторезныйстанок, bench lathe
- верстачныйстанок, turret lathe - револьверныйстанок, chucking lathe патронныйтокарныйстанок, cross-slide- поперечныйсуппорт,- to clamp закреплять, feed mechanism - механизмподачи, bearing - подшипник,
hollow shaft - пустотелыйвал, change gearbox - коробкапеременыскоростей
Read the following words:
engine ['enʤɪn], characteristic [ˌkærəktə'rɪstɪk], design [dɪ'zaɪn], turret
['tʌrɪt], power ['pauə], rigid ['rɪʤɪd], serve [sɜːv], support [sə'pɔːt], align [ə'laɪn],
bearing ['bɛərɪŋ], mechanism ['mekənɪz(ə)m], actuate ['ækʧueɪt] .
153
Choose antonymical groups out of the following list:
dead centre, regular, fasten, еаsу, difficult, live centre,unfasten, irregular,
alignment, headstock, tailstock, disalignment.
Form adverbs from the following adjectives by adding "ly‖. Translate
them:
usual, easy, essential, accurate, expensive, immediate, perfect.
Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to "some" and
"same".
1. This machine performs the same operations. 2. Some functions of the
machine-tool are completely automatic. 3. Some lathes are reducing production
time and cost on pump parts, motor and generator parts 4. Chucking pressures
are the same at all positions.
Types of lathes. The engine lathe. (Part I)
There are different types of lathes according to their characteristic
features and work for which they are designed, lathes of small sizes are termed
bench lathes; lathes with tools held in a revolvable turret are called ―turret
lathes‖ lathes In which workpieces are held in a chuck are known as "chucking
lathes" and so on.
The engine lathe used for metal-turning operations is fitted with a poweractuated carriage and cross-slide for clamping and holding the cutting tool. The
engine lathe consists of essentially of the following basic parts: the bed, the
headstock, the tailstock, the feed mechanism and the carriage.
The bed is a rigid casting located longwise, with V-shaped ways formed
upon them. It serves as a base to support and align the rest of the machine. The
headstock is located at the left- hand side of the bed and carries a pair of
bearings in which the spindle rotates. Many modern lathes have a motor built
into the headstock with the spindle. The spindle is a steel hollow shaft with a
taper bore for the insertion of the live centre on which the piece is placed. The
154
other end of the work is supported by the dead centre. The nose of the spindle is
accurately threaded for chucks to be screwed on it.
The chucks hold and revolve workpieces together with the spindle. The
headstock also incorporates the change gearbox.
The change gearbox serves for running the lathe at different speeds.
Comprehension.
1. What types of lathes are mentioned in the text? 2. What kind of work is
the bench lathe intended for? 3. What are turret lathes? 4. Why are some lathes
termed chucking lathes? 5. What basic parts does the engine lathe consist of? 6.
What is the function of the lathe bed? 7. Where is the headstock located? 6.
What is a spindle?
Make up questions to which the underlined words are the answers.
1. In automatic lathe all tool movements are automatically controlled. 2.
The carriage is a unit for mounting the tool. 3. The bed serves to support and
alignthe rest of the machine. 4. The chucks hold and revolve workpieces
together with the spindle.
Translate into Russian paying attention to the Gerunds. Define their
function.
1. High-speed steel is used for manufacturing ordinary and form tools,
milling cutters, etc. 2. Boring is the process of enlarging holes with boring tools
which have been originated in workpieces. 3. In boring as in drilling either the
work or the tool may be rotated and either the work- or the tool may have a feed
motion. 4. Vertical turret lathes and, especially, vertical turning and boring
mills are widely employed in the heavy engineering industry for machining the
parts of hydraulic turbines, generators, etc.
Make up a dialogue of your own using the following words and wordcombinations:
to my mind, no good idea, look here, I quite agree with you, bench lathe,
turret lathe, chucking lathe, engine lathe, headstock, tailstock, feed mechanism.
155
LESSON
5
Words to be remembered:
sleeve - втулка, tool shank - хвостовикинструмента, gear - шестерня,
intermediate shaft - передаточныйвал, saddle - салазки, tool rest верхнийсуппорт, apron - фартук, compound rest - крестовый /сложный/
суппорт, nut - гайка, tee slot - Т-образныйпаз, tool holder - резцедержатель.
Read the following words:
sleeve [sliːv], bore [bɔː], taper ['teɪpə], ease [iːz],graduate ['grædjueɪt],
gear [gɪə], intermediate [ˌɪntə'miːdɪət], wall [wɔːl], nut [nʌt], adjust [ə'ʤʌst],
screw [skruː], right [raɪt], anywhere ['enɪwɛə], hollow ['hɔləu], standard
['stændəd], engine ['enʤɪn].
Rearrange the following to form a predicate:
made have; be shall removing; have shall solved; will producing be; being
is treated; called has been; used are; will be heated.
Translate into Russian.
1. The longer the stroke for a given number of strokes per minute, the
higher the cutting speed. 2. The more rapid the rate of cooling, the harder will
be the steel. 3. The smaller the diameter of the drill, the higher should be the
speed.
Group the synonyms:
to use, a lot of, to clamp, bore, many, employ, many, amount, to fix,
much, quantity, hole.
The engine lathe. (Part II)
156
The tailstock is located at the right-hand side of the bed. It may be moved
anywhere along the lathe bed and can be clamped in place at any point. The
tailstock sleeve mounts a hollow spindle with a standard taper bore for holding
the lathe centres or tapered tool shanks. The dead centre fits it a Morse taper
hole in the sleeve. To facilitate measurement of the spindle travel the tailstock
spindle is graduated.
The feed mechanism of the engine lathe is simple and easy to operate. It
comprises a cone of gears, an intermediate shaft and a set of sliding gears.
The carriage is made up of two principal parts, one of which carries the saddle,
which slides upon the bed and on which the cross-slide and the tool rest are mounted.
The other part, termed
the apron, represents the front wall of the carriage. The cross-slide can move at
right angles to the spindle axis.
0n the top of the saddle there is the compound rest for mounting the tool post. It
is actuated by a screw which rotates in a nut fixed to the saddle. The tool post intended
for holding the tool fits in a tee slot in the compound rest and the tool holder is adjusted
and clamped by the tool post screw.
Comprehension.
1. What is the tailstock and where is it located? 2. Where does it fit? 3.
For what purpose is the tailstock spindle graduated? 4. What is the feed
mechanism? 5. Where are the cross-slide and the tool-rest mounted? 6. What is
the apron? 7. Where is the compound rest located? 8. For what purpose is it
used?
Form sentences using the following words.
1. rest, the tailstock, on, a lathe of, a saddle; 2. is mounted, on, the crossslide, the carriage. 3. by, the tool holder, is clamped, tool post screw. 4. a cone
of gears, comprises, the feed mechanism, an, intermediate shaft, and.
Translate the following sentences with the predicates in the Passive form.
157
1. Non-ferrous alloys have been grouped according to their dominant
element. 2. The work has been countersunk with a combined drill. 3. The point
of the dead centre has been hardened.
Read and translate the following sentences and analyse the ing-forms. Pay
attention to the gerund phrases.
1. We heard of their having applied thermit welding to provide a nondetachable joining of two like metal pieces. 2. The readings of the voltmeter
were correct. 3. Having been used for a long time the instrument partly lost its
former efficiency.4. Chipping is the process of removing metal from a workpiece by
-jeans of a cutting instrument such as a chiesel and a hammer. 5. We were informed of
the lathe having been tested at the plant. 6. The commonest method of holding the
work in the surface grinding machines is by means of a magnetic chuck.
LESSON 6
Words to be remembered:
centre
lathe
центровойтокарныйстанок,
turret
—
револьвернаяголовка, core drill - пустотелоесверло, reamer - развертка,
positive stop - мертвыйупор, accuracy - точность, axis - ось, dimension размер, grade - градус, качество, сорт, simultaneously - одновременно.
Read the following words:
turret ['tʌrɪt], differ ['dɪfə], lathe [leɪð], engine ['enʤɪn], instead [ɪn'sted],
expedient [ɪk'spiːdɪənt ], [ek-], considerable [kən'sɪd(ə)rəbl], core [kɔː], reamer
['riːmə], require [rɪ'kwaɪə], hexagon ['heksəgən], diameter [daɪ'æmɪtə],accuracy
['ækjərəsɪ], multiple ['mʌltɪpl], duplicate ['djuːplɪkət].
Group antonyms in pairs:
often, difficult, external, slowly, small, disadvantage, large, internal,
seldom, easily, quickly, advantage.
158
Translate the following sentences, observing different meanings of the
underlined words.
1. There are different means of holding tools. 2. Chipping is performed by
means of such instruments as a chisel and a hammer. 3. It means that you have
to remove some more metal from the workpiece. 4. By no means should this
chisel be used for this workpiece. 5. A chisel must by all means be applied for
removing some metal from the workpiece.
Translate the following groups of words:
to measure, measuring, measured, measurement; to compare, compared,
comparison; to depend, depending, dependence; dependent; accuracy, accurate;
general, generally, generation.
Turret Lathe
Turret lathes differ from centre lathes and engine lathes in that they do not
have a tailstock but have a turret instead, at the end opposite the spindle. The
turret serves to hold cutting tools used in machining the work.
Turret lathes are expedient when a considerable number of different tools
having axes aligned with the work axis (drills, core drills, reamers, etc.) are
required for achining. They are also used for doing turning operations without
making test cuts and measurements since the turrets (hexagon and square) are
fed to preset positive stops. The machining possibilities of turret lathes are very
extensive.
It is accepted that parts having length dimensions of the 4th or 5th grade
of accuracy and external diameters of the 3rd or 4th grade of accuracy, can be
economically machined on turret lathes.
The use of the multiple-tool holders on turret lathes enables them to take
multiple cuts simultaneously.
The two main groups of turret lathes are those with vertical and those
with horizontal axes of turret rotation.
Turret lathes of the first group with a turret indexing about a vertical axis,
usually have a cross-slide carriage with a square turret similar to the type used
159
on engine lathes. The vertical turret lathe is the fastest lathe for short and heavy
work.
The more extensively used turret lathes with a horizontal axis of turret
indexing do not have a cross-slide carriage. The horizontal turret lathe,
commonly called the screw machine, is used in the production of duplicate
parts.
Comprehension.
1. What does the turret serve for? 2. What parts can be economically
machined on turret lathes? 3. Into what two main groups are turred lathes
classified? 4. How many tool holes are there on hexagon turret? 5. How do
turrets of all types of turret lathes travel?
Translate from Russian into English:
револьверная головка, удерживать режущий инструмент, большое
количество режущих инструментов, без измерений, шестиугольная
револьверная головка, степень точности, многоинструментальные
держатели, одновременно, горизонтальная ось вращения, короткие и
тяжѐлые заготовки, винторезный станок, запасные части.
Give the heading to each paragraph of the text, make up questions, answer the
questions.
Complete the sentences with the proper words:
spindle holes, alignment, separately, a cut, dead centre, angle,
measurements.
1. Each jaw has to be moved ... by turning the screw of the jaw. 2. Each
point must have ... of 60 degrees and ... must be very clean. 3. ... of the centres
can be best tested by taking ...4. Having got different ... the worker has to
change the position of the ...
Translate into Russian. Pay attention to modal verbs and their equivalents.
160
1. Steel has to be widely used in machine-building because of its high
strength. 2. Tools made of high-speed steel will be able to do the work at much
speeds than carbon tool steels. 3. Special alloy steels can be used for parts
requiring great wear resistance, 4. Before turning a work in the Lathe the lathe
centres are to be aligned. 5. A short work may be turned without using the dead
centre.
State the forms and functions of infinitives and translate the following sentences
into Russian.
1. To strengthen a drill the thickness of a web is increased. 2. The
tailstock spindle is graduated in order to facilitate the measurements of travel of
the spindle. 3. The end to be sharpened had to be placed in the horizontal plane.
4. In order to keep dead and live centres in good conditions they are to be oiled.
5. The aim was to develop a new method of cutting metals.
Dialogue.
Tell me of turret, will you?
The point is that the turret serves to hold cutting tools used in machining the
work.
To my mind, the machining possibilities of turret lathes are very extensive.
Exactly so.
Can you remind me of the vertical turret lathe.
Certainly, I can. The vertical turret lathe is the fastest lathe for short and
heavy work.
-
And what about horizontal turret lathe?
It is called a screw-machine and used in the production of duplicate parts.
Unit 1. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. It requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode.
The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination
by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible flux. When molten,
161
the flux becomes conductive and provides a current path between the electrode
and the work. SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode,
however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity
flux feed delivery are available. Deposition rates approaching 100 lb/h (45 kg/h)
have been reported - this compares to 10 lb. /h (5kg/h) (max) for shielded metal
arc welding. Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are commonly used; currents
of up to 5000 A have been used (multiple arcs). Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. DC or AC power can be utilized, and
combinations of DC and AC are common in multiple electrode systems. Constant voltage welding power supplies are most commonly used, however constant current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire feeder are
available.
Material applications are carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels,
nickel-based alloys, surfacing applications are wear-facing, build-up, and corrosion resistant overlay of steels.
Advantages of SAW: 1) high deposition rates (over 100 lb. /h (45 kg/h)
have been reported; 2) high operating factors in mechanized applications; 3)
deepweld penetration: 4) sound welds are readily made (with good process
design and control); 5) high speed welding of thin sheet steels at over 100
in/min (2,5 m/min) is possible; 6) minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
Limitations of SAW: 1) limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and
some nickel based alloys; 2) normally limited to long straight welds or rotated
pipes or vessels: 3) it requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems; 4)
flux and slag residue can present a health and safety issue; 5) requires interpass
and post-weld slag removal.
Key SAW process variables: 1) wire-feed speed (main factor in welding
current control); 2)arc voltage; 3) travel speed; 4) electrode stick-out (ESO) or
contact tip to work (CTTW); 5) polarity and current type (AC or DC).
Other factors: 1) flux depth / width; 2) flux and electrode classification
and type; 3) electrode wire diameter; 4) multiple electrode configuration.
VOCABULARY
Submerged arc welding
(дуговая) сваркаподфлюсом
-
consumable –расходуемый
solid
electrode
–
voltagesensing
чувствительный к напряжению
-
materialapplicationиспользование материала
low-alloysteel162
сплошнойэлектрод
низколегированная сталь
tubular –трубчатый
granular - гранулированный
corrosion-resistantантикоррозийный, устойчивый
коррозии
к
mode- режим
depositionrate- производительsemi-automaticSAWgun
- ность /скорость наплавки
пистолет для полуавтоматической
operating
factor
сварки
эксплуатацияdeep
feeddelivery– подача
weld
penetration
pressurized- герметичный, под глубокоепроплавление
давлением
soundweld
прочный,
gravity - сила тяжести
качественный шов
A (amper) – ампер
limitedto- не выходящий за
пределы
multiplearcweldingмноготочечная сварка
singleelectrodeэлектрод
slag- шлак
одиночный
multipleelectrodeмножественный электрод
stripelectrodeленточный
электрод DC/ AC- постоянный /
переменный ток
residue- осадок, остаток
postweldslagremoval
удаление шлака после
зачистка
сварки,
variable - переменная
Exercises
I. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и
словосочетаний:
1) дуговая сварка под флюсом; 2) плавкий флюс; 3) пистолет для
полуавтоматической
сварки:
4)
глубокое
проплавление;5)
производительность / скорость наплавки; 6) электропроводный; 7) в
автоматическом режиме; 8) источник питания; 9) низколегированная
сталь; 10) герметичный; 11) ленточный электрод; 12) вредный дым; 13)
163
сила тяжести; 14) шлак; 15) удаление шлака; 16) многоточечная сварка:
17) прочный шов; 18) переменная (величина); 19) плавкий, расходуемый;
20) вредное действие атмосферы.
II. Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания:
1) carbon steel; 2) stainless steel; 3) build-up; 4) wearfacing; 5) molten
weld; 6) granular flux; 7) to range; 8) wire-feeder; 9) constant current; 10)
consumable electrode; 11) solid electrode; 12) application; 13) ferrous alloys;
14) residue; 15) design; 16) operating factors; 17) polarity; 18) to emit: 19)
process control: 20) key variables.
Охарактеризуйте различия в семантике синонимов:
rate - speed - velocity, to feel - to sense, application - use - usage, coal carbon, guard - shield - protect – defend
Вставьте нужное слово или словосочетание, используя содержание
текста.
High deposition ... is one of SAW advantages.
This process requires continuously fed ... electrode.
SAW is normally ... in the automatic or semiautomatic mode.
Currents ... from 200 to 1500A are commonly used.
... current is current flowing in one direction only.
... current does not change its quantity.
Wearfacing and build-up are referred to surfacing ... of SAW.
One of SAW advantages is that minimal welding fume or arc light is ...
This process is normally limited ... long straight welds.
The molten weld and the arc zone are ... from atmospheric contamination.
Переведите на АЯ следующие предложения.
1. При дуговой сварке под флюсом требуется плавкий сплошной или
трубчатый электрод. 2. Шов защищен от вредного действия атмосферы
флюсом. 3. Расплавленный флюс становится электропроводным. 4. Чаще
164
всего используются источники тока с постоянным напряжением. 5. Этот
метод применим лишь для сварки сплавов железа. 6. К самым важным переменным процесса относятся полярность и ток - переменный или постоянный. 7. Дуговая сварка под флюсом применяется для сварки низколегированных и нержавеющих сталей. 8. При правильном расчете и контроле
за процессом получают прочные швы. 9. Результаты сварки могут
зависеть от типа используемых флюса и электрода.
Unit 2. PLASMA ARC WELDING
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The electric arc is formed between an electrode,
which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten and the work-piece.
The key difference from GTAW is that in PAW, by positioning the electrode
within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding
gas envelope. The plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle
which connects the arc and the plasma exits the orifice at high velocities, approaching the speed of sound, and temperature approaching 20 000 °C.
Plasma arc welding is an advancement over the GTAW process. It can be
used to join all metals that are weldable with GTAW, i.e. most commercial
metals and alloys. Several basic PAW variations are possible by varying the
current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter, including: micro-plasma
(< 15 Amperes); melt-in mode (15-400 Amperes); key-hole mode (100
Amperes). Plasma arc welding has a greater energy concentration as compared
to GTAW. A deep narrow penetration is achievable, reducing distortion and
allowing square-butt joints in material up to 12 mm thick. Greater arc stability
allows a much longer arc length and much greater tolerance to arc length
changes. Its limitation is that PAW requires relatively expensive and complex
equipment as compared to GTAW.
At least two separate (and possibly three) gas flows are used in PAW:
plasma gas which flows through the orifice and becomes ionized; shielding gas,
which flows through the outer nozzle and shields the molten weld from the atmosphere; back-purge gas, required for certain materials and applications.
These gases can be the same, or of differing composition.
Key process variables are: current type and polarity; usually DCEN from
a CC source; AC square wave, common on aluminum and magnesium. Current
can vary from 0,5 to 1200 A; current can be constant or pulsed at frequencies
165
up to 20 kHz. Gas flow rate is a critical variable and must be carefully
controlled based upon the current, orifice diameter and shape, gas mixture, and
the base material and thickness.
Depending upon the design of the torch, e.g. orifice diameter, electrode
design, gas type and velocities, and the current levels, several variations of the
plasma process are achievable, including plasma arc welding, plasma arc
cutting, plasma arc gouging, plasma arc surfacing and plasma arc spraying.
VOCABULARY
GTAW - gas tungsten arc welding tolerance- зд. - допуск,
дуговаясваркавольфрамовымэлектродом допустимое
отклонение
от
в средезащитногогазаsintered - зд. - заданных параметров
металлокерамический
arclength- длина дуги
gasenvelope- зд. - газовый пузырь
outernozzleнаружный
finebore- отверстие малого размера мундштук
to constrict - сжимать
orifice - отверстие
back-purgegasгаз,
очищающий обратную сторону
шва
velocity - скорость
squarewavecommercialmetals- металлы про- прямоугольный импульс
мышленного значения
constantcurrent-
ток
plasmagasflowrate - скорость по- постоянной величины
тока плазмы
gourgingстрожка
arcstability- устойчивость, ста- поверхностная резка
бильность горения дуги
surfacingнанесение
покрытия,
поверхности
обработка
arcsprayingэлектрометаллизация,
нанесение
металлического
покрытия
166
167
Exercises
Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и
словосочетаний:
1) основное различие; 2) корпус горелки; 3) газовый пузырь; 4)
отверстие; 5) скорость; 6) скорость звука; 7) скорость потока плазмы; 8)
металлы промышленного значения; 9) деформация; 10) квадратное
стыковое соединение; II) допустимое отклонение (от заданных параметров); 12) газ, очищающий обратную сторону шва; 13) прямоугольный импульс; 14) магний; 15) конструкция электрода
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания:
1) sintered tungsten; 2) forced through; 3) fine-bore nozzle; 4) high
velocity; 5) advancement; 6) orifice diameter; 7) to vary the current; 8) arc
stability; 9) square butt; 10) outer nozzle; 11) pulsed current; 12) gouging; 13)
surfacing; 14) arc spraying; 15) current levels.
Вставьте нужное слово или словосочетание.
1. Plasma arc welding is ... to gas tungsten arc welding. 2. In PAW the
plasma arc is separated from the ... . 3. The plasma is ... through a fine-bore
copper nozzle. 4. The plasma exits the orifice at . . . . 5. PAW has a greater ... as
compared to GTAW. 6. PAW reduces distortion and allows ... in thick materials. 7. Greater arc stability allows much greater ... to arc length changes. 8. Paw
requires relatively ... and ... equipment. 9. Plasma gas flows through the ... and
becomes highly ionized. 10. Shielding gas protects the ... from the atmospheric
contamination.
Переведите на АЯ следующие предложения.
1. Плазма - это поток сильно ионизированного газа. 2. Плазменная
дуга может быть отделена от защитного газового пузыря. 3. При
плазменной сварке электрод размещен в корпусе горелки. 4. Плазменная
сварка представляет собой шаг вперед по сравнению с газовольфрамовой.
5. Варианты плазменной сварки различаются по силе тока, скорости
потока плазмы и диаметра отверстия. 6. При плазменной сварке возможно
168
проплавление большой глубины и малой ширины. 7. Защитный газ
проходит через наружный мундштук. 8. Используемые при плазменной
сварке газы могут быть как одинаковыми, так и разными по составу. 9.
Обычно используют отрицательный электрод при источнике тока
постоянной величины, не зависящей от напряжения дуги. 10. При сварке
алюминия и магния обычно используется переменный ток с
прямоугольным импульсом.
Unit 3. GAS METAL ARC WELDING
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes,
metal inert gas (MIG) and metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semiautomatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and
consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A
constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with
GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be
used.
Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous metals
in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it allowed for lower
welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited
its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such
as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during 1950s and
1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used
industrial process. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the
automobile industry, where it is preferred for its versatility and speed. Unlike
welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal
arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A
related cause a much greater heat input, which will make the wire electrode
melt more quickly and thereby restore the original arc length. This helps
operators keep the arc length consistent even when manually welding with
hand-held welding guns. To achieve a similar effect, sometimes a constant
current power source is used in combination with an arc voltage-controlled wire
feed unit. In this case, a change in arc length makes the wire feed rate adjust in
order to maintain a relatively constant arc length. In rare circumstances, a
constant current power source and a constant wire feed rate unit might be
coupled, especially tor the welding of metals with high thermal conductivity,
such as aluminum. This grants the operator additional control over the heat
input into the weld, but requires significant skill to perform successively.
169
VOCABULARY
gasmetalarcwelding (GMAW) robotweldingсварка
с
дуговая сварка плавящимся элек- помощью робота
тродом в среде защитного газа
dissipation- рассеяние
metalinertgas (MIG) welding wirefeedunit- устройство для
дуговая
сварка
плавящимся
электродом в среде инертного газа подачи сварочной проволоки
controlswitch- включатель
metalactivegas (MAG) welding
- дуговая сварка плавящимся элекcontacttip- контактный конец
тродом в среде активного газа
электрода
weldinggunпистолет
сварочный
conduit-желоб
liner- выравниватель, направversatility- многосторонность, ляющее устройство
разнообразие
gashose- газовый шланг
spotwelding- точечная сварка
bucklingискривление,
rivetingweldingсварка выпучивание
электрозаклепками
to couple - соединитьthermal
resistance spot welding - conductivity - теплопроводность
контактнаяточечнаясварка
anode - анод
Exercises
Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и
словосочетаний:
1) дуговая сварка плавящимся электродом в среде инертного газа; 2)
дуговая сварка плавящимся электродом в среде защитного газа; 3) дуговая
сварка плавящимся электродом в среде активного газа; 4) источник
постоянного тока; 5) цветные металлы; 6) полуинертный газ; 7) двуокись
углерода; 8) разнообразие, многосторонность применения; 9) дуговая
170
сварка под флюсом; 10) защитный газ; 11) сварка порошковой проволокой
(трубчатым электродом); 12) точечная сварка; 13) сварка электрозаклепками; 14) подключать, соединять; 15) включатель.
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания:
1) wire feed unit; 2) welding gun; 3) non-ferrous metals; 4) resistance
spot welding; 5) dissipation; 6) conduit; 7) gas hose; 8) air volatility; 9) to
alleviate a problem; 10) key parts; 11) to initiate the wire feed; 12) to strike the
arc; 13) the conduit tip; 14) to reduce spatter; 15) to be firmly secured; 16) gas
nozzle; 17) tanks of gas; 18) high heat operation; 19) to drive (the electrode)
through the conduit; 20) thermal conductiveness.
Найдите в тексте синонимичны данным слова и выражения:
to decrease, control switch, welder, to employ a gas, widely, medium of
atmosphere, to start the wire feed, to initiate an arc, metal droplets, wire-feed
unit.
Вставьте нужное слово или словосочетание.
1. Aluminum and copper are ... metals. 2. Gas protecting the weld area is
called a ... gas. 3. GMAW is given preference for its speed and... . 4. The
movement of the surrounding atmosphere can cause ... of the shielding gas. 5.
The problem can be ... by increasing the shielding gas output. 6. The ... initiates
the wire feed. 7. The contact tip, made of copper, ... the electrical energy to the
electrode. 8. Before arriving at the contact tip, the wire is protected and guided
by the ... . 9. The ... is used to evenly direct the shielding gas into the welding
area.
Дайте полную форму следующих аббревиатур:
GMAW, MAG, MIG. DCEN. DCEP, PAW.
Unit 4. ULTRASONIC WELDING
171
Ultrasonic welding is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are used to weld objects together, usually plastics,
and especially for joining dissimilar materials. This type of welding is used to
build assemblies that are too small, too complex or too delicate for more common welding techniques. In ultrasonic welding there are no connecting bolts,
nails, soldering materials or adhesives necessary to bind the materials together.
For joining complex injection-molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic
equipment can be easily customized to fit the exact specifications of parts being
welded. The parts are sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest (anvil) and a
sonotrode (horn) connected to a transducer which is lowered down, and a 20
kHz low-amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. Common frequencies used in
ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 30 kHz, and 40 kHz. When
welding plastics, the interface of the two parts is specially designed to concentrate the melting process. One of the materials traditionally has a spiked energy
director which contacts the second plastic part. The ultrasonic energy melts the
point of contact between the parts, creating a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit designs. It is typically used with
small parts, e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable medical tools,
toys etc., but it can be used on parts as large as a small automobile instrument
cluster. Ultrasonics can also be used to weld metals, but they are typically limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, because of the power levels required.
Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic
due to absorption of vibration energy. The vibrations are introduced across the
joint to be welded. Ultrasonic welding of metals is not due to heating, but
instead occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local
motion of the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the
base materials. Vibrations are introduced along the joint being welded.
Ultrasonic welding appeared in mid-1960s and is rapidly developing. In
its infancy only hard plastics could be welded because they were acoustically
conductive and had a low melting point. Today ultrasonic welding machines
have much more power, enough to weld less rigid, less acoustically conductive
materials such as semi-crystalline plastics, as well as higher melting point
materials. The patent for the ultrasonic method for welding rigid thermoplastic
parts was awarded to R. Soloff in 1965.
An inevitable by-product of ultrasonic welding is a blast of ultrasonic
sound. The lower frequencies of 15 kHz and 20 kHz typically emit a squeal that
can be heard by operators. In many cases the noise level will exceed 80 dBa and
172
therefore hearing protection is recommended when personnel are in close proximity to an ultrasonic welder. Welders using frequencies of 30 kHz and above
do not normally emit a squeal audible to people in close proximity to the
welder. It is widely accepted that most humans can hear ultrasonic noise as
children but lose this ability around the late teens. A device known as ―The
Mosquito‘‘ which emits ultrasonic noise and is intended to break up groups of
loiterers is being tested in the UK, mostly outside shops and other places where
youths gather. However not all humans lose this ability so early and some never
do. Persons who can hear ultrasonic sound would not be comfortable working
in a factory or other environment where it is used without using hearing
protection.
VOCABULARY
ultrasonic - ультразвуковой
sonotrode- сонотрод
connective - соединительный
horn - рог (разрядник)
tocustomize
доукомплектовать в соответствии с
требованиями заказчика
thermoplastic- термопластик
anvil– наковальня
snap-fit design - защелка
phone
–
мобильный
cluster- набор, комплект
malleableпластичный, тянущийся
spiked energy director –
заостренный
энергии
директор
glue- клей
adhesive - связующее, клейкое
вещество
cell
телефон
transducer - преобразователь
ковкий,
consumerelectronics - бытовая
электроника
disposable – одноразовый
powerlevel- уровень мощности
meltingpoint- точка плавления
dBдецибел,
измерения шума
единица
dBa/ dBA- децибел А (превышающий определенный уровень
дисперсия, шума)
automotive – передвижной
dispersion
рассеивание
-
173
Exercises
Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и
словосочетаний:
I) промышленная технология; 2) звуковые колебания; 3) припой;
4) приводить в соответствие с (индивидуальными требованиями);
5) наковальня; 6) преобразователь; 7) частота; 8) образовать соединение;9)
защелка; 10) одноразовый; 11) бытовая электроника; 12) поглощение; 13)
нагревание; 14) низкая температура плавления; 15) уровень мощности.
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания:
1) dissimilar materials; 2) assembly; 3) connective bolts; 4) adhesives; 5)
to sandwich; 6) interface; 7) a spiked energy director; 8) cell phone; 9)
malleable materials; 10) dispersion of surface oxides; 11) be acoustically
conductive; 12) in its infancy; 13) rigid; 14) to introduce vibrations; 15) semicrystalline plastics.
Вставьте нужное слово или словосочетание.
1. Ultrasonics are usually limited to small welds of thin ... metals. 2.
Ultrasonic welding employs ... acoustic vibrations. 3. Ultrasonic welding
equipment can be easily ... to fit specifications of the parts being welded. 4. In
ultrasonic welding the parts being welded are ... between a fixed shaped nest
and a sonotrode. 5. ... is connected to the sonotrode, emitting high-frequency
vibrations. 6. When welding plastics, the ... of the two parts is specially
designed. 7. Ultrasonics is used in manufacturing ... medical tools. 8.
Ultrasonics causes local melting of the plastic due to ... of the vibration energy.
9. While welding thermoplastics, vibrations should be introduced ... the joint to
be welded. 10. Ultrasonic welding of metals occurs due to ... of surface oxides
and local motion of the materials.
Переведите на АЯ следующие предложения.
174
1. Сварка ультразвуком часто используется для соединения
разнородных материалов. 2. Оборудование для ультразвуковой сварки
можно легко привести в соответствие с техническими требованиями. 3.
При сварке ультразвуком используются акустические колебания высокой
частоты.Энергия ультразвука плавит место контакта свариваемых
деталей.
5. Алюминий, медь, никель относят к пластичным металлам. 6. При
ультразвуковой сварке термопластиков пластик плавится за счет
поглощения энергии вибрации. 7. На заре метода ультразвуковой сварки
ее могли использовать только для соединения твердых пластиков,
проводящих звук. 8. Неизбежным следствием ультразвуковой сварки
является выброс ультразвука 9. Во многих случаях уровень шума
превышает 80 децибел А. 10. Работникам, находящимся поблизости от
места ультразвуковой сварки, необходимо защищать органы слуха.
Назовите слово по его определению.
Material capable of softening or fusing when heated and of hardening
again when cooled.
Having a frequency above human ear‘s audibility limit of about 20 000
hertz.
Manufactured parts fitted together into a complete structure or unit.
To build, fit or alter according to individual specifications.
Interception of radiant energy or sound waves.
The process of uniformly distributing small particles in a fluid or dividing
white light into its coloured constituents.
(of metals) that can be hammered or pressed out of shape without tendency to return to it or to fracture.
Having the property of transmitting heat or electricity by conduct.
Nearness in space, time etc.
Incidental or secondary product of manufacture.
A device that converts variations of one quantity into those of another.
A device for reducing or increasing voltage and current.
175
A unit used in comparison of power levels in sound intensity.
A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
To go through the process of testing qualities of a thing or method.
Unit 5. UNDERWATER WELDING
Underwater welding refers to a number of distinct processes that are performed underwater. The two main categories of this techniques are wet
underwater welding and dry underwater welding, both classified as hyperbaric
welding. In wet underwater welding, a variation of shielded metal arc welding
is commonly used, employing a waterproof electrode. Other processes that are
used include flux-cored welding and friction welding. In each of these cases,
the welding power supply is connected to the welding equipment through
cables and hoses. The process is generally limited to low carbon equivalent
steels, especially at greater depths, because of hydrogen-caused cracking. In dry
underwater welding the weld is performed at the prevailing pressure in a
chamber filled with a gas mixture sealed around the structure being welded. For
this process, gas tungsten arc welding is often used, and the resulting welds are
of high integrity.
The applications of underwater welding are diverse - it is often used to repair ships, offshore oil platforms and pipelines. Steel is the most common material welded. For deep water welds and other applications where high strength is
necessary, dry underwater welding in most commonly used. Research into
using dry underwater welding at depths of up to 1000 meters is ongoing. In
general, assuring the integrity of underwater welds can be difficult, but it is
possible using non-destructive testing applications, especially for wet
underwater welds, because defects are difficult to detect if they are beneath the
surface of the weld.
For the structures being welded by wet underwater welding, inspection
following welding and assuring the integrity of such welds may be more
difficult than for welds deposited in air. There is a risk that defects may remain
undetected.
The risks of underwater welding include the risk of electric shock to the
welder. To prevent this, the welding equipment must be adaptable to a marine
environment, properly insulated and the welding current must be controlled.
Underwater welders must also consider safety issues that normally divers face;
176
most notably, the risk of decomposition sickness due to the increased pressure
of inhaled breathing gases. Another risk, generally limited to wet underwater
welding, is the build-up of hydrogen and oxygen pockets, because these are
potentially explosive.
VOCABULARY
wet underwater welding —
влажнаяподводнаясварка
sealed- герметичный
dry underwater
сухаяподводнаясварка
toassure– гарантировать
welding
-
integrity- цельность
non-destructivetestingmethod hyperbaric - гипербарический,
превышающий
нормальное неразрушающий метод контроля
давление
waterproof- insulated- изолированный (электр.)
водонепроницаемый,
decomposition
sickness
водоотталкивающий
кессоннаяболезнь
friction
сваркатрением
welding
–
pocket- зд. - пузырь
chamber - камера
Exercises
I. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и
словосочетаний:
1) дуговая сварка в защитной среде; 2) водоотталкивающий,
водонепроницаемый; 3) сварка фитильным электродом; 4) сварка трением;
5) сталь с низким содержанием углерода; 6) растрескивание, вызванное
водородом; 7) газовольфрамовая сварка; 8) нефтяные платформы; 9)
высокая прочность: 10) целостность шва; 11) неразрушающие методы
исследования; 12) обнаружить дефект; 13) удар электротоком; 14)
изолировать; 15) кессонная болезнь.
177
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания:
1) hypebaric welding; 2) dry underwater welding; 3) wet underwater
welding; 4) a sealed chamber; 5) gas mixture; 6) prevailing pressure; 7) diverse
applications; 8) high strength; 9) adaptable to marine environment; 10) properly
insulated; 11) safety issue; 12) breathing gases; 13) to inhale; 14) build-up of
hydrogen pocket; 15) potentially explosive.
Переведите на АЯ следующие предложения.
1. Сварка под давлением имеет две основные разновидности влажная и сухая подводная сварка. 2. Влажная подводная сварка является
разновидностью сварки под флюсом. 3. Подводная сварка обычно
используется лишь для низкоуглеродистых сталей. 4. Водород,
содержащийся в наплавленном металле, снижает его пластичность и
вызывает растрескивание. 5. При подводной сварке используется
водонепроницаемый электрод. 6. При сухой подводной сварке шов
выполняется в герметичной камере, заполненной газовой смесью. 7. Сухая
подводная сварка обеспечивает более прочный и надежный шов. 8. Для
проверки подводных швов используются различные неразрушающие
методы контроля. 9. При подводной сварке сварщик может получить удар
электротока 10. Сварочное оборудование должно быть приспособлено для
работы в морской среде.
Unit 6. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING (PREHEATING)
The practice of heating the metal around the weld before applying the
torch flame is desirable one for two reasons. First, it makes the whole process
more economical; second, it avoids the danger of breakage through expansion
and contraction of the work as it is heated and as it cools.
When it is desired to join two surfaces by welding them, it is, of course,
necessary to raise the metal from the temperature of the surrounding air to its
melting point, i.e. an increase in temperature up to one thousand - three thousand degrees. To obtain this entire increase of temperature with the torch flame
is very wasteful of fuel and of the operator‘s time. The total amount of heat necessary to put into metal is increased by the conductivity of that metal because
the heat applied at the weld is carried to other parts of the piece being handled
178
until the whole mass is considerably raised in temperature. To secure this increase various methods of preheating are adopted.
As to the second reason for preliminary heating, it is understood that the metal
added to the joint is molten at the time it flows into place. All the metals used in
welding contract as they cool and occupy a much smaller space than when
molten. If additional metal is run between two adjoining surfaces which are
parts of a surrounding body of cool metal, this added metal will cool while the
surfaces themselves are held stationary in the position they originally occupied.
The inevitable result is that the added metal will crack under the strain, or, if the
weld is exceptionally strong, the main body of the work will be broken by the
force of contraction. To overcome these difficulties is the second and most
important reason for preheating and also for slow cooling following the
completion of the weld.
There are many ways of securing this preheating. The work may be brought to a
red heat in the forge if it is cast iron or steel; it may be heated in special ovens
built for the purpose; it may be placed in a bed of charcoal while suitably
supported; it may be heated by gas or gasoline preheating torches, and with
very small work the outer flame of the welding torch automatically provides
means to this end.
The temperature of the parts heated should be gradually raised in all cases,
giving the entire mass of metal a chance to expand equally and to adjust itself to
the strain imposed by the preheating. After the region around the weld has been
brought to a proper temperature the opening to be filled is exposed so that the
torch flame can reach it.
One of the commonest methods and one of the best for handling work of rather
large size is to place the piece to be welded on a bed of fire brick and build a
loose wall around it with other fire brick placed in rows, one on top of the other,
with air spaces left between adjacent bricks in each row. The space between the
brick wall and the work is filled with charcoal, which is lighted from below.
The top opening of the temporary oven is then covered with asbestos and the
fire kept until the work has been uniformly raised in temperature to the desired
point.
179
When much work of the same general character and size is to be handled, a
permanent oven may be constructed of the fire brick, leaving a large opening
through the top and also through one side. Charcoal may be used in this form of
oven as with the temporary arrangement, or the heat may be secured from any
form of burner or torch giving a large volume of flame. In any method employing flame to do the heating, the work itself must be protected from the direct
blast of the fire. Baffles of brick or metal should be placed between the mouth
of the torch and the nearest surface of the work so that the flame will be
deflected to either side and around the piece being heated.
The heat should be applied to bring the point of welding to the highest
temperature desired. The heat should gradually shade off from this point to the
other parts of the piece. In the case of cast iron and steel the temperature at the
point to be welded should be great enough to produce a dull red heat. This will
make the whole operation much easier, because there will be no surrounding
cool metal to reduce the temperature of the molten material from the welding
rod below the point at which it will join the work. From this red heat the mass
of metal should grow cooler as the distance from the weld becomes greater, so
that no great strain is placed upon any one part. With work of a very irregular
shape it is always best to heat entire piece so that the strains will be so evenly
distributed that they can cause no distortion or breakage under any conditions.
The melting point of the work which is being preheated should be kept in mind
and care exercised not to approach it too closely. Special care is necessary with
aluminum in this respect, because of its low melting temperature and the
sudden weakening and flowing without warning. Workmen have carelessly
overheated aluminum castings and, upon uncovering the piece to make the
weld, have been astonished to find that it had disappeared. Six hundred degrees
is about the safe limit for this metal. It is possible to gauge the exact
temperature of the work with a pyrometer, but when this instrument cannot be
procured, it might be well to secure a number of temperature cones from a
chemical or laboratory supply house. These cones are made from material that
will soften at a certain heat and in form they are long and pointed. Placed in
position on the part being heated, the point may be watched, and when it bends
over it is sure that the metal itself has reached a temperature considerably in
excess of the temperature at which that particular cone was designed to soften.
180
VOCABULARY
preheating - прогрев, предвари- abedofcharcoalтельный нагрев
древесного угля
breakage - зд. - деформация, разлом
слой,
подушка
loose- свободный, незакрепленный
toraisethetemperature - поднимать asbestos- асбест
температуру, нагревать
temporaryarrangement- временное
wasteful- неэкономичный, расто- устройство
чительный
burner – форсунка
conductivity- проводимость
blastoffire- пламя, струя пламени
preliminary – предварительный
deflect- отклоняться
contract – сжиматься
shadeoff- плавно, незаметно спаadjoining - соседний, находящийся дать, меняться
рядом
weakening- зд. - потеря формы,
adjacent-соседний, прилегающий
деформация
stationary- постоянное положение
casting-отливка
underthestrain- под напряжением
cone- конус
bodyofthework - корпус изделия, procure- получать, доставать
изделие
gauge- регулировать
forge- горн
pyrometer - пирометр
oven- печь для обжига
Exercises
Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных слов и словосочетаний:
181
I) проводимость металла; 2) деформация; 3) металлы сжимаются; 4)
сохранять неизменное положение; 5) под напряжением; 6) сила сжатия; 7)
чугун; 8) угольная подушка; 9) форсунка; 10) огнеупорный кирпич; 11)
печь для обжига; 12) равномерно; 13) раскалить докрасна; 14)
расплавленный металл; 15) иметь неправильную форму.
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания из текста:
1) to put heat into metal; 2) preliminary heating; 3) the heat applied at the weld;
4) a loose wall; 5) temporary arrangement; 6) a baffle of brick; 7) to deflect; 8)
the heat should gradually shade off; 9) wasteful procedure; 10) aluminum
casting; 11) to gauge the temperature; 12) to be in excess of the temperature;
13) to distribute evenly; 14) to procure some material; 15) to expand.
Подберите синонимы к следующим словам и выражениям:
adjoining, evenly, preliminary heating, to deform, to obtain, to provide the
desired increase, methods are applied.
Укажите «ложныхдрузей» переводчика:
напряжение, неправильный; contract, original.
Вставьтенужноеслово.
1. Preheating avoids the danger of ... through expansion. 2. The total amount of
heat necessary to put into metal is increased by the ... of the metal. 3. All the
metals used in welding ... as they cool. 4. While cooling the added metal will ...
under the strain. 5. The workpiece may be preheated in special . . . 6 . The
temperature of the parts heated should be ... raised to avoid cracking. 7. The
oven for preheating may be temporary or ... . 8. In the process of preheating the
workpiece must be protected from the of fire. 9. The heat should gradually
from the highest temperature desired. 10. The strains should be evenly ... to
avoid distortion or breakage.
182
Unit 7.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
This method bears no relation to the resistance welding, except that the source
of heat is the same in both cases. Arc welding makes use of the flame produced
by the voltaic arc in practically the same way that oxy-acetylene welding uses
the flame from the gases.
If the ends of two pieces of carbon, through which a current of electricity is
flowing while they are in contact, are separated from each other quite slowly, a
brilliant arc of flame which consists mainly of carbon vapor is formed between
them. The carbons are consumed by combination with the oxygen in the air and
through being turned to a gas under the intense heat. The most intense action
takes place at the center of the carbon which carries the positive current and this
is the point of greatest heat. The temperature at this point in the arc is greater
than can be produced by any other means under human control.
An arc may be formed between pieces of metal, called electrodes, in the same
way as between carbon. The metallic arc is called a flaming arc and as the metal
of the electrode bums with the heat, it gives the flame a color characteristic of
the material being used. The metallic arc may be drawn out to a much greater
length than one formed between carbon electrodes.
Arc welding is carried out by drawing a piece of carbon which is of negative
polarity away from the pieces of metal to be welded while the metal is made
positive in polarity. The negative wire is fastened to the carbon electrode and
the work is laid on a table made of cast or wrought iron to which the positive
wire is made fast. The direction of the flame is then from the metal being
welded to the carbon and the work is thus prevented from being saturated with
carbon, which would prove very detrimental to its strength. A secondary
advantage is found in the fact that the greatest heat is at the metal being welded
because of its being the positive electrode.
The carbon electrode is usually made from one quarter to one and a half inches
in diameter and from six to twelve inches in length. The length of the arc may
be anywhere from one inch to four inches, depending on the size of the work
being handled.
183
While the parts are carefully insulated to avoid danger of shock, it is necessary
for the operator to wear rubber gloves as a further protection, and to wear some
form of hood over the head to shield him against the extreme heat liberated.
This hood may be made from metal, although some material that does not
conduct electricity is to be preferred. The work is watched through pieces of
glass formed with one sheet, which is either blue or green, placed over another
which is red. Screens of glass are sometimes used without the head protector.
Some protection for the eyes is absolutely necessary because of the intense
white light.
It is seldom necessary to preheat the work as with the gas processes, because
the heat is localized at the point of welding and the action is so rapid that the
expansion is not so great. The necessity of preheating, however, depends entirely on the material, form and size of the work being handled. The same
advice applies to arc welding as to the gas flame method but in a lesser degree.
Filling rods are used in the same way as with any other flame process.
In a great many places the use of the arc cuts the cost of welding to a very small
fraction of what it would be by any other method, so that the importance of this
method may be well understood.
Any two metals which are brought to the melting temperature and applied
to each other will adhere so that they are no more apt to break at the weld than
at any other point outside of the weld. It is the property of all metals to stick together under these conditions. The electric arc is used in this connection merely
as a heating agent. This is its only function in the process.
It has advantages in its ease of application and the cheapness with which
heat can be liberated at any given point by its use. There is nothing in connection with arc welding that the above principles will not answer; that is, that metals at the melting point will weld and that the electric arc will furnish the heat to
bring them to this point. As to the first question, what metals can be welded, all
metals can be welded. The difficulties which are encountered are as follows: In
the case of brass or zinc, the metals will be covered with a coat of zinc oxide
before they reach a welding heat. This zinc oxide makes it impossible for two
clean surfaces to come together and some method has to be used for eliminating
this possibility and allowing the two surfaces to join without the possibility of
the oxide intervening. The same is true of aluminium, in which the oxide, alumina, will be formed, and with several other alloys comprising elements of different melting points.
184
VOCABULARY
to bear no relation to ... – не
to
adhere
иметь отношения к ...
соединяться
carbon vapor – пары углерода
consumed
слипаться,
to puddle the weld - зд. –
заливать шов
voltaic arc – вольтова дуга
to
be
расходоваться
-
-
with the heat – под действием
тепла
gauge - зд. - калибр
casting - отливка
rolling - прокат
to insulate - изолировать
carbon arc – угольная дуга
carbon electrode – угольный
электрод
to make fast- закрепить ,
подвести
screen - экран
head protector – защитный
головной убор
to
conduct
electricity
проводить электричество
–
to saturate - насыщать
detrimental - вредный
Exercises
Переведите на АЯ следующие словосочетания:
1) источник тепла; 2) пары углерода; 3) превратиться в газ; 4)
пламенная дуга; 5) отрицательная полярность; 6) насыщать углеродом; 7)
изолировать; 8) выделять тепло; 9) снизить себестоимость сварки; 10)
избежать опасности удара током.
185
Переведите на РЯ следующие слова и словосочетания из текста:
1) carbon vapor; 2) metallic arc; 3) flaming arc; 4) wrought iron; 5) detrimental to the strength; 6) head protector; 7) to adhere; 8) to bring to a
temperature; 9) heating agent; 10) to liberate heat.
Найдите в
словосочетаниям:
тексте
синонимы
к
следующим
словам
и
1) to protect; 2) harmful; 3) to stick together; 4) to gasify; 5) to fill
completely with; 6) to separate from conducting bodies; 7) very bright light;8)
to be concentrated at a point; 9) to stick to; 10) to get rid of, to remove.
Вставьте предлоги.
1. The carbons turn to a gas ... the intense heat. 2. There are few means ...
human control to provide such intense heat. 3. The metal of the electrode burns
... the heat. 4. During arc welding the work is laid ... a table made of cast or
wrought iron. 5. The operator should wear some form of good ... his head. 6.
The work should be watched ... pieces of coloured glass ... .7. Some protection
... the eyes is absolutely necessary. 8. The heat is localized ... the point of
welding. 9. The necessity of preheating depends ... some factors. 10. This is true
... aluminum and some alloys.
SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS
Holding work in a chuck
Short parts, are usually held in a chuck. This method of holding work is
of great importance since it is widely used with lathes. A chuck is a rotating
vice which may be attached to the nose of the lathe spindle. There are three
important varieties of lathe chucks, su.chas independent Jaw chucks, concentric
or self-centering chucks or contracting chucks.
An independent four-jaw chuck belongs to the group of simple chucks.
The chuck has four jaws, carried in a radial slots in the chuck body. Each Jaw
of the chuck can be adjusted independently by means of its own screw. It offers
the possibility to fasten works of both cylindrical and non-cylindrical shape in
such chucks. The body of the chuck is provided with ascrewed hole to fit the
spindle nose of the lathe.
186
The concentric chuck usually has three jaws which can be moved in
and out together by means of a chuck key, which is inserted into the
opening of one of the three bevel gears, meshed with a large bevel gear.
A multiturn spiral groove is cut on the flat reverse side of the large bevel
gear. The bottom projections of the jaws are inserted into the separate
turns of the groove. When one of the bevol gears is turned by means of,
the chuck key its motion is transmitted to the large bevel gear. The
rotation of that large bevel gear causes simultaneous and uniform motion
of all the three jaws along the slots of the chuck by means of the spiral
groove. When the gear with the spiral groove is rotated in that or another
direction the jaws are either approached to or removed from the centre
thus clamping or unclamping the work. The concentric or self -centering
chuck is very convenient in operation as all its jaws are moved
simultaneously. Consequently a work of cylindrical shape is clamped
exactly along the spindle axis. This centering is done automatically,
therefore such chucks are called "self-centering".
For finishing the external diameter of work which is already bored
axially a mandrel is used. A mandrel is a bar with centre holes at each
end. The mandrel is mounted between centres and enables the outside of a
workpiece to be turned concentric with the inside and in general such
work would have the hole finished first and the outside finished on a
mandrel subsequently. The advantage of mounting work on a mandr el is
that of being able to reverse the work on the centres so that the whole of
the work exterior can be operated on by cutting tools.
Holding work in a vice
Vices are attachments which are mainly used for holding workpieces in
machine and fitting shops. It should be noticed that a vice may also be used as
an attachment for holding workpieces on a metal-cutting lathe.
Depending on the character of operation performed bench vices or
parallel vices may be applied. Bench vices are made from forged steel and are
of rugged construction. If their construction were not rugged, they could not be
used when heavy-duty operations such as cutting, rivetting, etc. are performed.
A bench vice consists of two jaws: the movable jaw and the solid jaw. At the
end of the solid jaw there is a lug for securing the vice to a bench. The
extension rod of the jaw is built in a wooden pillow. A workpiece being
187
clamped between the jaws, they are moved together by means of a squarethreaded screw. By unscrewing the screw the jaws are moved apart by a spring
riveted to the solid jaw. In parallel vices the jaws move parallel to each other. It
should be pointed out that parallel vices in their turn are subdivided into swivel
vices and plain vices. The jaws of all the vices are mode of accurately ground
tool stool. They may be moved together or apart by means of a handle. A
swivel vice, being the most convenient vice in operation, consists of a vice
base, a solid jaw and a movable jaw. The motion of the movable jaw is
provided by the rotation of a screw inserted into a fixed nut. When the screw is
rotated by means of a handle the former will screw in and move the movable
jaw to the workpiece to be clamped. The vice base is mounted on a swivel plate
being connected with the latter by a spindle. A bolt is inserted into a T-groove.
By turning a handle the bolt may be loosened and the vice may be turned in a
desired direction. The swivel vice may be turned through any angle as the bаsе
of the vice in held to the table with a swivel plate.
Plain vices differ entirely from swivel vices in the absence of the swivel
plate, the vice base being bolted directly to a bench. The vice of such a type is
made from grey iron, steel hardened plates with a nut being screwed to its jaws.
The plain vices is used for light milling operations. Parallel vices are
convenient for clamping workpieces, but as their jaws are of little strength they
are non-suitable for heavy-duty operations. Universal vice may be used for
general tool-room work. It can be swivelled up to 90° in the vertical plane and
up to 36O0 in the horizontal plane.
Lathe operations
To machine a piece of work on centre в, each end of the work has to be
countersunk. This is accomplished with a combined drill and countersink.
When mounting the work between the centres care must be taken to see that the
centres are in good condition. The dead centre in the tailstock will be the first to
show wear caused by friction that is why it should be well lubricated.
The work is held firmly but not too tightly on the live and dead centres.
Too great a pressure of the dead centre against the work will make the centre
and work heat up so as to cause wear from friction.
As a general rule the tool holder must be placed in the tool post at
approximately 90° with the centre line or a little in the direction of the dead
188
centre when feeding toward the head- stock. The point of the cutting tool should
be on the centre line between the dead centre and the live centre.
The following operations may be performed on the lathes straight
(cylindrical) turning, taper turning (by using the compound tool rest or taper
attachment), facing (cutting at right angles to the axis of the work), either
straight or taper boring and external or internal thread cutting. A thread may be
cut with a tap, die or with a threading tool (cutter).
For producing short tapers the compound rest is generally swiveled to the
required angle and cutting tool is fed by hand. The taper attachment may be
used to produce internal and external tapers, the tool being fed automatically. In
producing tapers the point of the tool must be on the centre line of the work.
The taper attachment of the lathe should be used in cutting pipe thread,
the compound rest is set over towards the right on saddle at the proper angle.
The feed of the carriage is toward the headstock. In cutting the left-hand thread
the compound rest is moved towards the left on the saddle and the feed of the
Carriage is toward the tailstock.
When facing the thickness of a piece to a size which is held in close limits
the compound rest may be swiveled at an angle of 30° from the face of the work
and the tool fed in with the compound feed screw. The tool is fed in along the
hypotenuse of a triangle. From a theorem in geometry (which states that in a
right triangle the side opposite 30° angle is equal to one- half the hypotenuse) it
can be seen that the thickness of the work is reduced one-half thousandth for
every thousandth the tool is advanced with the compound feed screw.
While cutting cast iron a deep cut should be made because cast iron has a
very hard scale on the outside and in cutting this cast iron tool has to be forced
under this scale or the cutting edge of the tool will be broken.
189
Module 4. Information security
Unit 1. Computer Viruses. Etimology. History
Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
encyclopedia, virus, liological, equivalent, to classify, anti-virus, type,
technical, academic, publication, vaccine, to publish, to operate, pirated copy,
regularly, to infect, popularly, unique, detection, academically, to demonstrate
Read and translate the following word combinations:
biological equivalent, anti-virus program, types of attack, technical
communities, academic publication, removable media, traditional computer
virus, infected programs, personal computer, unique problem
Read the text trying to find adjectives with which the term ―virus‖ is used.
Give their Russian equivalents
Computer virus
From Wikipedia, ―The Free Encyclopedia‖
Etymology
The word virus is derived from and used in the same sense as the
biological equivalent. The term ―virus‖ is often used in common parlance to
describe all kinds of malware (malicious software), including those that are
more properly classified as worms or Trojans. Most popular anti-virus software
packages defend against all of these types of attack. In some technical
communities, the term ―virus‖ is also extended to include the authors of
malware, in an insulting sense. The English plural of ―virus‖ is ―viruses‖. Some
people use ―virus‖ or ―viruses‖ as a plural, but this is rare.
The term ―virus‖ was first used in an academic publication by Fred Cohen
in his 1984 paper Experiments with Computer Viruses, where he credits Len
Adleman with coining it. However, a 1972 science fiction novel by David
Gerrold ―When H.A.R.LI.E. Was One‖ includes a description of a fictional
computer program called ―VIRUS‖ that worked just like a virus (and was
countered by a program called ―VACCINE‖). The term ―computer virus‖ with
current usage also appears in the comic book ―Uncanny X-Men #158‖, written
by Chris Claremont and published in 1982. Therefore, although Cohen's use of
―virus‖ may, perhaps, have been the first ―academic‖ use, the term had been
used earlier.
190
History
A program called ―Elk Cloner‖ is credited with being the first computer
virus to appear ―in the wild‖ – that is, outside the single computer or lab where
it was created. Written in 1982 by Richard Skrenta, it attached itself to the
Apple DOS 3.3 operating system and spread by floppy disk. This virus was
originally a joke, created by the high school student and put onto a game. The
disk could only be used 49 times. The game was set to play, but release the
virus on the 50th time of starting the game. Only this time, instead of playing
the game, it would change to a blank screen that read a poem about the virus
named Elk Cloner. The poem that showed up on the screen is as follows: ―It
will get on all your disks. It will infiltrate your chips. Yes it's Cloner! It will
stick to you like glue. It will modify RAM too. Send in the Cloner!‖ The
computer would then be infected.
The first PC virus was a boot sector virus called (c)Bram, created in 1986
by two brothers, Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi, operating out of Lahore,
Pakistan. The brothers reportedly created the virus to deter pirated copies of
software they had written. However, analysts have claimed that the Ashar virus,
a variant of Brain, possibly predated it based on code within the virus.
Before computer networks became widespread, most viruses spread on
removable media, particularly floppy disks. In the early days of the personal
computer, many users regularly exchanged information and programs on
floppies. Some viruses spread by infecting programs stored on these disks,
while others installed themselves into the disk boot sector, ensuring that they
would be run when the user booted the computer from the disk.
Traditional computer viruses emerged in the 1980s, driven by the spread
of personal computers and the resultant increase in BBS and modem use, and
software sharing. Bulletin board driven software sharing contributed directly to
the spread of Trojan horse programs and viruses were written to infect
popularly traded software. Shareware and bootleg software were equally
common vectors for viruses on BBS's. Within the ―pirate scene‖ of hobbyists
trading illicit copies of retail software, traders in a hurry to obtain the latest
applications and games were easy targets for viruses.
Since the mid-1990s, macro viruses have become common. Most of these
viruses are written in the scripting languages for Microsoft programs such as
Word and Excel. These viruses spread in Microsoft Office by infecting
documents and spreadsheets. Since Word and Excel were also available for
Mac OS, most of these viruses were able to spread on Macintosh computers as
well. Most of these viruses did not have the ability to send infected e-mail.
191
Those viruses which did spread through e-mail took advantage of the Microsoft
Outlook COM interface.
Macro viruses pose unique problems for detection software. For example,
some versions of Microsoft Word allowed macros to replicate themselves with
additional blank lines. The virus behaved identically but would be misidentified
as a new virus. In another example, if two macro viruses simultaneously infect
a document, the combination of the two, if also self-replicating, can appear as a
―mating‖ of the two and would likely be detected as a virus unique from the
―parents‖.
A virus may also send a web address link as an instant message to all the
contacts on an infected machine. If the recipient, thinking the link is from a
friend (a trusted source) follows the link to the website, the virus hosted at the
site may be able to infect this new computer and continue propagating.
The newest species of the virus family is the cross-site scripting virus.
The virus emerged from research and was academically demonstrated in 2005.
This virus utilizes cross-site scripting vulnerabilities to propagate. Since 2005
there have been multiple instances of the cross-site scripting viruses in the wild,
most notable sites affected have been MySpace and Yahoo.
Match column A with column B
A
software package
B
просачиваться,
микросхему
проникать
в
current usage
создать вирус
blank screen
распределять
to infiltrate chips
сектор самозагрузки
to create a virus
проходить, распространяться
to spread
чувствительность, уязвимость
disk boot sector
незаконная, запрещѐнная копия
illicit copy
затемнение экрана
target for virus
система программного обеспечения
to propagate
мишень для вирусов
192
общераспространѐнное
использование
vulnerability
Make a list of ESP words and phrases (10) plus to above mentioned
which you find useful, read them correctly and learn them.
Comment on the following:
Fred Cohen, David Gerrold, Chris Claremont, Elk Cloner, Richard
Skrenta, Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi, Trojan, Word and Excel, Macintosh,
My Space, Yahoo
Give summary of the text.
Unit 2. What is a computer virus?
Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
to design, to implant, to generate, specific, function, technically,
symptom, to identify, percentage, specifically, to compress, destructive
Read and translate the following word combination:
technical terms, program code, specific purpose, executable file, to spread
systematically, virus payload, incorrect information, directory information,
system area, to launch a program specifically, write-protected disks, to infect
software, to locate the documents, to program
Read the text and write out words and word combinations which point out
the harmful role of computer viruses. Give their Russian equivalents (10)
What is a computer virus?
A virus is a piece of software designed and written to adversely affect
your computer by altering the way it works without your knowledge or
permission. In more technical terms, a virus is a segment of program code that
implants itself to one of your executable files and spreads systematically from
one file to another. Computer viruses do not spontaneously generate: they must
be written and have a specific purpose. Usually a virus has two distinct
functions:
Spreads itself from one file to another without your input or knowledge.
Technically, this is known as self-replication and propagation.
Implements the symptom or damage planned by the perpetrator. This
could include erasing a disk, corrupting your programs or just creating havoc on
193
your computer. Technically, this is known as the virus payload, which can be
benign or malignant at the whim of the virus creator.
A benign virus is one that is designed to do no real damage to your
computer. For example, a virus that conceals itself until some predetermined
date or time and then does nothing more than display some sort of message is
considered benign.
A malignant virus is one that attempts to inflict malicious damage to your
computer, although the damage may not be intentional. There are a significant
number of viruses that cause damage due to poor programming and outright
bugs in the viral code. A malicious virus might alter one or more of your
programs so that it does not work, as it should. The infected program might
terminate abnormally, write incorrect information into your documents. Or, the
virus might alter the directory information on one of your system area. This
might prevent the partition from mounting, or you might not be able to launch
one or more programs, or programs might not be able to locate the documents
you want to open.
Some of the viruses identified are benign; however, a high percentage of
them are very malignant. Some of the more malignant viruses will erase your
entire hard disk, or delete files.
What Viruses Do
Some viruses are programmed specifically to damage the data on your
computer by corrupting programs, deleting files, or erasing your entire hard
disk. Many of the currently known Macintosh viruses are not designed to do
any damage. However, because of bugs (programming errors) within the virus,
an infected system may behave erratically.
What Viruses Don't Do
Computer viruses don't infect files on write-protected disks and don't
infect documents, except in the case of Word macro viruses, which infect only
documents and templates written in Word 6.0 or higher. They don't infect
compressed files either. However, applications within a compressed file could
have been infected before they were compressed. Viruses also don't infect
computer hardware, such as monitors or computer chips, they only infect
software.
In addition, Macintosh viruses don't infect DOS-based computer software
and vice versa. For example, the infamous Michelangelo virus does not infect
Macintosh applications. Again, exceptions to this rule are the Word and Excel
194
macro viruses, which infect spreadsheets, documents and templates, which can
be opened by either Windows or Macintosh computers.
Finally, viruses don't necessarily let you know that they are there - even
after they do something destructive.
Match column A with column B
A
B
self-replication
производить беспорядок
to damage the data
слабое,
программирование
недостаточное
to create havoc
наносить вред
to cause damage
портить данные
malignant virus
вредный, гибельный вирус
poor programming
самотиражирование
to alter the data
доброкачественный вирус
benign virus
злокачественный вирус
identified virus
изменять данные
compressed file
распознанный вирус
destructive virus
сжатый файл
Learn the definition of a computer virus
Fill out the table and learn it
What viruses are capable of
What viruses don‘t do
doing
Can you add anything to the table? Do it, please!
195
Unit 3. Types of computer viruses (I)
Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
type, constantly, to classify, basic, system, infected, command, primitive,
parasitic, companion, double, multi-combination, effective, to demonstrate,
concept, to transport, documents, action, classification, method
Read and translate the following word combinations:
file infector, uninfected programs, overwriting virus, a double file, to be
listed, boot sector, to grow steadily, effective virus, development package,
nuclear virus, to perform various actions, user‘s installation, to support
execution, hard for catching
Read the text and write out adjectives used with the word ―virus‖.
Translate and learn them.
Types of Computer Viruses
Nowadays the number of viruses is about 55000. It increases constantly.
New unknown types of viruses appear. To classify them becomes more and
more difficult. In common they can be divided by three basic signs: a place of
situating, used operation system and work algorithms. For example, according
to these three classifications virus Chernobyl can be classified as a file infector
and a resident Windows virus. Further it will be explained what it means.
File infectors
These are viruses that attach themselves to (or replace) .COM and .EXE
files, although in some cases they can infect files with extensions SYS, DRV,
BIN, OVL and OVY. With this type of virus, uninfected programs usually
become infected when they are executed with the virus in memory. In other
cases they are infected when they are opened (such as using the DOS DIR
command) or the virus simply infects all of the files in the directory (a direct
infector).
There are three groups of file infectors.
Viruses of the first group are called overwriting viruses because they
overwrite their code into infected file erasing contents. But these viruses are
primitive and they can be found very quickly.
Other group is called parasitic or cavity viruses. Infected file is capable of
work fully or partly but contents of last one are changed. Viruses can copy itself
196
into begin, middle or end of a file. They record their code in data known not to
be used.
Third group is called companion viruses. They don't change files. They
make double of infected file so when infected file is being started a double file
becomes managing, it means virus. For example, companion viruses working
with DOS use that DOS firstly runs COM. file and after if this file is not found
runs EXE. file. Viruses make double file with a same name and with extension
COM and copies itself in this file. During start of infected file DOS runs a
COM. file with a virus firstly and then a virus starts an EXE. file.
Multi-partite Viruses
Multi-partite viruses are a combination of the viruses listed above. They
will infect both files and MBRs or both files and boot sectors. These types of
viruses are currently rare, but the number of cases is growing steadily.
Macro Viruses
Until recently, the macro languages included with most applications were
not powerful or robust enough to support writing an effective virus. However,
many of the more advanced applications that are being developed today include
built-in programming capabilities that rival some of the larger development
packages. This has recently been demonstrated by the various strains of
Microsoft Word viruses, including the so-called Word Concept and Word
Nuclear viruses. These viruses transport themselves through Microsoft Word
documents. When opened in Word, they perform various actions, including
spreading themselves into the user's installation of Word, thus preparing to
infect all future documents on the system. An additional concern is that macro
viruses can be cross-platform. The Word Concept virus has the claim to fame of
being the first prominent cross-platform virus, because it can infect both
Windows and Macintosh systems.
Because most application macro languages support passing execution to
an external shell, such as CQMMAND.COM or CMD.EXE, the power of the
macro virus is not limited to the constraints of the macro language itself.
Used operation system
Any computer or net virus can infect files of one or more operation
systems: DOS, Windows, OS/2, Linux, MacOS and others, it is a base of this
way of classification. For example, virus BOZA working with Windows only is
classified as Windows virus, virus BLISS – as Linux virus.
Work algorithms
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Viruses can be differed by used algorithms making them dangerous and
hard for catching.
Firstly viruses can be divided on resident and nonresident.
Resident virus having come in operation memory of computer doesn't
infect memory. They are capable of copying when they are started only. We can
call any macro virus resident. They are present in memory during application.
Second viruses are visible and invisible. To be invisible means that users
and anti-virus programs can't notice changes of infected file done by virus
Invisible virus catches all requires of operation system to read file and to record
in file and shows uninfected version of file. So we can see only 'clear' programs
during virus works. One of first invisible file infectors was FRODO and boot
infector – BRAIN.
Almost any virus uses methods of self-coding or polymorphism to escape
antivirus programs. It means that it can change itself. Changing itself helps
virus to be able to work.
Match column A with column B
A
B
to increase constantly
расширение кода
to
programs
escape
anti-virus
редкий вирус
to replace files
стирание файлов
to execute a program
заменить файлы
file erasing
выполнять программу
to find quickly
автоматическое кодирование
to run a file
постоянно расти, увеличиваться
code extension
организовывать, формировать файл
rare virus
self-coding
ускользнуть
программы
от
антивирусной
быстро обнаружить
Read and translate in writing the passage under the headline ―File
Infectors‖
198
Learn the definition of every group of viruses. Make a presentation
Unit 4. Types of computer viruses (II)
Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
system, to program, audio, to operate, personal, regularly, microvirus,
Microsoft, logic bomb, internationally, specified, to contain, technique, to
attack, specific, to activate automatically
Read and translate the following word combination:
uninfected computer, network file system, to damage a program, to delete
files, to reformat hard disk, legitimate program, data loss, system crush,
specified conditions, host system, civilised programmed threat, anti-virus
software, anti-spyware
Read the text and write out sentences underlining the difference between
different types of viruses. Translate them in writing
Types of Computer viruses
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a
computer without permission or knowledge of the user. A virus can only spread
from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer,
for instance by a user sending it over a network or the Internet, or by carrying it
on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive. Additionally,
viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file
system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.
Most personal computers are now connected to the Internet, facilitating
the spread of malicious code. Today's viruses may also take advantage of
network services such as the World Wide Web, e-mail to spread.
Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging
programs, deleting files, or reformatting the hard disk. Others are not designed
to do any damage, but simply replicate themselves and perhaps make their
presence known by presenting text, video, or audio messages. Even these
benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They typically take
up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often cause
erratic behavior and can result in data loss and system crashes.
The Creeper virus was first detected on ARPANET, the forerunner of the
Internet in the early 1970s. It propagated via the TENEX operating system. It
would display the message ―I'M THE CREEPER: CATCH ME IF YOU CAN.‖
199
It is rumored that the Reaper program, which appeared shortly after and sought
out copies of the Creeper and deleted them, may have been written by the
creator of the Creeper in a fit of regret.
Before computer networks became widespread, most viruses spread on
removable media, particularly floppy disks. In the early days of the personal
computer, many users regularly exchanged information and programs on
floppies.
Traditional computer viruses emerged in the 1980s. Since the mid-1990s,
macro viruses have become common. Most of these viruses are written in the
scripting languages for Microsoft programs such as Word and Excel. Since
Word and Excel were also available for Mac OS, most of these viruses were
able to spread on Macintosh computers as well.
Logic bomb
A logic bomb is a piece of code intentionally inserted into a software
system that will set off a malicious function when specified conditions are met.
Software that is inherently malicious, such as viruses and worms, often
contain logic bombs that execute a certain payload at a pre-defined time or
when some other condition is met. This technique can be used by a virus or
worm to gain momentum and spread before being noticed. Many viruses attack
their host systems on specific dates, such as Friday the 13th or April Fool's Day.
Trojans that activate on certain dates are often called ―time bombs‖.
The most common activator for a logic bomb is a date. The logic bomb
checks the system date and does nothing until a pre-programmed date and time
is reached. At that point, the logic bomb activates and executes its code.
A logic bomb could also be programmed to wait for a certain message
from the programmer.
A logic bomb can also be programmed to activate on a wide variety of
other variables, such as when a database grows past a certain size or a users
home directory is deleted.
The most dangerous form of the logic bomb is a logic bomb that activates
when something doesn't happen.
Because a logic bomb does not replicate itself, it is very easy to write a
logic bomb program. This also means that a logic bomb will not spread to
unintended victims. In some ways, a logic bomb is the most civilized
200
programmed threat, because a logic bomb must be targeted against a specific
victim.
The classic use for a logic bomb is to ensure payment for software. If
payment is not made by a certain date, the logic bomb activates and the
software automatically deletes itself. A more malicious form of that logic bomb
would also delete other data on the system.
Computer worm
A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a
network to send copies of itself to other nodes and it may do so without any
user intervention. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing
program.
Protecting against dangerous computer worms
Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems. All
vendors supply regular security updates, and if these are installed to a machine
then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it.
Users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run
attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails.
Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-todate with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of a firewall is also
recommended.
Match column A with column B
A
B
to be accessed by
сменное съѐмное средство
to become widespread
продвигать
to exploit vulnerability
приводить к…
erratic behavior
получить
распространение
широкое
be targeted against
ошибочное,
поведение
неуправляемое
to take advantage of
инициировать и исполнять код
to activate and execute one‘s
перехитрить кого-либо/что-либо
201
code
to facilitate
(вос)пользоваться уязвимостью
removable medium
получить доступ
to result in
быть нацеленным против
Comment on the following:
CD, USB, ARPANET, TENEX, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 13
Give summary of the text
Unit 5. Viruses multiply like rabbits
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
programmer, industrialized, epidemics, unique, destructive, professional,
teenager, vandalism, political, company, cyber-espionage, publicity, client,
special, laboratories, specialize, infrastructure, organization, department,
security, agency
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
destructive program, unique ability, political reason, computer network,
virus creator, viral epidemics, virus attacks, Security Institute, insurance
company, debugged program, competitive purpose, unauthorized sources, to
avoid publicity, special services, rival state
3. Read the text trying to find verbs connected with the sphere of writing
and fighting viruses (e.g. to write viruses, …)
Viruses multiply like rabbits
There are more than 55-65,000 different viruses created by 10-12,000
programmers on the World Wide Web. The number of writers of destructive
programs is growing every day, as it is fairly easy to create a virus. However,
there are very few of those who fight viruses. The writers of viruses live in
almost all industrialized countries of the world. Viral epidemics outbreaks took
place in the countries which did not have well developed Internet systems. As
an example, such epidemics broke out in Bulgaria and Pakistan. Writers of
viruses sometimes tend to work in groups. The commonly known viruses are
29A, Metaphrase, YAM (Youth Against McAfee – a famous company,
producing software equipment), and Phalcon Skism. According to the data
provided by the Computer Security Institute, virus creators are mainly males
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from 19 to 35, who possess unique abilities and are professional in computerrelated fields. However, there have been cases when viruses were created by
teenagers. Such people are considered prone to vandalism.
There may be various reasons for writing viruses. Some creators of
viruses do it for political reasons. For example, Pakistani programmers attacked
Indian computer networks and the Indians in turn tried to attack the Pakistani.
Sometimes the work of the whole computer company may get virus attacks; in
this case Microsoft is the first to suffer. Other than that, virus creator justify
themselves by the fact that they are struggling for freedom. It is also common
that viruses are created out of sheer curiosity.
Cases have been known when viruses were written out of revenge. By
hearsay, that was the case with a big insurance company which had once
―offended‖ a programmer. He created and launched a debugged program that
destroyed the company's database. There are claims that viruses are created and
used for competitive purposes and cyber-espionage. The information about such
cases comes from unauthorized sources because the companies that were
injured tend to avoid publicity and not risk their clients' trust! It is also
considered, that some armies and special services have laboratories which
specialize in writing computer viruses to destroy and take control of the
information infrastructure of rival states.
According to estimates made by the Business Week Journal, there are
fewer than 500 organizations chasing virus writers in the whole world. In the
US, the country with the most developed Internet infrastructure, these
organizations are the FBI and the Department of Homeland Security. According
to different estimates, state agencies have no more than 100-150 people dealing
with fighting computer viruses.
4. Match column A with column B
A
B
1. to deal with
a. быть склонным к
2. epidemics broke out
b. оправдывать себя в чем-либо
3. to tend to work
c. из-за простого любопытства
4.
viruses
commonly
known
5. computer-related fields
d. в отместку
e. в свою очередь
203
f. иметь склонность работать
6. to be prone to
g.
области,
компьютером
7. in turn
связанные
8. to justify oneself by
h. иметь дело с
9. out of sheer curiosity
i. разразилась эпидемия
10. out of revenge
j. общеизвестные вирусы
с
5. Comment on the following:
55-65,000; Bulgaria and Pakistan; 19-35; Microsoft; Business Week
Journal; 500; 100-150
6. Decipher: YAM; the USA; FBI; W.W.W.
7. Give the author‘s and your own reasons for writing viruses
Unit 6. How Firewalls Work
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
browse, barrier, destructive, physical, private, to control, to analyze,
specific, characteristics, creative, potential, bomb, anti-virus, filtering
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
to browse the Web, security issues, corporate network, potential hackers,
destructive force, to protect from threats, to filter the information, to control
traffic, to retrieve information, to examine the contents, incoming information,
creative ways, unprotected computer, experienced network administrator,
firewall developer, packet filtering
3. Read the following text and comment on the statement ―I can‘t use that
site because they won‘t let it through the firewall‖
How Firewalls Work
Introduction to How Firewalls Work
If you have been using the Internet for any length of time, and especially
if you work at a larger company and browse the Web while you are at work,
you have probably heard the term firewall used. For example, you often hear
people in companies say things like, ―I can't use that site because they won't let
it through the firewall.‖
204
If you have a fast Internet connection into your home (either a DSL
connection or a cable modem), you may have found yourself hearing about
firewalls for your home network as well. It turns out that a small home network
has many of the same security issues that a large corporate network does. You
can use a firewall to protect your home network and family from offensive Web
sites and potential hackers.
Basically, a firewall is a barrier to keep destructive forces away from your
property. In fact, that's why it‘s called a firewall. Its job is similar to a physical
firewall that keeps a fire from spreading from one area to the next. As you read
through this article, you will learn more about firewalls, how they work and
what kinds of threats they can protect you from.
What It Does
A firewall is simply a program or hardware device that filters the
information coming through the Internet connection into your private network
or computer system. If an incoming packet of information is flagged by the
filters, it is not allowed through.
Packet filtering - Packets (small chunks of data) are analyzed against a set
of filters. Packets that make it through the filters are sent to the requesting
system and all others are discarded.
Proxy service - Information from the Internet is retrieved by the firewall
and then sent to the requesting system and vice versa.
Stateful inspection - A newer method that doesn't examine the contents of
each packet but instead compares certain key parts of the packet to a database
of trusted information. Information traveling from inside the firewall to the
outside is monitored for specific defining characteristics, then incoming
information is compared to these characteristics. If the comparison yields a
reasonable match, the information is allowed through. Otherwise it is discarded.
What It Protects You From
There are many creative ways that unscrupulous people use to access or
abuse unprotected computers: a remote login, application backdoors, SMPT
session, hijacking, operating system bugs, denial of service, E-mails bombs,
macros, viruses, spam, redirect bombs, source routing.
Some of the items in the list above are hard, if not impossible, to filter
using a firewall. While some firewalls offer virus protection, it is worth the
investment to install anti-virus software on each computer. And, even though it
205
is annoying, some spam is going to get through your firewall as long as you
accept e-mail.
The level of security you establish will determine how many of these
threats can be stopped by your firewall. The highest level of security would be
to simply block everything. Obviously that defeats the purpose of having an
Internet connection. But a common rule of thumb is to block everything, then
begin to select what types of traffic you will allow. You can also restrict traffic
that travels through the firewall so that only certain types of information, such
as e-mail, can get through. This is a good rule for businesses that have an
experienced network administrator that understands what the needs are and
knows exactly what traffic to allow through. For most of us, it is probably better
to work with the defaults provided by the firewall developer unless there is a
specific reason to change it.
One of the best things about a firewall from a security standpoint is that it
stops anyone on the outside from logging onto a computer in your private
network. While this is a big deal for businesses, most home networks will
probably not be threatened in this manner. Still, putting a firewall in place
provides some peace of mind.
4. Match column A with column B
A
B
1. private network
a. удаленный вход в систему
2. proxy service
b. частная сеть связи
3. stateful inspection
c. умолчание
4. threat
d. поток
нагрузка
обмена,
информационная
5. remote login
e. абонентская служба
6. vice versa
f. официальная проверка
7. abuse
g. порча
8. default
h. угроза
9. source routing
i. наоборот
10. traffic
j. выбор маршрута от источника
5. Find in the text the definition and functions of a firewall and learn it
206
6. Read the text under the headline ―What it protects you from‖ and
translate it in writing
7. Give summary of the text
Unit 7. Spam
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
digital, phenomenon, action, effective, anti-spam, international,
cooperation, telecommunication, organization, central, initiative, regional, to
rationalize, public, electronic, activity, adequate
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
a major concern, policy maker, multi-faceted phenomenon, effective
application, anti-spam law, technical measures, legislative and legal actions,
multi-stakeholder approach, precious knowledge, possible outcome,
cooperative actions, to share information, public awareness, to adopt
legislation, to ensure effectiveness
3. Read the text and make the list of verbs and phrases which go with the
noun ―spam‖ (e.g. to fight spam, effect of spam, …)
Spam
Spam has grown to be a major concern for Internet users and policy
makers not only congesting networks and disseminating viruses and fraudulent
messages, but also undermining trust in the Internet an the digital economy.
Is the solution to spam technical or legal?
Spam is a multifaceted phenomenon and, therefore, very complicated to
fight. The fight against spam requires implementing a series of actions on
several levels: the effective application of anti-spam law, awareness raising, the
development of technical solutions, and strong international cooperation.
There are several different technical measures available. When combined,
these measures can provide a ―good enough solution‖ to the spam problem for
email users. Coupled with appropriate legislative and legal action, such
measures may even help turn the tide against the spammers.
Who is involved in fighting spam?
Fighting spam implies a multi-stakeholder approach. The emergence of
concrete solutions to combat the causes and the effects of spam depends on the
207
capacity of the private and the public sector to coordinate their efforts. The
groups that need to work together include:
experts from the technical community
public representatives
regulatory authorities in charge of the protection of private data and
telecommunication networks
e-merchants, and organizations representing Internet users
On the one hand, the cooperation of operational actors is a source of
precious knowledge for governments. For instance, understanding emerging
technologies intended to curb spam is central to assessing the context and
possible outcomes of different international meetings. On the other hand,
Internet users and e-merchants need to have a clear definition of what is
prohibited (spam) and what is not (legitimate mail).
How to enforce appropriate legislation
To ensure that a law is respected, the first task is to ensure that it is
understood. Hence, good communications on existing rules should be the first
priority of public authorities.
ISOC is an Associate Partner in the StopSpamAlliance. This Alliance is
an international multi-stakeholder cooperative effort to coordinate international
action against spam and related threats to the Internet more effectively by
sharing information and resources among participating entities. The
StopSpamAlliance is an initiative in line with the WSIS Tunis Agenda, asking
members to deal effectively with the significant and growing problem posed by
spam. This support includes development of multilateral frameworks for
regional and international cooperation, and calls upon all stakeholders to adopt
a multi-pronged approach to counter spam, which should include consumer and
business education, legislation, law-enforcement, best practices, and
international cooperation.
What are the next steps?
The fight against spam must take place at several levels and the biggest
challenge for public and private entities is to coordinate all the existing actions.
It appears that the next steps in the battle against spam could be the following:
sharing knowledge and best practices at all levels and between all
countries
208
rationalising the work accomplished at the international level by public
and private entities
stressing the importance of public education and awareness
Adopting the adequate legislation is a necessary step in combating spam.
While legislation may not be sufficient, it is the minimum necessary to cope
with spam, to define rights and obligations and, thereby, to ensure as much
legal certainty as possible.
Two legislative models exist depending on the extent of the Internet user's
consent. The United States has adopted an ―opt-out‖ legislative model. It
implies that the mailing activity is based on the permission of the recipient after
receiving the electronic message. On the other hand, European legislation is
based on an ―opt-in‖ model. This legislation introduces the principle of consentbased marketing for electronic mail (including mobile SMS or MMS
messages), and complementary safeguards for consumers.
What is happening at the international level?
In view of the global nature of spam, international cooperation on
enforcement is essential to ensure the effectiveness of anti-spam rules. In other
words, it is clearly necessary to trace back spamming activities and prosecute
spammers, regardless of national borders.
Ongoing anti-spam efforts are underway in various regions of the world,
including the European Union, and should be replicated by similar efforts at the
international level, by governments, business and consumers. This international
dimension is crucial, since a significant portion of spam comes from outside
national borders, often originating from a small number of countries.
At the multilateral level, spam is a subject of concern in various forums.
Certain countries have also decided to enter cooperation agreements to
facilitate international cooperation. The London Action Plan, an initiative
launched by the UK Office of Fair Trade and the US Federal Trade
Commission calls upon participating parties to produce their ―best efforts‖ to
cooperate with each other on issues such as building evidence, user education,
new spamming activities, and training.
4. Match column A with column B
A
B
1. to be very complicated
a. значительная часть
209
2. law-enforcement
3. to
agreements
enter
information
b.
проблемы
обеспечить
c. защита
сведений
решение
конфиденциальных
4. protection of private data
d. растущая проблема
5. significant portion
e. быть очень сложным
6. a concrete solution
f. подрывать веру
7. to undermine trust
g. конкретное решение
8. challenge for public
h.
усиление
законодательных
мер
9. growing problem
10. to provide a solution
i. вызов обществу
j. присоединяться
международным соглашениям
к
5. Read the passage under the headline ―Who is involved in fighting
spam?‖ and translate it in writing
6. Give summary of the text
Unit 8. Why I Hate Spam
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
technological, innovation, cooperation, industry, effective, anti-spam,
filters, machine, tactics, to adapt, version, initiative, to partner, provider,
company, status, automatically, sanctions, activity, financial, to focus
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
spam messages, civil lawsuits, effective anti-spam filter, defensive
actions, advanced anti-spam features, industry leaders, to battle spammers, to
avoid detection, to share information, to restrict mail, self-regulatory body
3. Read the text and find out the meaning of the following phrases. Speak
on the situations where they were used
drain on business productivity, waste of time and resources, sophisticated
mail users, to clog corporate networks, to overlook and delete valid messages,
210
violations of state and federal laws, to distract workers, to be vital to s/b, fastgrowing database, to secure e-mail systems, joint initiative, to verify sender
addresses, legitimate commercial e-mail, to lose one‘s appeal, to be worth
reading
Memorize them.
―Why I Hate Spam‖ by Bill Gates June 23, 2008
SEATTLE — Like almost everyone who uses e-mail, I receive a ton of
spam every day. Much of it offers to help me get out of debt or get rich quick. It
would be funny if it weren't so irritating.
But spam is worse than irritating. It is a drain on business productivity, an
increasingly costly waste of time and resources that clogs corporate networks
and distracts workers. Among consumers, it spreads scams, pornography and
even computer viruses. Worse, spammers prey on less sophisticated e-mail
users, including children, threatening their safety and privacy. And as everyone
struggles to sift spam from their inboxes, valid messages are sometimes
overlooked or deleted which makes e-mail less useful and reliable as a channel
for communication and legitimate e-commerce. In short, spam threatens to undo
much of the good that e-mail has achieved.
As part of our drive to create a more trustworthy computing environment,
this month, Microsoft filed 15 lawsuits in the U.S. and U.K. against companies
and individuals alleged to have sent billions of spam messages in violation of
state and federal laws. In addition to filing civil lawsuits and taking other
enforcement actions, we are significantly stepping up our efforts to fight spam
through technological innovation and cooperation with government and
industry leaders. We are developing more effective anti-spam filters and other
technologies that build on our research into fields such as machine learning –
the design of systems that learn from data and grow smarter over time. These
―smart‖ systems are vital to the fight against spam because every defensive
action causes spammers to change their tactics. Technology, to be effective,
must continuously adapt too.
Already, spam filters built into MSN and Hotmail servers block 2.4
billion messages a day before they reach subscribers' inboxes. We have
assembled a vast and fast-growing database of spam, which will be used by a
forthcoming version of our Outlook e-mail software to block spam more
effectively. And a new version of our Exchange e-mail server will include
advanced anti-spam features. Our goal is to do everything possible to secure email systems with servers that monitor and control the points of entry.
211
But a single company can't stem the tide of spam alone. So we are
working with other industry leaders such as AOL, Yahoo! and EarthLink on a
range of joint initiatives. For example, we are battling spammers who set up
numerous e-mail accounts and move from service to service to avoid detection.
To put an end to this shell game, we are sharing information so that we can
keep tabs on roving spammers and shut them down more effectively. Spammers
also go to great lengths to conceal or ―spoof their identities, so we are
partnering with other service providers identify and restrict mail that conceals
its source. And we are creating a system to verify sender addresses much as
recipients' addresses are verified today.
A key to eliminating spam is establishing clear guidelines for legitimate
commercial e-mail. With industry and consumer groups, we are developing
best-practice guidelines to help responsible companies understand how to reach
their customers without spamming them. Congress could help by providing a
strong incentive for businesses to adopt e-mail best practices. Our proposal is to
create a regulatory ―safe harbor‖ status for senders who comply with e-mail
guidelines confirmed by an FTC-approved selfregulatory body. Senders who do
not comply would have to insert an ―ADV:‖ label – standing for advertisement
– in the subject line of all unsolicited commercial e-mail. This would enable
computer users either to accept ADV-labeled mail or to have it deleted
automatically. As less junk mail reaches recipients - and violators face stiffer
sanctions for illegal activities — the financial incentives for spammers will
decrease, and spamming will lose its appeal.
Then maybe we can all focus on the e-mail that's actually worth reading.
4. What does the author mean by using phrases ―smart‖ systems, spoof,
safe, harbor, ADV?
5. Answer the following questions:
Do you consider spam to be irritating? Why?
What are the most effective ways of curbing spam?
Do you hate spam?
Is it possible to eliminate spam?
Was the article worth reading?
6. Give summary of the article
212
Unit 9. The Ex-hacker
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
multinational, corporation, Japan, Canada, Thailand, to publish, details,
agents, police, unauthorized, organized, correspondence, address, industry,
virus, company
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
To steal information, credit card account, to publish, the details, to
download an unauthorized information, organized attempts, to gain access,
military base, to expose correspondence, to reroute e-mail, to replace the
homepage, to dismiss the threat, hijacked sites
3. Read the text and find the answers to these questions as quickly as you
can
Which group hacked into Hotmail?
Who was 'The Analyzer and what did he do?
Which hacker was sent to jail for fraud?
What was the effect of the 1996 raid on Scotland Yard?
Which of the cases reported here involved teenagers?
What did hackers do to the Yahoo! website?
What crime was Raphael Gray accused of?
The Ex-hacker
Kevin Mitnick is the hackers' hero. His latest spell in jail was a 46-month
sentence for fraud relating to breaking into the systems of several multinational
corporations. He was released on condition that he did not have any contact
with a computer.
In March 2000, a Welsh teenager allegedly stole information from more
than 26,000 credit card accounts across Britain, the US, Japan, Canada and
Thailand, and published the details on the Internet. FBI agents and British
police raided the home of Raphael Gray, 18, and arrested him and his friend. He
has been charged with 10 counts of downloading unauthorised information.
In 1998 Washington revealed that an Israeli hacker called 'The Analyser'
was responsible for 'the most organised attempt to penetrate the Pentagon's
computer systems'. He turned out to be Ehud Tenenbaum, 18, who had planted
213
a list of his own passwords in the Pentagon system and passed them to other
hackers.
Hotmail, Microsoft's free email service, was hacked into last September,
exposing the correspondence of more than 40m users. A group calling itself
Hackers Unite posted a Web address with details of how to access any Hotmail
account. The service was shut down for five hours.
The UK Department of Trade and Industry has twice been prey to
hackers, once in 1996 and again in 2000 when a DTI computer was
programmed to reroute email. The Home Office investigated nine cases of
hacking last year, one of which was the leaking of a report on a murder. In
August 1996 hackers ran up a £1m phone bill for Scotland Yard but did not
access files.
In 1997 hackers got into the Yahoo! website, replacing the homepage
with a ransom note demanding the release of their hero, Kevin Mitnick. Unless
the demand was met, the note said, a virus would be released in all Yahoo!'s
computers. The company dismissed the threat as a hoax, but the 'Free Kevin'
slogan continued to appear on other hijacked sites.
In 1997 the son of a fraud squad detective walked free from a court in
London after charges of breaching the security of the US air force were
dropped. Three years earlier Mathew Bevan, then 19, and a friend, Richard
Pryce, 16, used the Internet to gain access to several US military bases. Pryce
was fined £1,200 after admitting several other offences.
4. Match column A with column B
A
B
1. fraud
a. исходная позиция
2. to be responsible for
b. отпустить, освободить
3. to penetrate a system
c. пароль
4. password
5. breaching of the security of a
system
d.
злой
мошенничество
умысел,
e. утечка информации
6. offence
f. проникнуть в систему
7. to shut down
g.
нападение,
214
правонарушение
8. leaking of information
h.
брешь
безопасности
в
системе
9. homepage
i. нести ответственность
10. to release
j. отключить
5. Comment on the following:
Yahoo!, Website, DII, 40 m, 19, 16, £1,200; 26,000; 1998, 18, Pentagon,
FBI, 10, 2000, Hacker‘s Unite, 9, ―The Analyser‖, ―Free Kevin‖, £1m.
6. Which of the cases do you consider to be the most serious? Speak on it
and ground your thoughts
Unit 10. Protection of Information
1. Read the following words correctly and guess their meaning:
protection, formation, informational, organization, social, documents,
structure, secret, confidential, private, correspondence, reputation, realization,
category, instruction, public, financial, technology, economic, industrial, policy,
informatisation, legal, certification, design, license, activity, client,
unsanctioned, copying, aspect, priority, expert, personnel, discipline
2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
state informational sources, limited access, confidential information, to
cause damage, equal rights, juridical person, non-juridical person, to purchase
the right, legal way, to break producer right, in accordance with, legislation, to
obtain license, definite risk, unsanctioned access
3. Read the text trying to find adjectives used with the word
―information‖. Translate the phrases and learn them
Protection of information
Information
a) State informational sources
Formation of state informational sources is carried out by citizens, state
authorities organizations and social unions. Documents, which belong to a
person, can be included in the state structure of informational sources, of
215
course, if the person wishes. State informational sources are open and generally
available. Documented information with limited access is divided into state
secret and confidential information.
b) Citizen information (personal information)
Personal data refers to confidential information. The collection, storage,
use and distribution of private information are not allowed. The information,
which breaks personal and family secret, secret of correspondence, telephone,
postal, telegraph talks and other messages of a person without his/her
permission, is also confidential.
Personal data may not be used with purpose of causing damage to
person's property and reputation, difficulties of realization its right. Collected
data must be limited to necessary information. The information, which carries
strong probability of causing damage to a citizen's interests shouldn't be
collected.
There are some categories of personal information:
secret documents;
official department rules and instructions;
information, which is not to be made public in accordance with legislative
acts;
confidential business information;
information, which touches private life of a person;
information of financial institutions;
c) Development and production of informational systems.
All types of informational systems and networks, technologies and means
of their providing compose a special branch of economic activity, whose
development is defined by the state scientific, technological and industrial
policy of informatization.
State and non-state organizations and, of course, the citizens have equal
rights in terms of access to the development and producing of informational
systems, technologies.
Owner of informational systems
216
The informational systems, technologies and means of their providing can
be the property objects of juridical person, non-juridical person and state. The
owner of informational system is a person, who purchased these objects or got
as a gift, heredity or by any other legal way. The informational systems,
technologies and means of their providing can be considered as a good product,
if the producer rights are not broken. The owner of informational system
determines the using conditions of this product.
Copyrights and property rights
Copyrights and property rights on informational systems, technologies
and means of their providing can belong to different persons. The owner of
informational systems has to protect copyrights in accordance with legislation
Informational systems and databases, intended for citizens' and
organizations' informational service, are subjected to certification according to
the established custom.
The organizations, which work in the field of making design, producing
the means of informational protection and personal date treatment, must obtain
licensees to conduct such activity. The steps for obtaining license are defined
by the legislation.
Computer system and protection of information
a) Problem of information protection
The problem of information security is relatively new. Not all problems,
connected with it have been figured out and solved up to now. The fact of great
number of computer systems users means the definite risk to security because
not all clients will carry out the requirements of its providing.
The order of storage mediums should be clearly defined in legal acts and
envisage the complete safety of mediums, control over the work with
information, responsibility for unsanctioned access to mediums with a purpose
of copying, changing of destroying them and so on.
b) Legal aspects
There are some legal aspects of information protection, which can appear
due to not carefully thought or ill-intentioned use of computer technics:
legal questions of protection of informational massifs from distortions;
security of stored information from the unsanctioned access;
217
setting juridically fixed rules and methods of copyrights protection and
priorities of software producers;
development of measures for providing the juridical power to the
documents, which are given to the machines;
legal protection of the experts' interests, who pass their knowledge to the
databases;
setting of legal norms and juridical responsibility for using electronic
computer means in personal interests, which hurt other people and social
interests and can harm them;
The lack of appropriate registration and control, low level of work and
production personnel discipline, the access of an unauthorized persons to the
data base makes your computer vulnerable.
4. Match column A with column B
A
B
a.
в
соответствии
законодательством
1. information source
b. подлежать сертификации
2. to protect copyright
c.
разрушать
информации
3. information security
4. without s/b‘s permission
5. to be
certification
6. in
legislation
subjected
accordance
to
with
носители
d. без чьего-либо разрешения
e. информационная безопасность
f. защищать авторские права
g. устанавливать(ся),
определять(ся) законом
7. to be available
8. to be defined by the
legislation
h. законодательный документ
9. to
mediums
i. быть доступным
destroy
с
information
10. legislative act
j. источник информации
218
5. Read and give written translation of § b ―Legal aspects‖
6. Give summary of the text
219
Module 5. Nanotechnology
Unit 1
I. Read the text and find the terms consisting of the prefix «nano-».
II. Be ready to comment on the terms. Memorize them.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology comprises technological developments on the nanometer
scale, usually 0.1 to 100 nm (1/1,000 um, or 1/1,000,000 mm). This is about ten
thousand times smaller than the width of a hair. Nanotechnology is any
technology which exploits phenomena and structures that can only occur at the
nanometer scale, which is the scale of several atoms and small molecules. The
United States' National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) website defines it as
follows: "Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at
dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable
novel applications." Such phenomena include quantum confinement--which can
result in different electromagnetic and optical properties of a material between
nanoparticles and the bulk material; the Gibbs-Thomson effect--which is the
lowering of the melting point of a material when it is nanometers in size; and
such structures as carbon.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are an extension of the field of
materials science, and materials science departments at universities around the
world in conjunction with physics, mechanical engineering, bioengineering, and
chemical engineering departments are leading the breakthroughs in
nanotechnology. The related term nanotechnology is used to describe the
interdisciplinary fields of science devoted to the study of nanoscale phenomena
employed in nanotechnology. Nanoscience is the world of atoms, molecules,
macromolecules, quantum dots, and macromolecular assemblies, and is
dominated by surface effects such as Van der Waals force attraction, hydrogen
bonding, electronic charge, ionic bonding, соvalent bonding, hydrophilicity,
and quantum mechanical tunneling, to the virtual exclusion of macro-scale
effects such as turbulence and inertia. For example, the vastly increased ratio of
surface area to volume opens new possibilities in surface-based science, such as
catalysis.
History of use
The first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in
nanotechnology was in 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by
physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society. Feynman
220
described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and
molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and
operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale.
The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo Science University
Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as follows: '"Nano-technology'
mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation
of materials by one atom or one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this
definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. Eric Drexler, who promoted
the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through
speeches and the books.
What is Nanotechnology?
While many definitions for nanotechnology exist, the NNI calls it
"nanotechnology" only if it involves all of the following:
1. Research and technology development at the atomic, molecular or
macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1-100 nanometer
range.
2. Creating and using structures, devices and systems that have novel
properties and functions because of their small and/or intermediate size.
3. Ability to control or manipulate on the atomic scale.
III. Find in the dictionary Russian equivalents for the following English
words a word combinations. Read them correctly and memorize them:
phenomena and structures
at dimensions of
novel application
quantum confinement
breakthroughs
macromolecules
macromolecular assemblies
turbulence and inertia
precise fools
to promote the technological significance
221
to involve
approximately
to create structures
to manipulate on the atomic scale
IV. Give written translation of the paragraph «What is nanotechnology?»
Unit II
I. Read the text looking for the information about how nanotechnology
provides a renewed idea of welfare.
nanotechnologies - huge OPPORTUNITIES AND MANY UNKNOWNS
Renewing the world with nanotechnologies – New boost for
competitiveness and welfare Evolution of nanotechnologies and their
opportunitiess for citizens and welfare.
Dr. F. Roure, French ministry of economy, finance and industry.
The development of nanotechnologies has opened the way to major
scientific discoveries and consequently pushed innovation forward in fields of
increasing complexitiy, from already available synthetic nanoparticles and
nanomaterials, to nanosystems and networks of nano-enabled systems
tomorrow.
Nanotechnology-enabled and converging transformational technologies
bring with them an entirely new, unthought world with huge potential
advantages for the people, as well as potential hyperchoice. The conditions of a
fair competition amongst stakeholders - private as well as public ones- leading
to better, sustainable and appropriate technical solutions at more affordable
price, may not be spontaneously provided. Nanotechnologies exports control,
industrial secrecy and intellectual property rights models, inherited from the
industrial revolution need, to be redesigned for a knowledge-based society, as
well as the ways and means by which democracies sort out the acceptable
finalities of nano-enhanced progress, from the ones requiring repressive
measures.
Nanotechnology-based, green-house gas effect neutral energy
technologies, nanofiltration for bringing drinkable water to the 2.3 billion
people who lack it, raw materials scarcity, nano-enabled security and safety
222
technologies of surveillance and tracking/tracing technologies compliant with
privacy and human rights, pervasive mobility and ubiquity allowed by
nanoelectronics, sustainable mind and body functionalities provided by
nanodevices for medicine, are providing a renewed idea of welfare. The already
hanging fruits in those domains should be fairly presented to the consumers,
and appropriate regulations, if duly rooted upon the pilars of environmental and
societal risk assessments, are expected to strengthening the co-evolution of
quality of life and of the industrial production on a world-wide basis.
Public "metrics", statistics and economic indicators are lacking behind the
on-going production and trade expansion related to nanotechnologies, leaving
researchers and the public authorities with interesting, but partial and onerous
estimations of markets and activities, offered under private responsibility.
Foresight, strategic planning and public policies would benefit from a quick and
significant improvement of state-of-the-art publicly available datas and
assessment methodologies, in order to define appropriate evaluation and a joint,
global governance framework.
Facing major initiatives in the Asia-Pacific areas as well as in North
America, supported by private funding from research to seed and venture
capital as well as by public precompetitive research and procurement fundings,
the European stakeholders, living in an ageing area, may consider sustainable
development and social welfare requirements as valuable cultural incentives for
promoting an internationally competitive supply of european industrial
nanotechnologies and nano-enabled goods and services.
II. Add to your list of words with the prefix «nano-» some new words
from this text. Comment on them. Learn them.
III. Find the corresponding English equivalents in the text. Read them
correctly a memorize them.
открыть путь
ускорить инновационный процесс
огромные преимущества в будущем
честное соревнование
общество, базирующееся на знании
основанный на нанотехнологии
нехватка сырья
223
технология наблюдения и прослеживания
отставать от
предвидение
извлекать пользу, выгоду
устойчивое развитие
необходимые условия социального обеспечения
IV. Answer the following questions.
1. How has the development of nanotechnologies pushed innovation
forward?
2. What will strengthen the coevolution of quality of life?
3. Statistics and economic indicators are not lacking behind the on –
going production, are they?
V. Write a summary on the text.
Unit III
I. Read the text looking for the essence of the inverse electron spin
resonance process and its value.
Microchip miniaturisation barrier could be broken by nanotechnology
A project that could remove the electrical wiring in microchips, allowing
denser circuitry, could result in computers with 500 times the power of present
day technology. The University of Bath is to lead an international £555,000
three-year project to develop the wireless silicon chip system. As microchip
circuits are made smaller to increase processing power they approach a limit
imposed by the need to use electric wiring, which weakens signals sent between
computer components at high speed. Wireless systems are in widespread use in
mobile phones, Bluetooth gadgets, Wi-fi computers etc, but the electronics that
create and use wireless signals are too large to be used within individual
microchips successfully. The research project, which involves four universities
in the UK and a university and research centre in Belgium and France, will look
at ways of producing microwave energy on a small scale by firing electrons into
magnetic fields produced in semiconductors that are only a few atoms wide and
are layered with magnets. The process, called inverse electron spin resonance,
uses the magnetic field to deflect electrons and to modify their magnetic
224
direction. This creates oscillations of the electrons which makes them produce
microwave energy. This can then be used to broadcast electric signals in free
space without the weakening caused by wires.
We can only go so far in getting more power from silicon chips by
shrinking their components &mdash; conventional technology is already
reaching the physical limits of materials it uses, such as copper wiring, and its
evolution will come to a halt.&ldquo; But if this research is successful, it could
make computers with wireless semi-conductors a possibility within five or ten
years of the end of the project. Then computers could be made anything from
200 to 500 times quicker and still be the same size; This research may also
improve the accuracy and speed of medical diagnostics by gathering data from
health monitoring sensors. The microwave emitters are small enough to be
integrated on portable biological sensors which feed information out on faulty
biological processes. The research is not only practical, but beautiful in its
theoretical simplicity, which is one of the big attractions for the physicists
working on it; The project is the only one which aims to create wireless emitters
and receivers that fit on semiconductor wafers, where individual devices are
one ten thousandth of a millimetre in size. It will also allow the creation of
integrated circuits which will still continue to work properly even if some of its
connections fail &mdash; the system can be programmed to reroute itself so
that it can continue working. At present a failure in a connecting wire can put
an integrated circuit out of action. In the manufacture of today&rsquo;s
integrated circuits there is no room for error, and so anufactui ers must spend
large amounts of money to build dust-free clean rooms. The advantage of the
new more flexible system is that only 95% or so of the electronic components
would need to work for the chip to work properly. Such chips would be many
times cheaper to produce.
Posted by Nano News July, 10, 2006
II. Finish the following phrases:
1. Of this research is successful … .
2. The research is not only practical … .
3. The advantage of the new more flexible system is … .
Translate the sentences in writing.
III. Answer the following questions.
1. Why are wireless systems so important?
225
2. How will microware energy on a small scale be produced?
3. How will then computers be changed?
4. At present a failure in a connecting wire cannot put an integrated
circuit out of action, can it?
5. How can this failure be avoided?
IV. Comment on the title of the article.
unit IV
I. Read the text looking for the information about ferroelectric
polarization and how it influences an electrical field.
Faster, lighter computers possible with nanotechnology
Smaller, lighter computers and an end to worries about electrical failures
sending hours of onscreen work into an inaccessible limbo mark the potential
result of Argonne research on tiny ferroelectric crystals.
"Tiny" means billionths of a meter, or about 1/5OOth the width of a
human hair. These nanomaterials behave differently than their larger bulk
counterparts. Argonne researchers have learned that they are more chemically
reactive, exhibit new electronic properties and can be used to create materials
that are stronger, tougher and more resistant to friction and wear than bulk
materials.
Improved nano-engineered ferroelectric crystals could realize a 50-yearold dream of creating nonvolatile random access memory (NVRAM). The first
fruits of it can be seen in Sony's PlayStation 2 and in smart cards now in use in
Brazil, China and Japan. A simple wave of a smart card identifies personnel or
pays for gas or public transportation.
Computing applications
RAM – random access memory – is used when someone enters
information or gives a command to the computer. It can be written to as well as
read but – with standard commercial technology – holds its content only while
powered by electricity.
Argonne materials scientists have created and are studying nanoscale
crystals of ferroelectric materials that can be altered by an electrical field and
retain any changes.
226
Ferroelectric materials – so called, because they behave similarly to
ferromagnetic materials even though they don't generally contain iron – consist
of crystals whose low symmetry causes spontaneous electrical polarization
along one or more of their axes. The application of voltage can change this
polarity. Ferroelectric crystals can also change mechanical to electrical energythe piezoelectric effect - or electrical energy to optical effects.
A strong external electrical field can reverse the plus and minus poles of
ferroelectric polarization. The crystals hold their orientation until forced to
change by another applied electric field. Thus, they can be coded as binary
memory, representing "zero" in one orientation and "one" in the other.
Because the crystals do not revert spontaneously, RAM made with them
would not be erased should there be a power failure. Laptop computers would
no longer need back-up batteries, permitting them to be made still smaller and
lighter. There would be a similar impact on cell phones.
Achieving such permanence is a long-standing dream of the computer
industry.
"Companies such as AT&T, Ford, IBM, RCA and Westinghouse Electric
made serious efforts to develop non-volatile RAMs in the 1950s, but couldn't
achieve commercial use," said Argonne researcher Orlando Auciello. "Back
then, NVRAMs were based on expensive ferroelectric single crystals, which
required substantial voltage to switch their polarity. This, and cross talk
inherent in the then recently devised row matrix address concept, made them
impractical.
"Working on the nanoscale changes this," said Auciello. "It means higher
density memories with faster speeds and megabyte (the amount of memory
needed to store one million characters of information) - or even gigabyte (one
billion bytes) - capacity. It's not clear how soon such capacity will be available,
but competition is heavy, stakes are high, and some companies claim they will
have the first fruits of this research within two years."
II. Find the text English equivalents to the following Russian words and
word combinations. Read them correctly and memorize them.
в реальном времени
недоступный
крошечный
кристаллический диэлектрик
227
проявлять свойства
сопротивляться трению и износу
усовершенствованный
воплотить в жизнь
энергонезависимое запоминающее устройство
снабжаться электричеством
измениться под влиянием электрического поля
сохранять изменения
стихийная электрическая поляризация
менять направление
нуждаться в батарейной поддержке
III. Comment on the following statement of the author «Achieving such
permanence is a long – standing dream of the computer industry».
IV. Answer the following questions:
1. Why is the creation of nonvolatile random access memory so
important?
2. What are the possibilities of ferroelectric materials?
3. Why does the author think that stakes are high? Prove it.
V. Give summary of the article.
unit V
I. Read the text trying to understand the title of the article.
Closeness breeds material changes
Such proximity effects – changes in material behavior because the
materials are so close -show up in giant magneto-resistance, a phenomenon
discovered in 1988 and used in computer hard drives. Tiny magnetic bits are
hard to read individually, but interleaved nanolayers of cobalt, copper, iron and
chromium show substantial changes in resistance in magnetic fields because the
layers are so close together. IBM and the magnetic recording industry have
used this to create ultrasensitive hard-drive read mechanisms. "The nano228
community looks at a wide range of phenomena," said Sam Bader, Argonne
senior physicist and coordinator of a new research initiative in nanomagnetic
research that DOE recently approved for funding at a rate of $1.2 million a
year. "It includes atoms, molecules and small clusters, and carries forward some
existing technologies – such as semiconductors – by understanding bulk
materials from a micro-structural view.
"We want to know how properties change at the smaller scales and are
finding new effects, some of which are commercially viable. Nanoscience
draws some of its importance from how quickly we've been able to turn these
into technological applications."
The nanomagnetism initiative provides an interdisciplinary framework to
help stage the next advance in complex materials research. It takes a broad
approach, working with materials that fall from around one micron (one
millionth of a meter) in size to less than 10 nanometers. As the scale decreases,
the dominant physics changes, and new materials, properties and applications
emerge.
Bader suggested that the computer world might one day be based in
magnetic properties instead of electrical. This might make it possible to build
computers with architectures that could be restructured depending on the task of
the moment. The same machine could be configured like a Macintosh for tasks
that a Mac operating system performs best and like a PC when Windows OS is
preferable.
Also possible could be magnetic configurations that would not be limited
by binary logic, making them more like the human brain. "This is far away, but
promising," Bader said.
Studies on the nanoscale could lead to better bulk magnets and more
efficient motors with consequent savings in the use of fossil fuels. It may also
become possible to incorporate magnetic molecules in polymers, creating
plastics that could be used where traditional magnets cannot, for example in
certain corrosive environments.
II. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words and work
combinations. Read them correctly and memorize them:
proximity effect
magneto – resistance
tiny magnetic bits
229
interleaved nanolayers
ultrasensitive hard – drive read mechanism
nano – community
nano – magnetic research
interdisciplinary framework
complex materials research
to take a broad approach
to emerge
magnetic configurations
binary logic
consequent savings
corrosive environment
III. Comment on the following statements:
1. The computer world might one day be based on magnetic properties
instead of electrical.
2. This is far away but promising.
3. Studies on the nanoscale could lead to better bulk magnets.
IV. Answer the following question:
How will materials change in the near future?
Unit VI
I. Read the text looking for the information about adverse effects of
engineered NP.
Nanomaterials – Potential Risks for Human Health and the Environment
Exposures to airborne nano-sized particles (particles <100 nm) have been
experienced by humans throughout their evolutionary stages. Most recently, the
rapidly developing field of nanotechnology is likely to become yet another
source for human exposures to nano-sized particles – engineered NP – by
different routes, i.e., inhalation, ingestion, dermal or even injection.
Nanotechnology is defined as research and technology development at the
230
atomic, molecular or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of-1-100 nm
range. One of the many promising applications of engineered nanoparticles
(NP) is in the area of medicine, for example, targeted drug delivery as aerosols
and to tissues which are difficult to reach. The discipline of nanomedicine has
arisen to develop, test, and optimize these applications. However, the same
properties that makes NP attractive for development in nanomedicine and for
specific industrial processes could also prove deleterious when NP interact with
cells. An emerging discipline -nanotoxicology, which can be defined as safety
evaluation of engineered nanostructures and nanodevices - is gaining increased
attention. Nanotoxicology research will not only provide information for risk
assessment of NP based on data for hazard identification, dose response
relationships and biokinetics, but will also help to advance further the field of
nanomedicine by providing information to alter undesirable NP properties.
Although potential adverse effects of engineered NP have not been
systematically investigated, there are a number of studies in the area of
inhalation toxicology and also human epidemiology from which some
preliminary conclusions about effects of nano-sized particles can be drawn.
There are also some decades-old – mostly forgotten – studies with nano-sized
particles which shed light on the biokinetics of such particles once introduced
into the organism. This presentation summarizes results of studies with nanosized particles with a focus on the respiratory tract and skin as portals-of-entry.
Examples of translocation and effects of nano-sized particles and presumed
mechanisms will be highlighted. They illustrate, on the one hand, that we need
to be aware of possible acute adverse effects and potential long-term
consequences; on the other hand, the findings also give us ideas about the
intriguing possibilities that NP offer for potential use as diagnostic tools or as
therapeutic delivery systems. A thorough evaluation of desirable vs. adverse
effects is required for the safe use of engineered NP, and major challenges lie
ahead to answer key questions of nanotoxicology, foremost being the
assessment of human and environmental exposure, the identification of
potential hazards (toxicity vs. benefit), and the biopersistence in cells and
subcellular structures. Results so far demonstrate that the highly desirable
properties of nanoparticles, which makes them attractive as medicinal aerosols,
as well as their potential to induce toxicity, depend not only on their size but on
a variety of surface properties. To establish the principles that govern
interactions of nanomaterials with cells and the environment will be a major
challenge for future research.
For the near-term, critics of nanotechnology point to the potential toxicity
of new classes of nanosubstances that could adversely affect the stability of cell
membranes or disturb the immune system when inhaled, digested or absorbed
231
through the skin. Objective risk assessment can profit from the bulk of
experience with long-known microscopic materials like carbon soot or asbestos
fibres. Nanoparticles in the environment could potentially accumulate in the
food chain.
An often cited worst-case scenario is "grey goo", a hypothetical substance
into which the surface of the earth might be transformed by self-replicating
nanobots running amok. This concept has been analyzed by Freitas in "Some
Limits to Global Ecophagy by Biovorbus Nanoreplicators, with Public Policy
Recommendations"
Societal risks from the use of nanotechnology have also been raised, such
as hypothetical nanotech weapons (e.g., a nanomachine that consumed the
rubber in tires would quickly disable many vehicles), and in the creation of
undetectable surveillance capabilities.
Nanotechnofogy covers a wide range of industries, and therefore the
potential benefits are also widespread. Telecommunications and Information
technology could benefit in terms of faster computers and advanced data
storage.
Healthcare could see improvements in skin care and protection, advanced
pharmaceuticals, drug delivery systems, biocompatible materials, nerve and
tissue repair, and cancer treatments.
Other industries benefits include catalysts, sensors and magnetic materials
and devices.
G. Oberdorster, Rochester. NY, USA
II. Comment on the following statements:
«A thorough evaluation of desirable vs. adverse effects is required for the
safe use of engineered NP …»
III. Answer the following question:
Which worries you more: potential benefits or potential risks of
nanotechnology?
Cloze Test
I. Learn 100 terms connected with hi – tech. Be ready to pronounce them
correctly and give their translations.
232
II. Write an essay on the theme «Nanotechnology is coming. Should
mankind welcome it?»
III. Present it to your groupmates.
233
Module 6. ESP Grammar
ESP GRAMMAR
Информационная
программа
Алгоритм чтения английского предложения
№
1.
1. Определить, является ли данное предложение простым или
сложным.
2. Разделить предложение на две части: на группу подлежащего и
группу сказуемого. Граница между ними проходит перед глаголом в
личной форме с явными глагольными признаками /наличие
вспомогательных глаголов to be, to have, shall, will, модальных глаголов
и их эквивалентов/ или с омонимичными признаками /т.е. слова с
суффиксами -ed,-ing,-s/.
3. Выделить глагол-сказуемое /установить наличие смысловых
глаголов и вспомогательных глаголов.
4. Разделить группу сказуемого на глагол-сказуемое, дополнения и
обстоятельства.
5. Определить подлежащее в группе подлежащего.
6. Выделить
в
группе
правосторонние определения.
подлежащего
левосторонние
и
7. Определить наличие оборотов /причастных, инфинитивных или
герундиальных/.
8. Соотнести найденное подлежащее со сказуемым.
Ex. I. Analyse the following sentences according to the above given
scheme.
Translate them:
Nanotechnology is any technology which exploits phenomena and
structures that can only occur at the nano-meter scale, which is the scale of
several atoms and small molecules.
234
If the recipient, thinking the link is from a friend (a trusted sources)
follows the link to the website, the virus hosted at the site may be able to
infect this new computer and continue propagating.
The fact of great number of computer systems users means the definite
risk to security because not all clients will carry out the requirements of its
providing.
The lack of appropriate registration and control, low level of work and
production personnel discipline, the access of an unauthorized person to the
data base makes your computer vulnerable.
Информационная
программа
Алгоритм распознавания неявного сказуемого
№
2.
1. Слово без окончания -s следует признать глаголом в Present
Indefinite, если оно занимает второе место в предложении по
отношению к подлежащему, которое выражено либо именем
существительным во множественном числе, либо заменяющем его
местоимением.
2. Слово с окончанием -s, -es является глаголом в форме Present
Indefinite,
если оно стоит после подлежащего, которое выражено
именем
существительным в единственном числе,
местоимением, заменяющем его,
герундием, инфинитивом.
3. Слово с окончанием -ed следует признать сказуемым,
выраженным глаголом в форме Past Indefinite, если оно занимает второе
место в предложении по отношению к подлежащему. Справа от него
обычно следует дополнение. Если же в предложении друг за другом
следуют два слова с окончанием –ed, то сказуемым будет второе слово:
all the instruments required arrived in time.
-s (-es)
1. Множественное число существительного
2. 3 лицо ед. число Present Simple
235
3. –‘s или -s‘ — притяжательный падеж существительного
4. Абсолютная форма притяжательного местоимения (ours, yours,
…)
5. В словах латинского и греческого происхождения, в которых –s
в конце слова не является показателем множественного числа (radiusрадиус, a series-ряд и т.п.)
-ed
1. Past Simple
2. Past Participle (3 форма глагола)
3. to be + Past Participle = Passive Voice
4. to have + Past Participle = Perfect Tense
Ex. I. Define the predicate in the following sentences. Translate the
sentences:
l. The relations described explained some important results.
2. The collision of electrons with a plate results in heat.
3. Evaporating advances if we raise the temperature of water.
4. This forces a body to move in a definite direction.
5. The changed particles often pick up speed.
6. Adding more turns makes the magnetic field stronger.
7. This results in a further reduction in weight.
8. On being heated these salts decompose.
9. The experimental evidence supported the predicted properties of the
new elements.
10. Pass a current through a coil and it turns.
11. Explain why the charged particles often pick up speed.
12. Тhе task set was not an easy one.
236
13. The scientists spoken about at the last conference took part in the
international congress of wave propagation problems.
14. The latest model now being tested accounts for many of the
previously unknown phenomena.
15. The results obtained showed the stability of the system under
conditions given above.
237
Информационная
Страдательный залог
программа
№3.
Особенности перевода английских страдательных оборотов
1.
Координата S была отмечена знаком;
S – coordinate was given a sign.
Координата S помечалась знаком;
Координату S пометили знаком;
/им. вин. дат. предложн./
2. V Passive + предлог
R: предложное дополнение, предлог ставится перед подлежащим.
These measurements were referred to at the conference.
Об этих измерениях шла речь на конференции.
3. V Passive + by, with
R: отношение творительного, родит., пад.
The laboratory is equipped with automatic machinery.
Лаборатория оборудована автоматическими механизмами.
The conductor is acted upon by the field.
Проводник подвергается воздействию поля.
Ex. I. Translate the sentences paying attention to possible variants of
translation.
1. Friction is affected by the degree of smoothness or roughness of the
bearing surface.
2. Difficulties are often met with in solving the systems of automatic
control.
3. Scientists were offered to determine the composition of the new
substance obtained.
238
4. The collaboration of Russian and American space-scientists is much
commented upon in many newspapers.
5. When molecules of even a good insulator are acted upon by an
electric field there is a motion of electrons due to this field.
6. Colour television is being constantly developed.
7. A convenient graphical construction may be used to find the output
components for any operation.
8. Prospects for colour TV and the use of space communication for
colour and super-long-distance transmissions were spoken about at the
scientist conference.
9. The last experimental results were constantly referred to by the
professor in his lecture.
10. The success of exploration of the outer space is greatly influenced
by the researches carried out by the space laboratories of the Salute type.
Ex. II. Choose the correct translation:
1. I was shown a recent article on radiowave propagation problems by
my coworker.
a) Я показал моему коллеге последнюю статью по проблемам
распространения радиоволн.
b) Мне показали последнюю статью моего коллеги по проблемам
распространения радиоволн.
c) Я показал последнюю статью моего коллеги по проблемам
распространения радиоволн.
2. The devices must be sent for as soon as possible.
а) Приборы следует отправить как можно скорее.
b) За приборами следует послать как можно скорее.
c) Приборы следовало отправить как можно скорее.
3 John was answered by the telegram on the same day.
239
а) Джон ответил на телеграмму в тот же день
b) Джон ответил телеграммой в тот же день.
c) Джону ответили телеграммой в тот же день.
4. The team discussed the method insisted upon by head of the
laboratory.
a) Группа и завлаб обсудили метод и настояли на его применении.
b) Завлаб настоял на том, что группе следовало бы обсудить этот
метод.
c) Группа обсудила метод, на котором настаивал завлаб.
5. During the test the substance was found as corrosive.
a) Во время испытания они обнаружили коррозирующее вещество.
b) Во время испытания было обнаружено, что вещество
подверглось
коррозии.
c) Вещество было обнаружено во время испытания, потому оно
подверглось коррозии.
Информационная
программа
Логическое выделение. Эмфатические конструкции
№4.
1. Формальное there + сказуемое
There worked many specialists at this problem.
Над этой проблемой работали многие специалисты.
Выделяемый член предложения
2. Формальные it is (was)
...... that
(who,which,where)
R: именно, как раз, только тогда, только и.т.п.
240
1) It is the energy of motion of the particles in random direction that
constitutes heat. - Именно энергия движения частиц в беспорядочных
направлениях представляет собой теплоту.
2) It is in the nuclear reactor that isotopes are born.
- Как раз в ядерном реакторе рождаются изотопы.
3. Инверсия (обратный порядок слов) в условных предложениях
were I you = if I were you
had he been here = if he had been here
could one find = if one could find
Were there no loss of energy by friction, the motion would continue
indefinitely once it had been started. - Если бы не было потери энергии на
трение, движение продолжалось бы бесконечно долго ( коль скоро) раз
уж оно началось.
Had the checking up of the experimental data not taken so much time,
we should have completed our work long ago. - Если бы проверка
экспериментальных данных не заняла столько времени, мы бы давно
уже закончили нашу работу.
4. Эмоциональное выделение членов предложения
То this class of substance belong mica, porcelain, quartz, glass, wood,
ebonite.
- К такому роду веществ принадлежат: слюда, фарфор, кварц,
стекло, дерево, эбонит.
Ex. I. Translate the following sentences:
1. It was the development or nanotechnology that the article dealt with.
2. Copper does not combine with cold oxygen but it does do so when
heated.
3. Had it not been for a large size of this body we should have already
weighed it.
4. Nowhere can we see such rapid progress as in information
technology.
241
5. Surrounding this nucleus are electrons, the actual number depending
upon the atom being considered.
6. Carbon dioxide does not burn, nor does it support combustion.
7. Radioactive phenomena occur within the nucleus and it is here that
mass and positive charge resides.
8. You could not walk if there were not some friction. Neither could
you stop if you were moving.
9. Had he taken into account the properties of the substance under
investigation he would have been careful when working with it.
10. It is by means of solar cells that solar radiation can be converted
directly into electric power.
11. Considered in the next section are the most important reactions of
this type.
12. It was not until 1974 that this journal was available in our library.
13. Should the conference be held in N. Novgorod the students will be
able to attend it.
Информационная
Инфинитив
программа
№5.
1. Функция обстоятельства цели:
То know English well you must work hard.
R: Для того, чтобы. Чтобы ...
2. Функция определения:
The new channel to be constructed here will be the longest in the
country. Новый канал, который будет здесь построен, будет самым
длинным в стране.
R: Перевод: определительное придаточное
оттенком будущности или долженствования.
предложение
с
3. Субъектный инфинитивный оборот :
242
ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ + ГЛАГОЛ-СКАЗУЕМОЕ
The lecture was said
+ ИНФИНИТИВ
to be very interesting
Говорили, что лекция была очень интересной.
R: Перевод: Начинать с глагола-сказуемого: неопределенноличное предложение "Говорят. Известно. Кажется. Предполагают.
Считают. Сообщают, что …"
Passive
is said
• Говорят,...
is supposed
• Предполагают. ...
is expected
• Ожидают. ...
is assumed
• Допускают, ...
is reported
• Сообщают. ...
is considered
• Считают. ...
is proved
• Доказано. ...
is found etc.
• Найдено, .... и т.д.
Active
seems
• По-видимому,
appears, turns out, proves
• Оказывается, ..
is likely
• Вероятно, ...
is unlikely
• Маловероятно,
is sure
• Безусловно, ...
is certain
• Непременно, ...
4. Объектный инфинитивный оборот
243
А. ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ
ДОПОЛН.+ИНФИНИТИВ
I
Перевод
Я
Не
Перевод
Он
В. ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ
ДОПОЛН.+ИНФИНИТИВ
+
ГЛАГОЛ-СКАЗУЕМОЕ
know
him
physics
знаю, что
ОН
физику
to
study
изучает
wants
me to help him
хочет, чтобы
Я помог ему
+
+
ГЛАГОЛ-СКАЗУЕМОЕ
+
без "to"
see
her come in
hear
feel
watch
notice
make( заставить)
Пе
ревод:
вижу
Я
как
ОНА
входит
Ex. I. Translate the following phrases
the new problem to be solved
the new device to be introduced
the theory to be considered
the instrument to be used
the experiment to be carried out
the question to be answered
244
the valuable information to be collected
the new branches of industry to be developed
the reason to be taken into consideration
the idea to be thoroughly discussed
the reliability to be achieved
the point to be reached
the information to be stored
the technologies to be used
Ex. II. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the
function of the Infinitive constructions
1. Industrial electronic equipment is known to play a very important
role today.
2. In lightning electricity seems to jump through the space.
3. Today any electric current is believed to consist of countless
numbers of electrons.
4. Electronic equipment is sure to find an ever growing application.
5. Rubber is known to be brought from America.
6. The XX century is considered to be the century of space travels.
7. Tire volt is known to be the unit of measure for electrical force.
8 The nucleus is said to be positively charged because the center part of
the atom ways consists of protons and neutrons only.
9. Atomic ice breakers are known to operate on a negligible quantity of
atomic fuel. 10. The two scientists happened to work at the same problem.
Ex. III. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the
Infinitive constructions
1. We know them to be working at the problem of protection the
cosmonauts from tire effect of Sun radiation.
245
2. Scientists proved electrical energy to be released from matter by
chemical reaction, heat, electromagnetic induction and friction.
3. We know iron molecules to be magnets at all times.
4. Numerous experiments proved the atom to be electrically neutral.
5. We know television to be widely used both in everyday life and
industry.
6. Television requires pictures to be sent by means of electricity.
7. Diffraction experiments show gamma rays to be electromagnetic
waves.
8. Investigations of the properties of radioactivity showed the strength
of radiation to be independent of any external physical influences.
9. The head of the research department thought him to have taken part
in the experiment.
10. The engineer expected the work to be done in time.
11. It is possible for a single force to produce the same effect as a
couple.
12. It required some more experiments for the scientist to prove the
correctness of the results obtained.
Ex. IV. Translate the following sentences with the Infinitives
1. For a system to be in complete equilibrium it is necessary that there
be mechanical equilibrium.
2. Copper to be used for tubing has high corrosion resistant qualities.
3. The name "electronics" is known to be derived from the word
"electron", the electron itself being the basic unit of negative electricity and
all electric currents consisting of electrons in motion.
4. Bodies like the Sun and other sources of light with which we are
familiar are said to be "self-luminous" since they emit light of their own
accord.
5. If we double the force pushing the electrons around a circuit we
expect them to move twice as fast.
246
6. To shorten the time to perform instructions, it is desirable to perform
as many operations as possible in parallel.
Информационная
Причастие
программа
№6.
Table 1
Participle I
I
Active
n changing
Participle II
Passive
changed
being changed
1.
Определение:
1.
Определение:
d 1.
Определение:
изменяющийся,
изменяемый,
e
изменяющий (ся), изменяемый,
измененный
f (-вший) ся
i
n 2.
Обстоятельство:
i
изменяя
(сь)
который изменяется
2. Обстоятельство:
будучи измененным
когда
изменили
так
изменили
t
e
P having
changed
having been changed
e Обстоятельс
тво:
Обстоятельство:
r изменив
(шись)
2. Обстоятельство:
когда
изменили;
(его)
как
(его)
(его)
f
после того, как (его)
e
изменили
с
247
t
Независимый причастный оборот
1. ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ + ПРИЧАСТИЕ
СКАЗУЕМОЕ
The work
-
ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ +
being finished,
they
went home.
Перевод: Так как; Если; Поскольку; После того, как ...
2. ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ + СКАЗУЕМОЕ
ПРИЧАСТИЕ
The new method
being obtained.
was tried,
-
ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ +
better results
Перевод: ... а, и, но, причем
Ex. I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the
Absolute Participial Constructions.
1. Most metals are good conductors of heat, silver and copper being
outstandingly good.
2. Heat can be transmitted by conduction, metals being the best
conductors.
3. Electrical energy being released, a force called electromotive force
(e.m.f.) is developed.
4. The experiment having been made, everybody was interested in the
results.
5. Mendeleev discovered the Periodic Law of Elements, the Table of
Elements
248
bearing his name.
6. No essential results having been obtained, the scientists had to carry
out some more experiments.
7. The element 101 having been discovered, American scientists called
it
"mendelevium" to honour Mendeleev's name.
8. Pierre and Marie Curie discovered radium and polonium, the latter
being named after Marie's native land.
9. All the waves in a lazer beam having the same wavelength, it has a
very definite colour.
10. Having explained these structure and mechanics of the Universe
Newton laid down the law of Universal Gravitation.
11. The atoms within the neon tube are constantly "pumped" to an
excited state; then they fall back, loosing energy and radiating visible light.
Информационная
Герундий
программа
№7.
Герундий – это неличная форма глагола, совмещающая в себе
свойства глагола и существительного и дающая отвлечѐнное понятие о
действии, не указывая на лицо, число и наклонение.
Видовременные формы герундия
Table 2
Действительный залог
Страдательный залог
Indefinite
being asked (being + V3)
Perfect
asking (V-ing)
having
(having+V3)
asked
having been asked
(having been + V3)
249
Способы перевода герундия на русский язык
Table 3
Примеры
Перевод
Узнав о новости, …
On being told the news he sent a
telegram.
He waited for them
thinking of time.
…, не думая о ...
without
Заучивать...
Learning rules without examples is
useless.
... учить ...
He began learning Russian.
We always enjoy traveling.
I never thought of being offered this
... путешествовать
путешествие
... о том,
предложат ...
job.
что
/
мне
Герундий в функции обстоятельства употребляется с предлогами
in, on, upon, after, with(out), by.
Предлог in означает процесс в его развернутости
In making such experiments...
Производя опты …
Предлог on - завершѐнность процесса.
On making the experiment...
Закончив эксперимент …
Ex. I. Read and translate
No changes can be made in that branch of industry without introducing
the most up-to-date technology.
There is no hope of our getting a complete analysis of the
measurements within 10 days.
250
Before going further it is desirable to outline some of the basic features
of control system.
Upon breaking the magnet into still shorter pieces we still get complete
magnets.
Breaking the circuit causes sparking.
We were informed of their having adopted this plan because of its
being the most efficient.
Being highly accurate the meter is of great importance for getting the
necessary data.
In considering power in electrical circuit one should remember of all
electrical devices having resistance.
Ex. II. Define the function of the ―-ing‖ forms and translate the
sentences
On melting a solid body a change of state takes place.
The new equipment must go through a number of tests after its being
completed.
Turbines drive about 95% of all generators producing electrical power.
After reaching the boiling point the water temperature cannot be
increased in spite of our adding more heat.
Being highly accurate the meter is of great importance for getting the
necessary data.
The ―active medium‖ of the material responsible for transferring energy
is the free electron.
Faraday‘s discovery being very important, every application of
electricity in modern life depends upon it.
There are many kinds of vacuum tubes now in use, the simplest being
the diode.
Being tested this device showed the desired results.
A certain amount of work is necessary for moving an electron in a
metal from the Fermi level to ―infinity‖.
251
Информационная
Условные предложения
программа
№8.
I. РЕАЛЬНО: If I have time I shall carry out this experiment.
Если у меня будет время, я проведу этот
эксперимент.
II.
МАЛОВЕРОЯТНО
сослаг.наклон=Future in the Past
возможно
теоретически,
но
практически
cослаг.наклон.=Past
Indef.
If I had lime I should carry out this
experiment.
не
Если бы у меня было время, я бы провел
этот эксперимент.
(бы)
If I were you ...
Если бы я был на твоем месте ...
III.
НЕОСУЩЕСТВИМО
сослаг.наклон.=should, would+Perfect
(бы)
cослаг.накл.=Past
Perfect
If you had informed me beforehand I should
have carried out this experiment.
Если бы вы предупредили меня заранее, я
бы провел этот эксперимент.
* В придаточных предложениях условия и времени будущее время
не используется.
Кроме "if" могут использоваться союзы:
252
unless - если...не
in case - в случае, если
provided (that) - при условии, если /что/
on condition (that) - -//- -//- -//even though - даже если
suppose- предположим, что; предполагая, что
supposing
Ex. I. Translate the following sentences
1. If they could solve this problem themselves they would not ask you
to help them.
2. Had he taken into account the properties of the substance under
investigation he would have been careful when working with it.
3. If one knew the dimensions of the body one would easily calculate
its volume.
4. Should the anode grow too hot you must decrease the power of the
transmitter.
5. Magnetism is very often treated as if it were a subject as fundamental
as electricity.
6. It would be worth while investigating the substance mentioned,
provided we could get it in sufficient quantity.
7. If we had a really pure insulator it could not be heated.
8. Had this warning been taken into account the reaction might have
taken quite a different turn.
9. Provided one knows the rate of the emission one can determine the
range of the particles.
10. But for the luminosity of this substance it would be difficult to
detect its properties.
11. Unless the cathode С is water-cooled it will overheat and emit
gases.
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12. If a compass needle were sensitive enough it would swing back and
forth as the waves went on.
13. Had it not been for a large size of this body we should have already
weighed it.
14. The volume of nitrogen was more than sixteen times what it would
have been if it had behaved as an ideal gas.
Информационная
Цепочка определений
программа
№9.
Table 4
Артикль
Существительное
роли определения
в
Определяемое
существительное
(опорное)
the
саг
speed
the
car speed
calculation
the
car speed calculation
problem
Note: существительное, к которому относится артикль, является
опорным в этой цепочке. С него рекомендуется начинать перевод
цепочки определений: проблема вычисления скорости (движения)
автомобиля.
the magnetic field intensity - напряженность магнитного поля
the cylinder wall - стенка цилиндра
Ex. I. Read and translate the following word combinations
noise generator
radiowave radiation
wave intensity
transmission line
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wave power
frequency transformation
false-alarm probability
spectral line shape
power consumption change
error-operated system
Информационная
Многозначные слова (Polysemy)
программа
№10.
one (ones)
1 Не has given me one of his
. books
- числительное
2 One must always observe
формальное
подлежащее;
. traffic rules.
неопределенно-личное пр-е
3 He hasn't got a TV, he
-слово-заместитель; может и не
. wants to buy one.
переводиться
4 One must always keep one's
. word.
- "свой, -я, -ѐ"
that (those)
1 Give me that book, please.
.
2 The work of the new device
. is much
more efficient than that of
the old one.
3 Spaceship
. distances that
can
cover
- указат. местоbм. " та", "то",
"тот" (множ. число)
- слово-заместитель; может и не
переводиться
- относительное местоимение
255
are measured in millions of
kilometers.
4 He said that he would do
. his best to help them.
"который, -ая. -ое"
- союз "что"
5 That he failed in his
- союз "то, что" придат. подлеж. и
. examination did not surprise придат. сказуем.
anybody.
shall
1 We
shall
. examination in
take
an
- вспомогательный глагол
будущее время, 1 л., ед. и мн. ч.
physics in June.
- модальный глагол со значением
2 You shall not say so.
.
долженствования 2 л. и 3 л
утвердит, и
отрицат. пр-е
will
1 He will go there tomorrow.
.
- вспомогат.
будущее время.
глагол,
выраж.
2 и 3 л. ед. ч. и мн. числа
- модальный глаг. со знач. "хочет"
2 I will help you
3 He
. without
will
sit
saying a word.
for
hours
-для
привычных
выражения
повторных
действий (наст, и будущ., время)
should
1 You should do this work
- модальный глагол, выражает
. again.
долженствование
256
все липа ед. и мн. числа
2 If I knew his address I
- вспомогательный
. should
формах
глагол
в
сослагательного наклонения
write to him.
3 I said I should help him in
. the
- вспомогательный глагол для
образования
Future-in-the-Past 1 л. ед. и мн.
числа
laboratory work.
would
1 He would
. question if
answer
the
- вспомогательный
формах
глагол
в
сослагательного наклонения
he knew it.
- вспомогательный глагол для
2 He said he would enter the
.
образования Future-in-the-Past 2 и
University.
3 л.
3 In summer she would go
- для выражения
. swimming.
действий в прошлом
повторных
- модальный глагол, выражающий
4 I said I would not do it.
отказ
.
to be
1 His books were in the bag.
- смысловой глагол "быть"
.
2 The work was finished.
.
- вспомогательным
причастие
прош.
времени
Passive Voice
глагол
+
вспомог.глаг.
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3 They were waiting for him.
.
вспомогательным
причастие I Continuous
must
5 If I were you ...
.
+
- модальный глагол, заменитель
4 The train is to come at five.
.
гл.
If he were here ...
- сослагательное наклонение
(условные предложения)
to have
1 They have a house in the
. country.
- смысловой гл. "иметь, обладать"
2 We have introduced a new
- прич. прош. вр. + вспомогат.
. system of work.
глагол Perfect
3 I have to buy another
- модальным глагол, заменитель
. present.
must (долженствование, вынужден)
to do
1 I do my work well.
- смысловой глагол "делать"
.
2 Do you study or work.
.
I do not work.
3 He did do it.
.
This did take place
4 He doesn't like it but I do.
- вспомогательный глагол
вопросит, и отри цат. предложениях
в
- усиление глагола в утвердит,
предл. ("всѐ же, действительно")
- заменитель предыд. глагола
.
258
Ex. I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the
polysemy of the words "one (ones), that (those), it"
1. The scientists answered that they were going to find a new way of
getting valuable information
2. One should be careful when carrying out an experiment.
3. This apparatus is more powerful than the one installed in our
laboratory.
4. It was in the field of radiowaves and electronics that the development
of physics ran parallel with that of industry.
5. All bodies consist of molecules and those of atoms.
6. That the existence of free electrons in metals is as important as that
in oxides is a well-known fact.
7. It is important that the test be repeated.
8. It is the voltmeter that is an instrument to be used for measuring the
potential difference between any two points in a circuit
9. When the electron is by any means torn away from the hydrogen
atom, the nucleus alone remains with a single positive charge of electricity on
it.
10. One should know that the weight of an oxygen atom is 16 times that
of a hydrogen atom.
11. When a ray of any kind strikes an atom it may knock an electron
out of the atom.
12. When water falls from a great distance its energy is known to
change from potential to kinetic.
13. In any clement whether it is copper or gold electrons are always in
motion.
II. Translate the following sentences paying attention to different
functions of the verbs "should and would".
1. It is essential that we should first consider carefully the actual
observations which have led to the new points of view.
259
2. It was found that no water formation would take place by irradiation
at the longer wavelength.
3. Why should mass vary with velocity? Why should an electron
necessarily possess mass?
4. Should this problem be really so absurd the men of science would
hardly have taken so deep an interest in its solution.
5. The substance under investigation should be examined both by
chemical and physical means.
6. The motor was in good order but still it would not move.
7. If this substance were a mixture it would be decomposed.
8. We tried to solidify this substance but it would not, for the pressure
was too low.
9. The scientist said that in this book we should be concerned with
optical line spectra.
10. It should be noted that this method presents many difficulties.
III. Translate the following sentences defining the function of "do".
1. Not all metals react with acids and when they do the gas evolved is
not always hydrogen.
2. This field docs not affect the forward motion of the electrons but
does act upon the transverse motion.
3. Copper does not combine with oxygen when cold but it does do so
slowly when heated.
4. Gold usually occurs in the nature state while iron does not.
5. So interested did he get in radio that he gave up ordinary electrical
engineering.
6. The beta rays, which do pass through the aluminium, do not ionize
the gas as profusely as do the alpha rays.
IV. Translate the following sentences paying attention to different
functions and meanings of the verb "to be".
260
1. One of the most important phenomena in nature is the transmission
of energy from one point to another by wave motion.
2. This kind of motion is illustrated in many ways.
3. The post-graduate N. is in the laboratory. He is making an
experiment now.
4. They are to study some material about the wave propagation.
5. The aim of the laboratory is to study this complex material.
6. Many hydroelectrical power stations were built all over the world.
7. This view has been supported by a number of experiments.
8. There have been many theories to explain the nature of heat.
9. Heat was considered to be an invisible substance.
10. Electrical energy can be transformed into heat energy.
11. You are to test the behaviour of the newly developed plastic in all
temperature conditions.
12. Many experiments are to be made to increase the engine efficiency.
13. The material is to be sent to the laboratory for examination.
14. Were it not for the magnetic field due to coil B the particles would
strike screen С.
V. Translate the following sentences paying attention to different
functions and meanings of the verb "to have".
1. Every physical quantity has its own unit of measurement.
2. Einstein has simplified our picture of the Universe by showing that
the mass energy can be converted from one to the other.
3. Experiments have shown that light travels with greatest speed in a
vacuum and that it travels with different media.
4. Our lives would be vastly changed if we had no cameras, projectors,
microscopes or telescopes.
5. The scientists had to investigate a series of accidents that occurred
during the test of the device.
261
6. After the accumulator has been used for many hours, chemical
changes occurred.
7. The students will have to review the material of the lectures before
carrying out the experiment.
8. A magnet has been known to exist from early times.
9. A gas has no specific volume and shape.
10. The invention has been supported by many experiments.
Информационная программа №11. Двойные/парные союзы
В английском языке, так же как и в руссом языке, имеются
двойные (или парные) союзы, т.е. союзы, состоящие из двух частей.
К таким союзам относятся:
both ... and - как ... так (и)
either ... or - или ... или
neither ... nor - ни ... ни
not only .... but also - не только ... но и
as... as - также ... как
not so ... as - не так ... как
the ... the - чем ... тем
whether (if) - глагол + "ли"
as long as - (до тех пор) пока
as well as - так же как (и), и ... и
so that - чтобы; для того, чтобы
as though - как если бы
as soon as - как только
as if - как будто
262
Translate the following sentences paying attention to their structure.
1. The more violently the molecules of an object vibrate, the greater the
intensity of heat possessed by the object.
2. The greater the elasticity and the less the density, the greater is the
velocity.
3. The magnet is usually made in the shape of a horseshoe so that it will
be as strong as possible.
4. No matter whether an electrostatic generator, a battery or dynamo
causes electric current, the resulting current can always show three effects:
heating, chemical and magnetic.
5. The longer the wire the greater its electrical resistance.
6. Molecules make up all the substances around us whether they are
solids liquids or gases.
7. Not only the distant but also the near at hand can be seen more
clearly by combinations of lenses.
8. The radio waves travel from the transmitter either as ground waves
or
sky waves.
9. It is desirable to have a cover over the calorimeter to prevent losses
both of heat and liquid by evaporation.
10. The greater the load, the greater the mass.
11. Both radio-transmitting devices and radio-receiving ones are the
basic devices in radio engineering.
12. One can use neither this instrument nor that one because both of
them are out of order.
13. It becomes of first importance in physics to determine accurately
the characteristics of both matter and energy.
14. In the absence of force a body will either remain at rest or continue
to move with constant speed in a straight line.
263
15. If now it were possible to determine whether, the particle moves
upward or downward in making this track, it would be possible to determine
whether the particle was positively or negatively charged.
Приложение 1. Групповые предлоги
according to – согласно чему-либо
apart from – помимо, кроме, не считая
as to (as for) – что касается
because of – из-за
but for – если бы не
by means of – посредством
in accordance with – в соответствии с
in addition to – в дополнении к
in case of - в случае
as compared with (in comparison with) - по сравнению с
in conformity with - в соответствии
in consequence of - вследствие, в результате
in favour of – в пользу кого-либо, чего-либо, на имя кого-либо
in front of – перед, напротив
in spite of – несмотря на
instead of – вместо
in the event of - в случае если
in view of – ввиду
owing to - из-за, благодаря
on behalf of (in the name of) - от имени
subject to - при условии
264
thanks to - благодаря
with a view to - с целью
with regard to. in regard to. with (in) respect to - относительно, no
отношению, в отношении
on account of – по причине
Приложение 2. Глаголы с предлогами
to account for – объяснять, быть причиной
to be accustomed to – привыкать к чему-либо
to add to – добавлять, увеличивать
to agree to – соглашаться с чем-либо
to agree with – соглашаться с кем-либо
to base on (upon) – основывать на
to begin with – во-первых, прежде всего
to belong to – принадлежать кому-либо
to carry out – выполнять, осуществлять
to characterize by – характеризовать по
to comment on – комментировать что-либо
to be composed of – состоять из
to conclude by – закончить чем-то
to be contrary to – идти вразрез, противоречить
to correspond to – соответствовать чему-либо
to deal with – иметь дело с
to depend on – зависеть от
to derive from – происходить от
to divide by – делить на (матем.)
265
to end in – заканчиваться чем-либо
to be equal to – равняться чему-либо
to estimate at – составлять, оценивать в …
to explain to – объяснять кому-либо
to fix up – привести в порядок, приготовить, закрепить
to graduate from – закончить ВУЗ
to identify with – устанавливать тождество
to lead to – приводить к
to lecture on – читать лекцию по
to multiply by – умножить на
to be peculiar to – быть характерным, свойственным
to be preferable to – быть предпочтительным кому-либо
to prepare for – готовиться к
to present s/b to s/b – представлять кого-либо кому-либо
to provide for – принимать меры
to refer to – отсылать к, ссылаться на
to rely on (upon) – полагаться на
to result in – приводить к, кончаться чем-либо
to succeed in – преуспевать в чѐм-либо
to worry about – волноваться о
to work out – разрабатывать (план, проект), решать (задачу)
Assessment Test
Translate:
1. Simpler lighter scanning systems to be used on small ships, in
aircraft have radars which may be transported by men on foot.
266
2. Provided we got the necessary devices we should check this
apparatus.
3. A cell supplies electric energy provided its electrodes are of different
materials.
4. The device to be used here is intended for the amplification of
electrical signals.
5. One can use a switch to start or to block the strong current from a
local source.
6. It is necessary that a means be provided for cooling the windings.
7. Provided all the requirements were met, the efficiency of the
apparatus would be increased.
8. To move an electron in a metal from the Fermi level to "infinity", a
certain amount of work is necessary.
9. High frequency currents are obtained due to the invention of
electronic devices.
10. Both radio-transmitting devices and radio-receiving ones are the
basic devices in radio-engineering.
11. If we double the force pushing the electrons around a circuit, we
expect them to move twice as fast.
12. The only way to stop or control the anode current is to decrease or
remove the anode voltage.
13. To measure current we use an ammeter connected in series with the
resistance.
14. The velocity of atoms and molecules when moving within the
confines of the material they comprise is found to be dependent upon the
temperature.
15. There are many kinds of vacuum tubes, the simpliest being the
diode.
16. The student was asked if pure germanium could be employed as a
semiconductor material.
17. Once ionization takes place the plasma is produced.
18. An ammeter should be connected to the circuit in series.
267
19. This substance will be dealt with in the next chapter.
20. In the report these phenomena were often referred to.
21. While making this experiment he used a sensitive current indicator.
22. The device being applied at our plant is quite modern.
23. The longer rheostat wire included in the circuit, the greater the
resistance.
24. The principle of radar is simple: a beam of energy in the form of
waves is directed at an object and the time required for the reflected waves to
return to the sender is measured; if the speed of the waves is known the
distance of the object can be calculated.
25. An unusual electric station has been put into operation. The station
is arranged to use relatively low temperature of subterranean thermal sources.
26. If heated to a proper temperature the filament emits electrons.
27. The reaction is followed by temperature rise.
28. The article was provided with diagrams for the students to
understand it better.
29. Emitters to be made of this metal will be used in large transmitting
tubes.
30. Copper is claimed to have a relatively large conductivity.
31. One can see that these types of machines to be described here differ
slightly from previous ones.
32. Were the temperature increased the velocity of the molecular
motion would be increased.
33. То achieve satisfactory emission the emitter must be in a good
vacuum.
34. One can use neither this instrument nor that one because both are
out of order.
35. Kinematics being the study of motion we study in it position of
velocity and acceleration.
36. To solve this problem the researchers have been working hard for
уеаrs.
268
37. This is a key problem to be solved immediately.
269