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Translation of Simile and Metaphor
in Hong Lou Meng
A Thesis
Submitted to the College of English Language and Literature
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master of Arts
By Shao Haihua
Under the Supervision of
Professor Feng Qinghua
Shanghai International Studies University
November 2001
"
I
Acknowledgements
Upon the completion of this thesis, I feel especially indebted to my supervisor
Professor Feng Qinghua, who has helped so much at every stage and, especially,
went over the initial draft and offered a lot of valuable advice and suggestions.
I also wish to express here my heartfelt thanks to all my friends whom I have
consulted so frequently.
Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to my father and mother for their love and
support all along the way of my life.
-
).1
Abstract
Incorporating all techniques of literary merits developed in previous periods of
Chinese literature, language in Hong Lou Meng boasts a rich array of rhetorical
devices with much Chinese flavour, among which simile and metaphor are the most
conspicuous. Simile and metaphor are used mainly for the purpose of livening up
language and, further, helping the readers to gain a more accurate insight , both
physical and emotional, into a character or a situation. Besides that, due to the
profound cultural background of the book, simile and metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
are endowed with many special properties, such as originality, strong emotional
flavour, high aesthetic appeal, pragmatic functions, etc. These properties render a lot
of difficulties for the translators of this classical masterpiece.
Taking examples from the two English versions A Dream ofRed Mansions (by
Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang)
and The Story ofthe Stone (by David Hawkes),
this thesis mainly studies the translation procedures of simile and metaphor in terms
of aesthetics, cultural elements and pragmatics. Focusing on the relationship
between the aesthetic subject and object, the thesis sums up different aesthetic
representations of simile and metaphor. Types of cultural elements and
corresponding translation procedures are also analyzed in the thesis. Based on the
research of pragmatic implication in simile and metaphor, the study also touches
upon ways to achieve pragmatic equivalence.
内容提要
中国古典名著《红楼梦》的语言集中国历代文学传统之精华，修辞手段异
常丰富且极具中国文化色彩。其中，明喻和暗喻是最常用，也是最具光彩的一
种手法，其主要作用是使语言更生动，并帮助读者对某一人物或情景从具象和
情感两方面获得更深刻更准确的理解。除此之外，由于《红楼梦》本身丰富的
文化底蕴，其中所运用的明喻和暗喻也有许多鲜明独特的个性，这给翻译带来
了许多审美、文化和语用方面的困难。
以杨宪益、戴乃迭译本 A Dream ofRed Mansions 和 大卫 · 霍 克斯译本The
Story of The Stone 为 范本 ， 本文 主要从这几个 方面研 究 明 喻 和 暗 喻 的 翻 译 方
法。
从审美主、客体的关系着手，本文总结了比喻在译文中的不同审美再现方
法和审美对比喻翻译的制约，并且归纳了比喻中文化因素的种类和相应的翻译
技巧。在研究了比喻语用含义的基础上，本文还总结了在翻译中尽可能达到语
用对等的方法。
飞 ψ/
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
~~~~
o
Introduction
1
1
Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
5
1.1 The Structure System of Simile and Metaphor
5
1.1. 1 Definitions and Differences
5
1.1.2 Basic Elements
5
1.1.3 The Structure System
7
1.2 Uses of Simile and Metaphor
2
9
1.3 Special Properties of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
10
Translating the Aesthetic Appeal of Simile and Metaphor
14
2.1 The Aesthetic Function of the Text
14
2.2 The Aesthetic Criteria of Translating Simile and Metaphor
15
2.3 The Aesthetic Subject and Object of Translation
16
2.3.1 The Aesthetic Object
16
2.3.2 The Basic Forms of Aesthetic Value
17
2.3.3 The Aesthetic Subject
19
2.4 The Aesthetic Representation of Simile and Metaphor
20
2.4.1 Maintaining Differences and Translating Literally to Achieve
Aesthetic Equivalence
21
2.4.2 Replacing the Vehicle to Rid the Differences While
Maintaining Similarities
2.4.3 Adopting Other Figures of Speech to Replace Simile or Metaphor
24
2.4.4 Giving up Simile or Metaphor to Achieve Functional Equivalence
24
2.5 Aesthetic Restrictions in Translating Simile and Metaphor
26
2.5.1 Restrictions from Cultural Discrepancies
26
2.5.2 Restrictions from Artistic Conception
27
(3' /:I'ranslating the Cultural Elements in Simile and Metaphor
29
3.1 The Common Core in Human Cultures
29
3.2 Impact of Cultural Elements on Simile and Metaphor Translation
31
3.3 Types of Cultural Elements and Corresponding Ways of Translation
32
3.3.1 Literary History and Tradition
(4)
22
32
3.3.1.1 Literal Translation
33
3.3.1.2 Free Translation
34
3.3.1.3 Footnotes
36
3.3.1.4 Compensation
37
3.3.2 Living Background
39
3.3.3 Religion
40
3.3.4 Points for Attention
41
Translating Simile and Metaphor from the Pragmatic Perspective
43
4.1 Basic Ideas of the Pragmatic Perspective
43
4.2 Translating the Pragmatic Implication
44
4.2.1 The Importance of Pragmatic Implication in Translating Simile and
Metaphor
4.2.2 Implicature vs. Explicature
4.3 Translating Simile and Metaphor in the Context
44
46
47
5
4.3.1 The Inferential Nature of Communication
47
4.3.2 Context
49
4.4 Pragmatic Equivalence
52
Conclusion
54
Bibliography
t
7 ,
Translation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
o Introduction
Ranking as the greatest classical novel in Chinese literature, the celebrated
masterpiece Hong Lou Meng boasts a complicated yet rigorous structure, an exposing
and enlightening story, strong emotional impact and a profound yet somewhat obscure
theme. Focussed on the glory and decline of the illustrious Chia Family (a story which
closely accords with the fortunes of the author's own family), the novel provides a
panorama of the lives of people of various levels in the 18th-century China, hence
called the encyclopedia of the feudal society. In terms of its spiritual content, the novel
is the crystallization of the three-thousand-year-old Chinese culture. Although it came
out as early as more than two centuries ago, every contemporary reader can receive
echoes of own feelings and acquire different kinds of inspirations with respect to life
and society. The novel has such great impact on the contemporary Chinese literature
and even philosophy and both common readers and literary experts have so much
discussion on every detail of the book that a new kind of literary science has been
founded-the Redology.
Nonetheless, this Chinese masterpiece remained unknown to the western world
until the 1970s when David Hawkes published the first complete version of English
translation-The Story of the Stone. Later in the same decade, Chinese scholar Yang
Xianyi and his wife Gladys Yang offered the second complete English version-A
Dream of the Red Mansions. Although both translations are considered to have done
Translation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
2
justice to the profundity of the original, they failed to win as much concern and
applause in world literature as the book deserves to. The reason why the English
version didn't achieve the same amount of success as the original did lies, to be
concise, in the pattern of language the author used. True, all techniques of literary
merits developed in previous periods of Chinese literature have been incorporated into
the great work with much originality, but the part that is most difficult to transfer into
another language and be accepted by the speakers of the language is the language
techniques adopted by the author. The book being a typical work of realism, all those
things like structure, story, plot and theme are quite easy to understand. Only the
language skills, mainly the rhetoric means the author used to convey those things
mentioned above are the primary part and the most difficult point of translation.
Especially the variety of figures of speech the author adopted is one of the most valued
assets of the book. Figures of speech with much Chinese flavour are so frequently and
ingeniously used in the book that it is almost impossible to translate them without
damaging their literary value.
Among them, similes and metaphors are the most frequently used and one of the
most distinctive features of the language in Hong Lou Meng. The reason why the two
terms simile and metaphor are put together in this thesis is that both figures make a
comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic
in common. Only that the comparison is usually implicit in metaphor and explicit in
simile. Therefore, a metaphor is often called" a compressed or condensed simile". In
fact, these two figures can be combined into one in Chinese rhetoric theory-H:IIitr,
which has no accurate equivalent term in English. Both the two figures are ornaments
of prose that can draw sharp pictures in readers' mind with much brevity and explain
Translation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
3
abstract and complicated ideas or processes in simple, concrete imagery, thus giving
deeper insight into persons, things, ideas, even problems. They can create highly
distinct and concentrated images with high aesthetic value through simple, concise
language. Owing to the vital part simile and metaphor play in the art of language, they
are entitled "mark of genius" by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his work
Poetry Studies.
Cao Xueqin, the author of Hong Lou Meng, was apparently endowed with the
"mark of genius", for in his work, simile and metaphor- are used in such a way that
they not only enrich the language and raise the aesthetic value of the language, but also
contribute to the successful portray of the protagonists and the enhancement of the
theme. Simile and metaphor in Hong Lou Meng are characterized by originality, rich
emotional flavor, profound cultural background and high aesthetic value, which add to
the difficulties in translation. If to be good at using simile and metaphor in one
language is esteemed as high as the "mark of genius", the arduousness is foreseeable
when we attempt to translate simile and metaphor in source language into target
language and in the mean time keep the "mark of genius" from fading away.
Taking examples from the two generally acknowledged English versions -A Dream
ofRed Mansions and The Story ofthe Stone, this thesis aims at studying the translation
of simile and metaphor in Hong Lou Meng and ultimately, finding the basic solutions
and tasks for translators of classical novels when they are concerned with figures of
speech like simile and metaphor. The first chapter of this thesis mainly discusses the
classification, structure and uses of simile and metaphor, and the special properties of
the two figures in the target text-Hong Lou Meng, thus paving the way for further
study. Chapter 2 is devoted to the study of transference of aesthetic value of the two
Translation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
4
figures in translation, summing up translation criteria and constraints in terms of
aesthetics. The main topic of the third chapter is losses and compensation in the
translation of cultural elements. And the last chapter, taking a pragmatic approach,
aims at finding primary principles for achieving pragmatic equivalent in translating
simile and metaphor. Through the study of translation of simile and metaphor, the
purpose of the thesis is to summarize some basic problems in translating classical
literature.
Translation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
5
1 Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
1.1 The Structure System of Simile and Metaphor
1.1.1
Definitions and Differences
According to A Dictionary of Literary Terms, a simile is "a figure of speech in
which one thing is likened to another, in such a way as to clarify and enhance an image.
It is an explicit comparison recognizable by the use of the word 'like' or 'as' .,,1 The
comparison is purely imaginative, that is, the resemblance between the two unlike
things in a particular aspect exists only in our minds, in our inward eye and not in the
nature of the things themselves. While metaphor is a "figure of speech in which one
thing is described in terms of another. A comparison is usually implicit, whereas in
simile it is explicit.'? A metaphor, then, is in a sense a condensed simile, differing from
the later only in form and artistry. It is a higher form, though, and not all metaphors
can be recast as similes. It requires greater ability on the part of the reader to perceive
the hidden association, the insight into persons, things and ideas that is implied. For
whereas in simile the particular aspect of the point of resemblance between two unlike
elements is given, in a metaphor nothing is stated.
1.1.2 Basic Elements
12 Li
Xinhua, A Detailed Study ofFigures ofSpeech in English. P18.
TranSlation of Simile and Metaphor in Hong Lou Meng
6
According to traditional English rhetoric, there are three elements in simile or
metaphor. The most generally accepted terms for the most explicitly stated elements
are those introduced by LA. Richards (1936): tenor (for the literal meaning ) and
vehicle (for the figurative meaning ). The element that is not overtly stated is what
Leech terms the "ground" (of comparison), i.e. the likeness perceived between the
tenor and the vehicle. Leech points out that every metaphor is implicit (and simile
explicit) of the form "X is like Y in respect of Z"( X is the tenor, Y is the vehicle and Z
is the ground) (1969).
As the cornerstone of Chinese rhetoric studies,
«f~~~tt}L» by Chen Wangdao
offers different views. Based on the research findings founded by prior linguists, the
book presents the" three elements" and the "three components" of btPfrj. Comprising
the structure of bt~ in respect of content, the three elements are (1) the object of
thinking, (2) another object, (3) similarity between them. Making up the structure of
bt~
in respect of form, the three components are(l)tenor, (2) vehicle, (3) marker (bt
Pfrj~).
We can draw three conclusions from the above mentioned English and Chinese
rhetoric theories about simile and metaphor. To begin with, the English theory and the
Chinese one bear much resemblance. Second, besides similarities, there are also
differences between the structure of the English simile or metaphor and that of the
Chinese bt~. To a large extent, the difference lies in the linking pattern between tenor
and vehicle. In Chinese, we have a set of words that are markers of bt~, such as
ft,
~ft,
fb1.3f, 11Jf?t, etc. They are termed as
bt~~.
However, in English we don't
have such a particular set of words. Similes are organized by some fixed sentence
patterns, and metaphors' structure is too complicated and too varied to define. Third,
Translation of Simile and Metaphorin Hong Lou Meng
7
due to the difference between the two figures in different languages, neither the
English theory nor the Chinese one is sufficient to sum up the structure system of
simile and metaphor. That's why we should first of all find the structure system that is
applicable to both English simile and metaphor and Chinese ~tuttr.
1.1.3 The Structure System
The first level of the structure is composed of the two most basic elements: tenor
and vehicle, without which, a simile or metaphor does not exist. By nature, tenor is the
object of thinking, while vehicle is another object that has some similarity with the
former. The relation between tenor and vehicle should be in conformity with the
following terms, which are also prerequisites of the existence of simile and metaphor:
(1) Tenor and vehicle are objects different in essence; (2) They should have at least one
quality or characteristic in common. Owing to its vital importance, the similarity or
"the ground of comparison" termed by Leech, occupies the second .level of the
structure. There can be one or more similarities in respect of shape, quality or some
abstract ideas. The similarity makes simile and metaphor possible by linking two
totally different and alienated objects through the association of similarity, which can
be illustrated by the chart below:
~ Similarity ______
Tenor (comrno~"""""'7on point)
Association of Similarity
Sometimes the association is between unfamiliar and familiar things, or between
abstract and concrete images. The stronger the association that is felt, the greater the
Translation of Simile and Metaphorin Hong Lou Meng
8
force of the comparison, the stronger the power of suggestion and the sharper the
image that is produced. The third level is the linking pattern of tenor and vehicle. No
matter they are in form of word, sentence pattern or some other grammatical means,
they serve as a linkage between the two basic elements. The fourth level is also an
important part in the structure. First let's look at an example:
fJa:
-=-~~~l¥J¥~M~irJ4
"fJz:l*:{i}L", jUI)Z.W,
xA~~,
f!-~:ff*Ij1'L-¥o PJ'm~~
**~l¥J, "::l~~![I:!:l~JII."o
(~/\+n@])
tIJil: The third has the nickname
Rose. Everyone loves roses, they're so red and fragrant.
But they're prickly, too. The pity is she's not Lady Wang's own child but a "phoenix from a
crow's nest".
In this metaphor, "- M~&»is the tenor, and "~ftfE)L»is the vehicle. Then what
shall we call the part that is italicized? The author first makes an initial comparison,
then develops and expands it in such a way that the new stage of its elaboration throws
new light on the subject. The part that is developed from the initial comparison is
called the extended part, also the fourth level of the structure. It is usually inspired and
at the same time restrained by the initial comparison. Through further and extended
description of the vehicle, it throws new light on the tenor, thus strengthening the
rhetoric effect.
Levell:
tenor + vehicle
Level 2:
similarity
Level 3:
linking pattern
Level 4:
extended part
At level I, tenor and vehicle are the essential parts of simile and metaphor. Tenor
can be omitted in some metaphors, but it definitely exists in the context. In other words,