Innovative solutions for solid, gaseous and liquid
biomass production and use
Liquid biofuels network
Activity Report
Final report
1.1.2002 – 31.03.2003
Contract No:4.1030/S/01-1000/2001
Coordinator : ADEME, France
Partners :
BLT, Austria
VALBIOM, Belgium
FNR, Germany
CRES, Greece
TEAGASC, Ireland
ITABIA, Italy
ADENE, Portugal
SODEAN, Spain
NOVEM, The Netherlands
France, April 2003
1 CONTENT
1
CONTENT ..................................................................................................... 2
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................ 3
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Brief Overview of activities ........................................................................................... 4
3
GENERAL BIOFUELS SITUATION IN EUROPE IN 2001-2002 ............. 6
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Country summaries ...................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Liquid biofuels players in Europe ................................................................................ 37
4
TASKS REPORTS....................................................................................... 53
Task 1 : Specification of biodiesel
Task 2 : Environmental balances of biofuels
Task 3 : Non biodiesel fuel uses of oils/fats
Executive Summary
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Created in December 1994, Liquid Biofuels Network was first launched to carry out a
comparative review between the national liquid biofuels programmes, using the range of nontechnical barriers established by the National teams in their country. Then work concentrated
on identification of the actions by which the barriers might be overcome. The main objective
of our network is to exchange information.
The general biofuels situation in EU countries has been updated and reported. Here below
bioethanol and biodiesel production are presented (Fig 1 and 2).
Figure 1 – Biodiesel production
and capacity in 2002 in EU countries
Figure 2 – Bioethanol and ETBE production
and capacity in 2002 in EU countries
400
800
700
600
300
1000 t
1000 t
1 000
900
500
400
300
200
200
100
0
100
0
Spain
Germany
Austria
production
Spain
capacity
France
Italy
ETBE production
France
ETBE capacity
Sw eden
Ethanol capacity
planned capacity
Main activity focused on 3 different topics :
-
Summary and report of the recent development of biodiesel standardisation and
experiences and expectations of the biodiesel producers on the future standard;
-
overview of most updated expertise on environmental and energy aspects of liquid;
-
examination of fuel uses other than biodiesel production for vegetable oils or animal fats,
either in virgin condition or recycled.
TASKS REPORTS :
Specification of Biodiesel
Environmental balances of biofuels
Non biodiesel fuel uses of oils/fats
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Executive Summary
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
2.2 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ACTIVITIES
BIODIESEL SPECIFICATION – BLT (AUSTRIA)
ADEME, France / FNR, Germany / ITABIA, Italy
Biodiesel has become a fast growing renewable liquid biofuel within the European
Community. In order to ensure customers acceptance standardisation and quality assurance is
the key factor to the market introduction of biodiesel as a transport and heating fuel. In 1997
the European Commission gave a mandate to CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation) to
develop standards concerning minimum requirements and test methods for biodiesel. Liquid
Biofuel Network received a liaison status by CEN / TC 19 and CEN / TC3 07.
The biodiesel production is heterogeneous in Europe. Different raw materials are used as
well as different production technology. It is important to receive feedback from the industry
what raw materials are processed and what problems are expected by establishing the new
quality requirements. The work concentrates now on summarising and reporting of the recent
development of biodiesel standardisation and reflecting the experiences and expectations of
the biodiesel producers on the future standard.
In January 1998 the standardisation work was started with the initial meetings of the
different working groups. The work was based on knowledge being gathered so far during the
national biodiesel standardisation. Nearly 50 meetings in total were needed to go through the
difficult and comprehensive matter. At the beginning of 2000 two drafts could be presented
by TC19/WG24 and WG25. Both drafts, prEN 14213 (FAME as heating fuel) and prEN
14214 (FAME as automotive fuel for diesel engines) have been subject to the 6 months
inquiry process in 2001. Deadline for national comments was November 10th, 2001. The
replies were treated in 2 meetings of the appropriate working groups in November 2001. The
final standards were subject to the formal vote and will appear during 2003.
Biodiesel is mainly produced from rape seed oil in Europe. Other raw materials such as
recycled vegetable oils or even animal fats are of interest but realised only in limited markets.
A high quality is absolutely necessary to avoid problems and to ensure that biodiesel is
accepted by the vehicle industry as well as by public. Quality problems during the fuel
distribution often are underestimated. The main challenge now and in future is the economy.
Due to the increasing demand the price of rape seed oil also will increase. Currently biodiesel
is exempted from mineral oil taxes but the situation will change in future.
ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCE –ADEME (FRANCE)
BLT, Austria / VALBIOM, Belgium / FNR, Germany / CRES, Greece / ITABIA, Italy /
ADENE, Portugal / SODEAN, Spain / NOVEM, Netherlands
Within the favourable legal framework instituted by the EC and considering the use of
biofuels will increase in the transport sector, a strict evaluation of their related environmental
impacts is needed.
Number of studies on the energy and environmental efficiency of alternative fuels has been
carried out. Biofuels environmental characteristics are more and more well known meanwhile
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Executive Summary
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
engine technologies are evolving as well as production facilities and agriculture. Regularly
new tests has to be performed to procure most updated environmental data.
Nine partners were solicited in order to give a large panel of results representative of their
country, France, Belgium, Austria, Germany, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Italy and Netherlands.
Biofuels out of interest through these studies were biodiesel and vegetable oil from rape
seed, sunflower or soybean, bioethanol and ETBE from sugarbeet and wheat. Various
parameters were investigated : energy balance, greenhouse gases balance, exhaust emissions
tested on biofuels used as sole fuel or at various blends. Each study has been compiled into
one or two pages stipulating the title, authors, ordering parties and references, a short
description is produced, main results are presented and discussed.
This work gives some instructive data related to environmental and energy aspects of
liquid Biofuels. It is an overview of most updated expertise on this subject.
NON-BIODIESEL FUEL USES OF OILS/FATS – TEAGASC (IRELAND)
BLT, Austria / FNR, Germany / ADENE, Portugal
Biodiesel is gaining increasing acceptance from all sectors of the transport industry as a
vehicle fuel extender/replacement. In some situations however, biodiesel production may not
be the most attractive option and other possibilities may find a role. The purpose of this task
was to examine fuel uses other than biodiesel production for vegetable oils or animal fats,
either in virgin condition or recycled after an initial cooking use.
The following were envisaged as potential alternative uses:
Virgin or recovered vegetable oils without esterification in converted diesel engines, CHP
systems and heating systems.
Beef tallow in heating and CHP systems
Trap grease as heating fuel.
It has not been possible to review all these options in detail within the resources of the
present task group. The use of vegetable oils in converted vehicle engines has been reviewed
in some depth. In addition, some information is included on the use of recovered vegetable
oil, olive pomace and trap grease for energy purposes.
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3 GENERAL BIOFUELS SITUATION IN EUROPE IN 2001-2002
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The European Commission White Book of November 1997 has for global objective to
double the renewable energies share by 2010 in order to represent 12 % of the total
consumption of energy. One of the factor indicated to reach this target would be a biofuels
contribution up to 18 million toe by 2010.
As such, The European Union Committee board has indicated that a 2 % market share for
liquid biofuels could be considered as a first step. The 4th May 1999, the European
Commission has therefore launched it’s «renewable energies take-off campaign » indicating
the will to incite the production of 5 million tons of liquid biofuels within 2003, compared to
approximately one million today.
More recently, the European Commission (EC) has proposed new legislation to promote
the use of alternative fuels for transport, starting with the regulatory and fiscal promotion of
biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol. A regulatory package adopted (COM(2001) 547)
in November 2001 includes an action plan and two proposals for Directives which would
establish minimum biofuel content in transportation fuels and allow reduced taxation rates for
biofuels.
The proposed Directive sets a minimum percentage of biofuels to replace diesel or gasoline
in transportation and sets an obligation on Member States to ensure (e.g., by using taxation
policies) that as from 2005 these biofuel quotas are met in practice. The proposed schedule for
the compulsory biofuel share is: 2005 - 2%; 2006 - 2.75%; 2007 - 3.5%; 2008 - 4.25%; 2009 5%; 2010 - 5.75%. At a later stage, the EC will make a proposal for mandatory blending of
biofuels in gasoline and diesel. The taxation Directive proposal (which would modify the
existing Directive 92/81 on excises duties) would allow Member States, but not oblige them,
to reduce excise duties on pure biofuels or biofuels blended into other fuels, when they are
used for heating or transport purposes. The proposal would allow Member States to reduce
excise duties in proportion to the percentage of biofuel incorporated in the fuel or end
product, without the need for a specific authorisation of the EU’s Council of Ministers.
In this quite favourable context, here are some further details about the current situation in
most European countries, with important differences between each, linked to the already
existing taxation relief, or, on the contrary, to the total lack of any incentive policy.
VEGETABLE OILS METHYL ESTER
The use
Biodiesel can be used both blended with fossil Diesel fuel and in pure form. Use on blends
between 2 and 30% does not require any modification of the car engine. In some cases minor
modifications are required for use at 100% pure. Austria and Germany are the only countries
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who have made the choice of using biodiesel as pure fuels. Biodiesel is also used as an
efficient heating oil, Italy consumes 90 % of its production for this purpose.
The production
Since 1992, rape seed and sunflower biodiesel production has highly increased. At its
beginnings the biodiesel business was only linked to agriculture. Today environment and
energy considerations clearly prevail. The estimations for the total European production in
2002 are about 1.1 million tons (see Figure 1).
1165
Figure 1: Evolution of the production of Biodiesel in Europe since 1992
916
1 200
714
80
1993
470
150
55
200
280
400
390
435
600
475
800
1992
(000 tons)
1 000
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
0
Further to an important increase of the rapeseed oil ester volumes (mainly due to a
substantial progression of the dedicated surfaces) Germany represents the first European
producer of EMVH with about 50 % of the production. France is in second place with 30 %
of the total volumes. Italy, with 20 %, Austria and Spain (since last year) complete the group
of European biodiesel producers. Belgium was used to produce also biodiesel but last year
mainly for economic reasons the production was given up. However, Belgium still has a
production capacity of a few thousand tons/year without any new investments.
In terms of plants, there are 39 units spread out over the 5 countries mentioned previously,
plus one unit in Sweden. The total capacity of biodiesel production is evaluated to nearly 1.8
million tons / year. In addition, it must be noted that Czech republic produces 50 000 t/year of
biodiesel out of rape seed.
The general trend is a rise of the capacities with the emergence of new projects. In
Germany there are still new plants under construction that represents a capacity increased of
270 000 tons/year. A 70 000 tons increase of allotted quota is expected for France. Italy
launched a 3 year programme to promote biodiesel technical development that raised the
assigned quota from 125 000 t/y to 300 000 t/y. Spain announced 4 new projects of biodiesel
production from rape seed and used fried oils.
Production and capacity of biodiesel in the EU is detailed in table 1.
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Table 1 : Rapeseed and sunflower VOME production
in 2002 in Europe (tons/year)
Country
Production
Capacity
Number of Plants
Planned extension,
capacity or quota
Austria
30 000
95 000
8
25 000
Belgium (1)
0
100 000
2
-
France
350 000 (2)
320 000
4
70 000
Germany
550 000 (3)
670 000
14
270 000
Italy
220 000
520 000
8
-
Spain
5 000
55 000
2
105 000
Sweden
10 000 (4)
30 000
1
?
Total
1 165 000
1 790 000
39
470 000
(1)
production given up in 2001
consumption is 309 000 t/y
(3)
estimated
(4)
in 2001
(2)
ETHANOL AND ETBE
The use
There are many possibilities to use bioethanol as a fuel :
- low blends at 5 % or 10 %
- high blends at 85 % for Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFV) blended with gasoline at variable
rates. In France one test has been made, in Sweden 3 500 Ford Focus are used as FFV
and 7 000 are expected to be used in 2002
- pure for dedicated engines : diesel engines like in Sweden for instance
- transformed into ETBE
- used in fuel cells with two process, -direct ethanol fuel cells with a proton exchange
membrane fuel cell and the steam reforming of ethanol. Researches are undertaken on
these subjects.
Ethanol was first introduced as a motor fuel in France in limited quantities mixed with
gasoline for instance; today it is increasingly used in the form of ether (ETBE) as an additive
in petrol. Oil refiners are now regular producers and users of bio-ETBE in their refining
process. Spain has adopted the same use with ETBE. The use of ETBE is in line with the
endeavour to improve air quality in certain sensitive areas by using oxygenated compounds as
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a substitute to other substances which cause noxious emissions (lead, aromatic compounds
including benzene, olefins, MTBE, etc.).
In order to appreciably improve the energy and economic yields from these methods,
numerous works have been carried out to improve productivity, reduce energy and feedstock
consumption as well as production costs. Research is under way to improve the added value
of co-products and thus improve the financial return from the system.
Sweden has chosen the route of ethanol, the use of ethanol as vehicle fuel is growing. At
present, hundreds of buses in Sweden are operated where the diesel is entirely replaced by
ethanol. The fuel consists of 95% ethanol with ignition improvement additives. During the
year of 1999, the number of ethanol fuelled heavy vehicles in Sweden has approached 400.
These days, the vehicles are not operated on a trial basis or as a project, they are purchased
and operated on entirely commercial grounds. The largest single vehicle fleet - buses - is in
Stockholm. There are nearly 300 buses, which means that this is the world's largest ethanol
fuelled bus fleet. All buses purchased in future for use in the centre of Stockholm will use
ethanol. A large number of tests of ethanol fuelled internal combustion engines are in
progress for private cars. At present, there are about 300 ethanol fuelled cars on the roads. The
number of filling stations with ethanol in Sweden is more than 50 and continues to increase.
The production
In terms of production, France dominates the ethanol sector with 90 500 tons of ethanol
which represent 192 500 tons of ETBE produced in 2002. However, Spain, with a production
of 80 000 tons is not far behind. Moreover Spain has recently increased its production
capacity of ETBE and ethanol thanks to 1 new plant of ethanol and 2 new plants of ETBE.
Sweden produces 45 000 t of ethanol / year (see table 2).
France, thanks to 2 new projects, will increase its production of a total volume of 155 000
tons of ETBE. In Spain, the biggest plant of ethanol of the EU is under construction in the
province of Salamanca, the ethanol production capacity should be raised to 340 000 t/year.
Table 2 : Wheat, barley and sugar beet ethanol / ETBE production
in 2002 in Europe (in tons/year)
Country
Ethanol
ETBE
production production
France
90 500
192 500
Spain
80 000 (2)
170 000
Sweden
Total
(3)
Ethanol
Capacity
ETBE
Capacity
102 940 (1) 219 000
180 000
375 000
Number
of EtOH
units
Number
of ETBE
units
Planned extension,
capacity or Quota
13
3
73 000 + 82 000
(2 ETBE units)
2
5
160 000 t EtOH
50 000
-
60 000
-
1
-
1 unit of etOH
production from
wood is under
construction
220 500
362 500
342 940
594 000
16
8
-
(1)
alloted quota
in 2001
(3)
ethanol is used in direct blends
(2)
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Ethanol is produced from cultivated crops and from forest residues. The technique to
produce ethanol from the starch in grain is well known since millenniums, but it is still
developing to reach increased efficiency and improved production economy. Cultivated
energy forest like Salix, is also a raw material for ethanol production, together with straw,
energy grass and residuals from the forest and recycled fibres. Since these are cellulose raw
materials, a development of a new technique for building ethanol plants is needed.
EUROPEAN SYSTEM OF REGULATION AND ALLOTTED QUOTAS
"The regulative framework which regulates biofuel production has evolved over the last
few years. At the beginning of the 90’s, the Common Agricultural Policy had limited nonfood crops to fallow land but this system didn’t guarantee a fair competition between the
various European biofuel producers. In 1993, it was therefore decided to evolve towards a
system of calls for tenders. The EC would now like each country to set a national biofuel
volume and make an international call for tenders to meet this quantity. Up to now, France
and Italy are the only countries who have applied this logic. The biodiesel production quotas
are shown in table 3 here under". (EurObserv’ER/99).
Table 3 : Biodiesel production quota
3.1.1.1.1.1 Country Volume (tons/year)
France
Italy
Germany & Austria
317 500
300 000
No restriction
In Germany no blends are admitted. Unblended biodiesel is free of tax since biodiesel is
not considered as a fuel and thus no submitted to tax. There are no quantity limitations.
Austria and Sweden has developed specific biodiesel legislation. Also the United Kingdom
government has introduced a partial de-taxation for biofuels beginning April 1 2002. They
allow the reduction of the excise duty by 0.3 euro / L. This legislation has already resulted in
the initiation of a significant number of biodiesel production projects across the UK.
Only a few countries are participating to this production at various levels, others countries
do not have as far advanced development in this domain, mainly due to a lack of financial
incentives. Although not having yet practical experience of biofuel production, many of these
countries have already done a lot of work and research on subjects. Here below it is presented
the current biofuel situation (production, the current use and prospects) and an overview of
work in each country.
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3.2 COUNTRY SUMMARIES
AUSTRIAN BIOFUELS SITUATION
H. Prankl ([email protected])
BLT Wieselburg
February 2003
The biofuels activities in Austria concentrate above all on biodiesel. While Olmuehle
Bruck (Novaol Austria) has been the only industrial production plant for a longer period of
time, two new facilities went into operation in Zistersdorf and in Wöllersdorf in 2002. A
further plant is under construction in Arnoldstein. A total capacity of more than 100.000 t/a
will be available soon. The production amounts approx. 30000 t/a which is approx. 1% of the
total diesel fuel consumption.
For the production of ethanol out of renewable raw materials the planning association
"Austroprot" was founded in 1990. The target was to establish and to operate a bioethanol
production plant with a capacity of 100 000 t. The project could not be realised due to certain
economic conditions. Currently there is no bio-ethanol production in Austria.
An increasing interest can be observed on the use of pure vegetable oil as fuel for diesel
engines as well for combined heat and power plants (CHP). No transesterification step is
necessary but either special engine technology has to be used or diesel engines have to be
modified. It causes higher invest costs and therefore the market is limited.
Biodiesel:
Table 4 : Biodiesel production (tons/year) in 2001 and 2002 in Austria
YEAR
PRODUCTION (t)
CAPACITY (t)
Nr PLANTS
PLANNED
EXTENSION
CAPACITY (t)
NOTES
2001
31 400
35 000
6
8 000
Starts with
Operation during
2002
2002
30 000
95 000
8
25 000
Use:
Up to now biodiesel is used only as sole diesel fuel in Austria.
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Taxation:
In July 1999 an amendment of the Austrian tax law was published. Beginning with January
1, 2000 the utilisation of fuels from renewable raw materials is free of mineral oil taxes:
The Austrian Law on Tax Reform 2000 exempts the use of pure biodiesel and the blending
of it, if it is used as sole (bio-)fuel
-
if up to 5% biofuel is blended with gasoline (ethanol or ETBE)
-
if up to 2% biofuel is blended with diesel fuel (biodiesel)
Blends > 5% (in gasoline) or >2% (in diesel fuel) are taxed in the full amount. Although
there is no production and use of ethanol or ETBE in Austria the tax exemption creates new
opportunities.
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BELGIAN BIOFUEL SITUATION
Jean-Marc Jossart ([email protected])
VALBIOM
March 2003
Oilseed rape
In Belgium oilseed rape is the only non food crop grown at a significant scale on set aside
land (table 1). Linseed was also grown in the past (742 ha in 1994) but decreased to a very few
hectares. Each year Synagra (organisation of distributors) sells the non food production on the
market.
Rapeseed can be processed into crude oil in Antwerp by Cargill [9]. The oil can be refined
in Antwerp, Staden and Izegem. An joint venture called Associated Oil Packers has been
created with Vandemoortele [10]. Rapeseed can also be crushed by German companies.
Table 5 : Oilseed rape on set aside [8]
Set aside
percentage
2002
(*)
10%
10%
10%
3948
3922
3270
3182
32
104
64
74
1321
1597
4052
3986
3344
12355
4852
5127
14744
10775
11271
3412
3547
3210
3639
2703
3370
14,63
19,46
19,83
13,63
15,12
18,47
Cargill.
Vamo Mills
Vamo mills
Cargill
Oelmuhle
Hamburg AG
Cargill
German and
French
companies
Fina
Chemicals
Diester
(French
Company)
Fina
Chemicals
FINA
chemicals
Pantochim
Trenal
Sigma
Mosselman
FINA
chemicals
French and
Holland
comp.
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
15%
15%
12%
10%
5%
5%
10%
3430
1275
1565
191
46
3621
Winter rape
2589
8348
6261
area (ha)
Spring rape
261
1087
706
area (ha)
Total non food
2850
9435
6967
rape (ha)
Quantity
7659
25824
20723
harvested (t)
Mean yield
2688
2737
2974
(kg/ha)
Selling price
16,86
12,39
13,14
(EUR/100kg)
Crushing
Vamo Mills Vamo Mills Vamo Mills
company
Processing
company for
oil
2001
1993
Pantochim
Fina
Chemicals
Pantochim
Fina
Chemicals
Fina
Chemicals
2000
Cargill
Oelmuhle
Germany
Hamburg AG (equivalent
principle)
* not completed yet
Biodiesel
In 1998 in Europe almost 5% of the biodiesel was produced in Belgium by Pantochim (19
000 out of 390 000 t produced) [2].
In July 2001 the company Pantochim/Eurodiol (Italian group Sisas) has been taken over by
BASF. It runs the Feluy site that has a biodiesel production capacity of 30 000 to 60 000 t/year
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[2, 5]. BASF tried to sell biodiesel but without success up to now, explained by an increasing
price for rape and a lowering trends for biodiesel price [6]. Recently BASF decided to give up
with the biodiesel production, as mentioned by Francis Dumey, director of BASF Feluy.
A second player is also active in Belgium. Oleon is a major company in oleochemicals in
Europe. They bought the esterification plants in Oelegem (50 – 60 000 t/year) and Ertvelde
(30 – 40 000 t/year), previously owned by Atofina/Petrofina, when this latter company was
enlarged to Totalfinaelf. The capacity in Oelegem is likely to be increased to 100 000 t/year in
the next 2 – 3 years. Up to now they don’t produce biodiesel but a production up to a few ten
of thousands tons per year could be undertaken without new investment. [7]. The
oleochemical industry is afraid about the biodiesel impact on the glycerine price, that might
affect the profitability of all other outlets for vegetable oil.
For the time being, the only user of biodiesel is the company Xylowatt SA, working in the
field of renewables, that is fuelling a VW Polo, for ethical reasons. A few cars are also
adapted to pure vegetable oil.
Ethanol – ETBE
Ethanol is produced in Ruisbroek but only for food purposes (40 000 hl/y) [1]. There is no
capacity for ethanol production for biofuel in Belgium.
Development perspective
Liquid biofuels are again subject to polemics in Belgium as a position towards the new
directive proposals (COM(2001)547) has to be stated. VALBIOM organised on 17 may 2002
an appropriate round table and almost all decision makers were present (26 persons, among
which representatives for administration and minister cabinet for taxation, energy and
agriculture, a French representative of AGPB, an ex-EU parliamentary, COPA, and
VALBIOM representatives).
Various opinions have been expressed. The strongest opposition comes from the Walloon
administration for energy that is indeed not convinced that liquid biofuels are the best way to
increase employment in agriculture, finance entrance of candidate countries, reach energy
independence or decrease CO2 per hectare. Responsibles for taxation are afraid about losses of
incomes. Representatives for energy are afraid about an obliged percentage unreachable for
Belgium [4].
VALBIOM members, mainly from the agricultural and scientific sectors, are undoubtedly
in favour of liquid biofuels with strong arguments : ease of implementation, lower dependence
to fossil fuels, positive energy balance, environmentally sound agriculture, lower dependence
on imported proteins, biodegradability, reduction of CO2, reduction of GMO in animal feeds,
recovery of tax exemption due to indirect economic effects, employment creation [3].
In short term VALBIOM will take profit of these EU efforts to push towards liquid biofuel
use in Belgium, mainly through a sensibilisation of the decision makers. For pilot projects
there is a possibility to get a tax exemption [11].
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As mentioned above it will be more feasible to develop the biodiesel option in Belgium on
short term rather than ethanol. Fuel consumption is however large (table 2) and agriculture
cannot meet such demand. For example, to produce 5,75% of diesel, 351 Ml of biodiesel have
to be produced with rape grown on 270 000 ha (average production of 1300 l/ha), what is
unrealistic taking into account that the agricultural surface in Belgium is 1,4 Mha, of which
58,4% for meadow. Rape is grown on less than 10 000 ha and set aside represents about 20
000 ha. As a consequence it makes sense to speak about small scale in Belgium. Use in
captive fleets for example might be considered.
Table 6 : Transport fuel consumption in Belgium (in million litres) [12]
1970
1980
1990
2000
Tax (EUR/l)
Gasoline
Of which unleaded
Diesel
LPG
TOTAL
2 937
3 931
3 698
2 978
0,5072
963
2 752
0,4923
1 189
2 112
4 096
6 108
0,29
50
72
103
165
0
4 176
6 115
7 897
9 251
Another potential development lies in short chains. It means that farmers would produce
rape, extract and filter the oil in small processing units and use the oil to run engines for their
cars or other vehicles. Such possibilities, as well as many other direct uses of the oil
(lubricants, wood treatment, …) are studied for the moment in a demonstrationproject
supported by public funds [13].
References
1. Rigo L., 2001, “Les carburants d’origine agricole”, Confédération des Betteraviers Belges (CBB), internal
note, June 2001, 9 p.
2. Observ’ER, 1999, “Le baromètre des biocarburants”, dans : Systèmes Solaires, n°134, 1999, France, 10 p
3. VALBIOM, 2002, “Prise de position sur les biocarburants”, VALBIOM, 10 mai 2002, 9 p.
4. Switten S., 2002, “Projet de directive sur les biocarburants - Avis de la Division de l’Energie du Ministère de
la Region Wallonne”, Région Wallonne, DGTRE, Jambes, 4 p.
5. Schenkel Y., Delaunois C., 2001, “Biocombustibles et biocarburants”, CRA Gx et BELBIOM asbl, 23 p.
6. Dumez F., director of the BASF Feluy site, letter to FSA Gx on 20 November 2001, 1 p
7. Pinon C., Oleon, oral communication on 28 May 2002
8. Novak MH, 2002, “De valonal à valbiom : la filière colza sur jachère reste en place”, VALBIOM, 4 p.
9. http://www.cargill.com/prodserv/country/belgium.htm
10. http://www.vandemoortele.com/fr/solutions/olie.html
11. Anonymous, 1997, “Loi relative à la structure et au taux des droits d’accise sur les huiles minerals”, law
passed on 22 October 1997, published on 20 November 1997, dossier 1997-10-22/38, 9 p
12. http://www.febiac.be
13. Anonymous, 2002, “Trituration du colza à la ferme – TRICOF”, research project of
FSAGx, Gembloux.
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DUTCH BIOFUEL SITUATION
Eric van den Heuvel ([email protected])
http://gave.novem.org/
NOVEM
June 2002
In Netherlands, there are currently no activities in the field of biofuel production from
agricultural crops.
Novem, the Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment has managed the
inventory phase of the GAVE programme which objective was to make a survey of whether
new gaseous and liquid energy carriers (and if so which ones) could contribute to a sustainable
energy provision and reduction of CO2 emissions. After having identified promising fuel
chains to substitute gasoline, diesel and natural gas, and based on the final recommendations
issued from the inventory, the Ministries of Housing, Regional Development and Environment
(VROM) and Economic Affairs (EZ) will decide on the follow-up to the GAVE programme in
which the main feature will be to realise demonstrations of the most promising technological
options. However, it seems that most these energy carriers are more cellulose-based than oilbased or sugar-based.
Encouraged by the conclusions of the inventory, the Dutch government decided at the
beginning of 2001 to further stimulate the market introduction of climate-neutral energy
carriers. Industrial parties, knowledge-based institutes, societal organisations and the
government are convinced of the existence of attractive chains, of the opportunities offered by
various technologies and of the probability of a successful introduction in the market. With a
(financial) support programme, the government wishes to achieve a situation in which
companies (preferably in joint undertakings) proceed to develop, demonstrate and apply those
chains which are the most attractive in terms of the environment and of sound business sense.
The aim is that before 2010 the production and application of climate-neutral gaseous and
liquid energy carriers is demonstrated technically and organisationally.
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FRENCH BIOFUEL SITUATION
Sabine Host / Etienne Poitrat ([email protected] / [email protected])
ADEME
March 2003
Rape seed and sunflower esters
In 2002, France was able to produce 350 000 t of biodiesel mainly from rape seed, among
them 50 000 are exported. Surfaces dedicated to biodiesel production amount to 258 000 ha.
France has 4 plants (see table 7).
The EMVH tax exemption level of 0,35 Euro/L decided in 1998 is still applied and the
quotas allotted to biofuels plants are still limited to 317 000 t. This year the total allotted quota
should increase of 70 000 t. The total production should reach 387 000 t of biodiesel in 2003
which represents an increase of 22 %.
Table 7 : EMHV production and plants capacity (tons/year) 2000-2001
Marketed(2)
2000
Marketed(2)
2001
80 000
60 000
60 500
180 500
Alloted
quota
(2001)
10 000(3)
33 500
60 500
180 500
8 403
30 145
58 290
180 349
9 890
32 947
56 008
179 854
60 000
33 000
31 436
32 001
441 000
317 500
308 624
310 700(4)
Company
Place
Capacity
(2001)
Connemann
Novaol
Diester/Robbe
Diester/Dico
Diester/Cognis
France(1)
Total
Germany
Verdun
Venette
Rouen
Boussens
(1)
Cognis France is the only plant which produces ester out of sunflower for heating purpose.
The marketed quantities doesn't automatically correspond to the produced quantities!
(3)
importation
(4)
309 000 t in 2002
(2)
A wide-scale experimental programme led to the definition of a French strategy, based on
close partnership between RME producers and the oil industry to produce RME blends at 2
percentages :
-
a standardised product containing up to 5 % RME sold to the general public under the
name diesel or domestic fuel oil according to the basic fuel with which the blend is made,
-
a product containing about 30% biodiesel, intended for monitored fleets where
environmental advantages can be evaluated.
No modification of the engines is required.
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Sugar beet and wheat ethanol and ETBE
Ethanol was the first introduced as a motor fuel in France in limited quantities mixed with
gasoline in spark ignition engines and with pro-cetane additive in a few diesel engine. Today it
is increasingly used in the form of ether (ETBE) obtained by reaction with isobutylene (47%
ethanol and 53% isobutylene in mass). Its production started in 1993. Oil refiners are now
regular producers and users of bio-ETBE in their refining process. It is blended with gasoline
up to 15 %.
France had three ETBE units in operation in 2000 and the situation is the same in 2002. It is
produced at 70 % from sugar beet and the rest from cereals with respectively 11 579 ha and
13 885 ha of area dedicated. Table 8 shows how the current situation is.
Table 8 : Ethanol and ETBE production and plants capacity (tons/year) 2000-2001
Company
Place
Ouest ETBE Le Havre
Nord ETBE Dunkerque
Feyzin
Feyzin
Total
70 000
65 000
84 000
Alloted
quota
ETBE
2001
70 000
65 000
84 000
219 000
219 000
Capacity
ETBE
2001
Marketed Marketed Marketed Marketed
Ethanol
ETBE
Ethanol
ETBE
2000
2000
2001
2001
26 302
27 723
38 523
55 945
58 966
81 939
24 484
26 545
39 484
52 078
56 460
83 983
92 549
196 851
90 513
192 521
Source : DGDDI (Direction Générale des Douanes et Droits Indirects)
No major increase of production of bioethanol has been observed since 1998. In 2002,
90 440 tons of bioethanol were marketed. Ethanol production for biofuels is under quota,
102 940 t/y are alloted. 13 units participate to this production.
All ETBE plants are operated by the oil company TotalFinaElf (TFE). Feyzin plant is fully
owned by TFE, Nord ETBE and Ouest ETBE are jointventures (40 % TFE, 40 % ethanol
producers and 20 % farmers).
The prospects for bioethanol production in France have dimmed since the passed 2 years.
While the Farm Ministry in September 2000 raised the production ceilings for ETBE by an
extra 115 000 tonnes, the decision by a European court has challenged the current practice of
support. The legal situation in relation to the Community Law had to be clarified. The
procedure has been long but the dispute has been settled. In January 2002, the European
Commission suggested the Council to authorise France to apply tax relieves on biofuels as the
Directive 92/81/CEE stipulates. Tax relief for 2003 has been settled to 0.38 €/L for bioethanol.
The agreement for the production of additional quantities of ETBE has been asked by
TotalFinaElf. It concerns two new plants : the first one, located in La Mède (South of France),
has the ambition of producing 73 000 t a year of ETBE and the other one, in Donges (LoireAtlantique), will produce 82 000 t a year. The acceptance of these projects depends on the EU
legal framework issues and of course on the French government aids provisions amounts. The
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possibility of blending ethanol with gasoline has also to be considered, if a regulatory answer
is given to the fuel volatility increase, this route could be favoured.
The table below shows how liquid fuels consumption has increased in France since 1994.
Table 9 : Evolution of liquid fuels consumption in France since 1994
Year
Petrol (103 hL) Diesel oil (103 hL)
Ethanol (103 hL)
Ester (103 hL)
1994
217 000
257 000
485
728
1995
207 000
273 000
478
1 737
1996
200 000
283 000
760
2 453
1997
194 000
295 000
1 050
2 800
1998
193 000
306 000
1 233
2 558
1999
192 000
317 000
1 144
2 788
2000
183 000
323 000
1 165,6
3 491
2001
179 000
339 000
1 140
3 515
2002
175 000
351 000
1 139
3 494
ADECA (Association pour le Développement des Carburants Agricoles).
To reach 2 % of fuels consumption in 2005 and 5,75 % in 2010, considering the actual fuel
consumption (13 572 Mt of gasoline and 28 408 Mt of Diesel in 2001), biofuels would use
respectively 436 640 ha and 1 296 980 ha of cultivated area as shown in the table below.
These figures are clearly realistic taking into account arable lands available in France.
Table 10 : Prospects of liquid fuels consumption in France
2002
2005
2010
Ethanol (t)
90 400
271 000
780 000
Biodiesel (t)
308 900
568 000
1 633 000
Corresponding area to
produce ethanol (ha) (3)
22 920 (1)
92390 (1)
307270 (2)
Corresponding area to
produce biodiesel (ha) (3)
257 200
414 600
1 191 970
Total necessary area (ha)
280 120
506 990
1 499 240
(1)
(2)
1/2 sugarbeet, 1/2 wheat
1/3 sugarbeet, 2/3 wheat
(3)
sugarbeet
wheat
rapeseed
yields
5,5 t of ethanol/ha
2 t of ethanol/ha
1,37 t of RME/ha
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GERMAN BIOFUEL SITUATION
Birger Kerkow/ Nuse Lack-Ersoez ([email protected])
FNR
February 2003
The biodiesel production is based on nearly 100% rape seed and now, further to an
important increase of the rape seed oil ester volumes (mainly due to a substantial progression
of the dedicated surfaces) Germany represents the first European producer of EMVH with
about 45% of the production. At the moment, 14 plants are operating for a total capacity of
671 000 tons (see Tables 11 and 12). As Germany has no quota for biofuels as other European
countries and as there is no excise tax on unblended biofuels the marketed quantities are not
based on official statistics, in 2002 the consumption is estimated to 550 000 tons (see Table
13). In 2003, 5 new biodiesel plants are under construction with 270 000 t production
capacity.
Table 11 : Biodiesel production capciy in Germany 1998-2002
source: Dieter Bockey, UFOP, “Biodiesel production and marketing in Germany – the
situation and perspective
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Table 12 : German biodiesel production facilities in 2002
source: Dieter Bockey, UFOP, “Biodiesel production and marketing in Germany – the situation and
perspective)
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Table 13 : Biodisel sale in Germany since 1991
Source: Dieter Bockey, UFOP, “Biodiesel production and marketing in Germany – the situation
and perspective
Besides Biodiesel, Germany has a slowly increasing consumption of virgin rapeseed oil.
This is partly used in private cars with modified engines, partly farmers and truck owners mix
rapeseed oil and diesel in the tank of the vehicle. Engine manufacturers have some serious
doubts about using vegetable oils in unmodified engines, and long term experience is not
known yet. Total estimated consumption is a few thousand tons.
The Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture (BMVEL) and FNR
support a demonstration project where the engines and fuel systems of 100 tractors are
modified to use pure rapeseed oil. Since 30.09.2002 all 110 Tractors of the project are
prepared to be run on rapeseed oil. Every tractor has to run at least 800 hours per year, and this
over a three year period. A workshop will be organized by FNR on 31 March 2003 in Berlin.
First results of the programme will be presented and discussed
Other activities in Germany deal with new biofuels. One is a network funded by the Federal
Ministry of Research (www.refuelnet.de) covering different aspects. Another is a Volkswagen
project on diesel produced from biomass syngas via Fischer Tropsch synthesis. Volkswagen's
brand for this fuel is Sunfuel and they have their own website (www.sunfuel.de). The Federal
Ministry of Economics and Technology supports a project of DaimlerChrysler and Choren
Industries in the same area with 5.5 million Euro.
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GREEK BIOFUEL SITUATION
Calliope Panoutsou ([email protected])
CRES
May 2002
Although not having yet practical experience of biofuel production, Greece has already
done tremendous work and research on subjects such as bio-ethanol derived from
conventional crops like corn and wheat or energy crops plantations like sweet and fibre
sorghum, liquid biofuels produced by forest and agricultural residues as well as by dedicated
energy crops by flash /or fast pyrolysis and, finally biodiesel derived from sunflower or
Brassica species like Brassica carinata and Brassica napus (rape seed). Many experiments
were performed to test the yields and energy content of various raw materials under different
conditions of irrigation, fertilisation, etc and an economic evaluation of bio-ethanol production
from corn has also been carried out. Furthermore, a study has been done on the applicability of
bio-oil issued from pyrolysis to diesel engine applications, to boilers and furnaces and to gas
turbines.
Biodiesel
Except from waste oils and conventional crops such as sunflower, other crops are being
tested in Greece lately, concerning their adaptability and seed yielding capacity.
More specifically, during the last four years, experiments are being conducted on several
Brassica carinata and Brassica napus varieties. Different cultural practices (plant density,
sowing dates) are examined in three Greek regions (northern Greece-Komotini, central
Greece-Kopais and southern Greece-Crete). Experimental results up to now are very
promising, since both crops present good adaptability and high yields.
Furthermore, the Laboratory of Fuel Technology and Lubricants of National Technical
University of Athens completed a demonstration project, entitled “Pilot Actions Aimed at
Introducing Liquid fuels Derived from Biomass in place of Petroleum Products in the
Transport Sector” with the participation of the greatest petroleum refinery in Greece (Hellenic
Aspropyrgos Refinery) and the Italian company Florys Spa.
In an effort to investigate the potential of biodiesel production from raw materials that are
abundant in Southern Europe, this study included fleet tests in Athens by consuming blends of
typical diesel fuel with biodiesel produced from sunflower oil, corn oil, olive oil and used
frying oils. This research was the first actual utilisation of biodiesel in Greece and managed to
illustrate the attractiveness of this fuel in the everyday operation of different vehicle types.
Nine diesel-powered vehicles were employed for the purposes of the project: four taxicabs,
two pick-up trucks, one mini bus and one passenger car. During the test period, all the vehicles
were circulating in the greater Athens area, performing their normal tasks. They were fuelled
either with typical Greek diesel fuel or with mixtures of typical Greek diesel fuel with 10% or
20% by volume biodiesel. The tests included consumption measurements and HC, CO, CO2,
NO and NOx emission measurements at idling and a higher speed (2500 rpm approximately);
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smoke opacity measurements were conducted as well. For some of the vehicles employed, the
effect of biodiesel on engine wear and lubricant deterioration was also investigated via
lubricating oil analyses. Fuel properties were measured as well.
The addition of biodiesel to the common automotive diesel fuel does not affect the
performance of the conventional diesel engine. The four types of biodiesel tested performed in
a similar way: they decreased exhaust emission of black smoke, resulted in a limited change of
nitrogen oxide emissions, did not affect significantly the rate of lubricant deterioration and
probably resulted in slightly increasing the detected amounts of some wear metals in the used
lubricating oil. It is important to note, that the drivers of the vehicles expressed enthusiasm for
the new fuel. They did not notice any negative effect on vehicle performance and stated that
they observed a reduction of black smoke emissions, which is a serious disadvantage of the
diesel engine, especially in polluted areas like Athens.
In addition, the four types of biodiesel were tested in a stationary, single cylinder Petter
engine. The engine was fuelled with fuel blends containing the four types of biodiesel, at
proportions up to 100%. The four types of biodiesel tested performed in a similar way;
independently on the raw material used for their production, their addition in the traditional
diesel fuel improved the particulate matter emissions.
Finally, the effect of the addition of specific additives on two types of biodiesel was also
checked through tests in some of the vehicles and the Petter engine.
In the framework of ALTENER programme (XVII/AL/130/96/GR) a short financial
analysis for biodiesel production in Greece based on fatty acid oils, frying oils or other waste
oils was performed by the Energy Agency of Kilkis.
The results are given in the following tables:
Table 11: Short cost analysis for biodiesel production based on waste oils.
Task
Raw material costs
Chemicals
Logistics
Management and financial
Labour costs
Energy, steam, utilities of plant etc.
Other costs
Total
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ECU/l product
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.08
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Table 12: Short cost analysis for biodiesel production based on fatty acid oils.
Task
Raw material costs
Chemicals
Logistics
Management and financial
Labour costs
Energy, steam, utilities of plant etc.
Other costs
Total
ECU/l product
0.12
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.07
0.05
0.39
A third project financed by the Altener II Programme, entitled “A Global Strategy
Approach for the Penetration of Biodiesel in the Greek Fuel Market” stamps the first
commercial application of FAME in Greece, as fuel blends containing up to 7% rape seed oil
biodiesel, produced in Austria, are already distributed through selected fuel stations of a
private petroleum company, to consumers in the region of Thrace. The results from
monitoring showed that the biodiesel/diesel blends are very well accepted.
A fourth ALTENER project entitled: “Implementation of a biodiesel plant in Northern
Greece” is ongoing. ELINOIL S.A is the coordinator and the other participants are Centre for
Renewable Energy Sources (CRES), the Laboratory of Fuel Technology and Lubricants of
National Technical University of Athens and the Austrian Biofuels Institute.
The overall objective of the project is to examine the techno-economic viability of a
biodiesel plant in northern Greece. This objective is further analysed into the following
specific objectives:
•
Assessment of the proper biodiesel production chain from an economic and quality point
of view and
•
To develop a methodology for the implementation of similar investments, in Greece.
This project constitutes continuation of the previous one in which ELINOIL (a Greek
private oil Company) distributed small biodiesel quantities (imported from Austria) facing up
to now very good consumer perception. However, the experience of the previous Altener
project shows that the commercial interest of imported biodiesel is low, even without taxation,
because of the high price of the product; as a result the only way to make it profitable and
attractive is to produce it in Greece.
Greek Experience on Sweet Sorghum for Bioethanol Production
During the last ten years CRES has, in collaboration with various local Agricultural
Research Stations, performed experiments, in seven different locations throughout Greece,
testing yield performance and energy content of sweet sorghum, grown under several rates of
irrigation and nitrogen fertilisation. The most important findings of this research were:
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1. Fresh biomass yields ranged between 100 to 120 tons/ha, depending on the site and the
variety tested, with a stem percentage of 85-90 % of total fresh weight, while the various
irrigation and nitrogen fertilisation rates did not show pronounced differences.
2.
Sugar percentage in sweet sorghum fresh stems ranged from 10 to 12 % wt.
3. The harvesting period could be extended from early September to late November,
without significant losses in the contained sugars.
4. Bioethanol production ranges from 6,500 to 8,000 lt/ha, in the case of sugar
fermentation, and surpassing, in some cases, 10,000 lt/ha, by fermenting sugars and cellulose
in one step (simultaneous) fermentation.
5. The bagasse (the solid residue left after fermentation) i.e. could provide energy of 0.50.8 TOE, capable not only to cover the total energy requirements for ethanol production, but
also to produce some extra electricity to be sold to the national grid.
Furthermore, CRES, in collaboration with the National Technical University of Athens
(NTUA), Laboratory of Biosystems Technology and Laboratory of Thermodynamics and
Transport Phenomena, had carried out a research programme on one step (simultaneous)
fermentation of cellulose and sugars for bioethanol production. Three scenarios were tested,
namely:
1. from a simple water extraction of fresh sweet sorghum stems, harvested in several
dates, with the sole addition of yeast
2. from sorghum juice (obtained by pressure and the addition of yeast) and sorghum
bagasse (mixed with yeast and Fusarium) and
3. from direct fermentation of ground stems (mixed with yeast and Fusarium).
Experimental results have led to the conclusion that bioconversion of sorghum to ethanol
production through the second and third scenarios is feasible leading to more complete
recovery of sugars and to a higher bioethanol production, beyond the sugar content.
Other findings of this research were that, energy consumption for enhydrous bioethanol
production, with approx. 7% (w/w) water content, reached 5,200 kJ/kg, that is the 17.5% of
the energy content of bioethanol, which is equal to 29.7 MJ/kg. This quantity could be further
reduced to 13% when using two distillation columns.
Bioethanol applications for transportation fuels have also been extensively studied by the
Hellenic Aspropyrgos Refineries. More specifically, its potential for blending it up to 20%
with gasoline, as octane booster, was considered. More specifically, the blending octane rating
RON (Research Octane Numbers) and MON (Motor Octane Numbers) for neat gasoline and
blends with dehydrated bioethanol (G/E) at 5%, 10% v/v respectively, were measured.
The most important findings from these studies were the following:
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1. Although the calorific value of bioethanol is lower than that of the gasoline, a blend of
G/E= 90/10, with 3% less calorific value than the neat gasoline, gave the same mileage (km
per lt ) as the gasoline.
2.
Emissions of blends contained lower CO quantities.
3. In all blends, octane rating was increased, from 1.6 to 10.3 for RON and from 0.5 to
9.9 for MON, depending upon bioethanol content and type of gasoline.
4. Blends had higher vapour pressure (from 0.4 to 1.7 PSI), an advantage for starting up
in winter but a disadvantage for summer (VAPOUR LOCK). This last effect though can easily
be encountered, by blending gasoline with lower vapour pressure.
Bioethanol addition (5 and 10% v/v), during distillation (ASTMD-86), lowers the
distillation point of the gasoline/ethanol blends, without causing any significant problem.
Also, an economic evaluation of bioethanol production from corn in Greece, was carried
out last year. The results are given in the next table (all the prices are in euro):
Table 13: Economic evaluation of bioethanol production in Greece
Cost of Corn per kg
Annual ethanol Production (t)
Initial Investment
Annual Fixed Cost
Annual Variable Cost
Annual Depreciation
Total Annual Cost
Cost of Ethanol per tonne
Cost of Ethanol per litre
47
35,000
38,190,880
1,018,945 (6%)
13,771,660 (82%)
1,909,544(11%)
16,700,149 (100%)
0.477
0.396
47
70,000
56,503,720
1,175,465 (4%)
27,543,320 (87%)
2,825,186 (9%)
31,543,972 (100%)
0.45
0.374
[Source: Agricultural University of Athens, Dept. of Agricultural Economics]
Finally, an ALTENER project is ongoing with the aim to develop a new viable process for
the production of bioethanol from carob. The coordinator is the Mediterranean Agronomic
Institute of Chania (MAICH).
Pyrolysis liquids
Another processes for making liquid fuels from biomass is pyrolysis. The main types are
presented below:
•
Flash pyrolysis: A high temperature process in which biomass is rapidly heated in the
absence of oxygen. It normally takes place at 500oC with an extremely short residence
time, preferably below 1 second. The product has an oxygen content around 35% wt.
When hardwood is used as raw material the highest stability of the product is achieved.
The yield is around 75% wt. bio-oil from dry ash free biomass.
•
Hydrous pyrolysis: Conversion of biomass with steam at high pressure 10-200 bar and
340-360oC, close to the supercritical state of steam, a residence time of 6-72 hours and an
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homogeneous catalyst like sodium hydroxide. The process is suitable for biomass and
sludge with a moisture content higher than 50% and the liquid fuel produced in this way
has a low oxygen content.
•
Hydro-pyrolysis: Conversion of dry biomass in a hydrogen rich environment at pressure
around 100 bar with a residence time in the range of 1-30 secs. The product has low
oxygen content.
Biomass pyrolysis activities in Greece
Flash pyrolysis technologies present a mid-term opportunity for producing electricity in a
cost-effective way. There is a number of research activities in Greece associated with the
production, upgrading and application of pyrolysis liquids. The main activities are promoted
by:
1. Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES)
The main research effort is focused on the development of an innovative reactor for the
flash pyrolysis of biomass, producing a liquid fraction that can be used as fuel. This reactor is
a pilot scale recirculating fluidised bed unit, which can convert 10 kg/h of biomass with liquid
yields up to 65%wt. on dry biomass basis. In the frame of this effort close collaboration with
various European institutes e.g. Aston University (UK), VTT (Finland) and companies such as
TPS AB (Sweden), SOLO (Germany) has been established.
In the framework of the JOULE III programme, CRES is co-ordinating a project titled: "
Small scale combined heat and power (CHP) from bio-crude oil fuelled to a Stirling engine".
The main project objectives include the:
•
development of feedstock logistics for BCO production via fast pyrolysis
•
deduction of the scale-up potential for biomass fast pyrolysis
•
production of BCO for fuelling a Stirling engine for CHP generation
•
development of a suitable burner to fuel BCO and further adaptations in an existing
Stirling engine
•
techno-economics of the technology, including Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
•
market studies for the penetration of both biomass fast pyrolysis technology and end-use
applications of BCO.
It is expected that after the end of this project, biomass fast pyrolysis plants may be safely
designed for different suitable sites in Europe for demonstration and market introduction.
More specifically, it is expected that:
•
production and logistics of suitable feedstocks will be optimised
•
production of the BCO will be technically proven
•
scale-up potential of the fast pyrolysis technology will be duly investigated
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•
combustion of BCO in the burner of a Stirling engine for CHP production will be mastered
•
emissions of major gaseous pollutants (NOx, SOx and particulates) will be minimised in
compliance with EU requirements
•
economics of the entire process from energy crop to CHP will be analysed and evaluated
•
market studies for the fast pyrolysis technology end end-use applications will be carried
out.
2. Chemical Process Engineering Research Institute (CREPI)
The Chemical Process Engineering Research Institute (CREPI) is a private, non-profit
research institute, governed by private law, which is administered by the General Secretariat
of Research and Technology. CREPI aims at increasing the competitiveness and innovations
of Greek industry with emphasis on energy conservation, exploitation of raw materials and
home domestic resources, polymeric materials and protection of the environment. Amongst
CREPI's goals is the beneficial exploitation of national resources, such as biomass, for the
production of new chemical products.
3. Adhesives Research Institute Ltd. (ARI) is a research and development centre affiliated
to SAPEMUS CHEMIE, specialised in the wood and adhesives chemistry. The main objective
of its relevant research work is to examine the potential use of the bio-oil as a raw material in
wood panel manufacture.
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IRISH BIOFUEL SITUATION
Bernard Rice ([email protected])
TEAGASC
June 2000
In Ireland, there is no real activity concerning vegetable raw material biofuel production
but there is a real interest for waste oils from industry, catering establishments and domestic
households as well as for beef tallow. Due to BSE crisis, Ireland has stopped the use of waste
oil in animal feed and has therefore looked for new alternative uses. Estimates from waste oil
collection services suggest that about 10 000 tons of vegetable oil could be collected from
restaurants and that tallow rendered could provide a further 2 000 tons of biodiesel feedstock
whereas the current quantities of recovered waste oils amounts for 5 000 tons and are, up to
now, exported to the UK. However, Ireland has a pilot plant where investigations on the
quality of esters from waste oils have been carried out in collaboration with Austria and has
also worked on an Altener project consisting in the testing of three vehicles which were
operated on blends of esters from various feed-stocks, including waste oils and tallow.
Page 30
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
ITALIAN BIOFUEL SITUATION
Maria Cantarella ([email protected])
Università di L'Aquila
March 2003
Biodiesel
The national production of biodiesel started at the beginning of the nineties and is entirely
based on vegetable oils.
The production is realised on 8 plants with an overall productive capacity 520 000 t/year.
The biodiesel is sold in an exemption regime within an annual contingent of 125.000 t until
the annuity 1st July 2000 – 30th June 2001. The financial Law 2001 (L.388/2000) concerning a
three-year programme raised this annual contingent to 300.000 t to promote the biodiesel
technical development.
Table 14 : Biodiesel capacities in Italy in 2001
Companies
Province
Novaol
Comlube
Defilu
ItalBi-oil
Industrie Generali
Estereco
Fox Petroli
Bakelite Italia
Sisas SpA (b)
OlmuhleGmbh (b)
Total
(b)
Importers
LI
BS
MI
BA
VA
PG
CH
VA
MI
VR
-
Productive capacity
(t/year)
125.000
40.000
35.000
80.000
closed
20.000
70.000
150.000
closed
520.000
Assigned Quota ‘00-‘01
(t)
47.500
5.000
3.000
3.500
3.500
36.000
15.500
10.000
1.000
125.000
Table 15 : Biodiesel production (tons/year) in Italy
Year
Production
2000
90 000
2001
175 000
2002
220 000
Source : Assobiodiesel
Page 31
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
The 90% of the production are employed (as pure fuel or as a blend with 20% diesel fuel)
in thermal uses for public and private heating.
The lands cultivated with oleaginous plants (predominantly sunflower) vary from 10.000
to 60.000 ha/year with an oil yield no more than 1t/ha. The land is prevalently a set-aside one.
The national cultivation of rape is even scarcer.
Italy imports about 70% of oil for biodiesel production from France and Germany and in a
lesser extent from European and extra European Countries.
Exhausted vegetable oils are not yet used in full scale process but it is foreseen to replace
only 10 -15% of the actual utilisation of vegetable oil with the exhausted one.
The National Voluntary Agreement for the use of biofuel in the transport industry –
Biodiesel production line - signed on the 6th April 2001 expects the introduction up to 5% of
biodiesel-diesel fuel blends in the fuel national distribution system. Furthermore, it is foreseen
the use in a percentage even more than 5% of biodiesel-diesel fuel blends in public transport
and public utility.
Bioethanol /ETBE
In Italy the ethanol from agricultural products or wastes is produced in roughly 60
companies, mostly little distilleries or Wineries.
Bioethanol never get over the experimental-demonstrative phase. Mostly ethanol is
produced from obligatory and voluntary distillation of wine or other exceeding fruit and
vegetable products. It is estimated that alcohol stocks amount at the moment to 1.309.000
anhydrous hectolitre in E.U. plus 1.951.972 anhydrous hectolitre of National property (from
AIMA).
In Italy there are no plants particularly dedicated to the production of ETBE; however,
there are 3 plants formerly built for MTBE production, and able to produce ETBE as well,
with only some small change in plant configuration.
In short time, the productive capacity at the national level is estimated of about 300.000
t/year of ETBE (roughly 150.000 t/year of ethanol).
The National Voluntary Agreement for the use of biofuel in the transport industry –
bioethanol production line is under approval. In particular, it concerns ETBE production from
bioethanol, which use is finalised as additive in gasoline delivered in the fuel national
distribution system. The agreement targets the reduction of CO2 emission to 370.000 Mt in the
2003 based on data of the Community Commission.
Page 32
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
PORTUGUESE BIOFUEL SITUATION
Margarida Pinto ([email protected])
ADENE
May 2002
In Portugal there is no commercial production and use of energy crops. However, the
country is far from being self sufficient in energy production and relies heavily on oil and coal
imports. Currently, Portugal imports 90% of its energy. The recent introduction of natural gas,
although with clear advantages for environment protection and the diversity of energy supply,
will not contribute to the external energetic independence of the country.
Liquid biofuels can represent in Portugal an excellent alternative to the conventional
combustibles in the middle term, specifically for the transportation sector, responsible for 42%
of the total national oil importation (1998).
Methyl ester obtained from vegetable oils, may be considered as the best perspective in the
middle term as an alternative to the fossil fuels. The technology for the production of raw
materials required is well disseminated in Portugal (production of sunflower seeds and also the
whole technology of vegetable oils extraction is well known in the national extraction and
refinery units.
Bio-ethanol may have some perspectives in a way that it can be used to produce the
additive ETBE that can substitutes MTBE in the unleaded gasoline. In Portugal, the raw
material available within the group of sugars or starch feedstock for ethanol production are
wheat, maize, barley, potato and sugar beet, although in Portugal there is no ethanol
production.
In spite of the liquid biofuels perspectives for Portugal, the national resource potential is
limited by the extent of the available biomass, which in turn is dependent upon the area of
land available for energy crops, and competition with other uses. The portuguese arable land
available is limited to 3.9 million ha (half the EU average). On the other hand, the national
low productivities in terms of oleaginous and starch cultures represent another barrier for the
development of biofuels in Portugal.
Regarding the legal issues, since February 2001 there is a tax relief (100%) for biofuels
produced in the scope of pilot scale projects, in which the produced biofuels have to be
officially recognised as products less polluter for environment.
Meanwhile, several initiatives have been carried out in order to increase awareness about
this “greenhouse friendly” combustibles.
In the framework of a THERMIE project (TR/48/95-ES-PO-BE), carried out by several
Portuguese and Spanish institutions from 1996 to 1998, three bus and one urban solid waste
collection vehicle from Évora Municipality (south of Portugal ) captive fleet tested the use of
30% of SME mixed with diesel.
Following the example of Évora, biodiesel arrived in Lisbon during the “Expo 98”.
Page 33
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Lisbon Municipality, CARRIS (captive fleet operating in Lisbon) and Petrogal (the
Portuguese oil refinery) were the promoters of this experiment that it is still ongoing.
Currently, there are 24 vehicles running on biodiesel (SME) with fuel blends between 5 and
30% in captive transport fleets. More specifically, there are 19 bus running on biodiesel,
which only one has a 30% SME blend, and six vehicles belonging to the Lisbon Municipality
captive fleet: 2 Ford transit using 30% blends and 4 light Opel Corsa vehicles running on 5%.
The biodiesel (SME) is still imported by Petrogal, which provides the fuel mixture to both
Carris and to the Lisbon municipality captive fleets, and do not charge any additional costs.
Page 34
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
SPANISH BIOFUEL SITUATION
Amparo Manso / Marisa Borra ([email protected] / [email protected])
SODEAN
January 2003
Oxygenated compound In Spain
Actually, in Spain there are 3 refineries with a capacity in ETBE production of 230.000 m3. In
two others, which actually are producing MTBE, are going to be adapted to ETBE production,
so the final Spanish capacity will be 500.000 m3/year. This implies an ethanol consumption of
about 210.000 m3/year.
Ethanol is produced thanks to 2 production facilities, the first one is located in Cartagena with
the capacity to produce 100 million litres and the other in Teixeiro, with the capacity to
produce a further 126 million litres. The latter named commenced its production in the end of
2002. Abengoa has been granted exemption from the tax on hydrocarbons for the ethanol
produced at a third facility with a production capacity of 200 million litres, which will be built
in Balbilafuente in the province of Salamanca.
It is important to take into account that, if there were no limitations with respect to the
availability of Isobutylene, ethanol consumption would be larger.
Ethanol use in combination with diesel oil is almost unknown, but petrol and ethanol mixes is
widely used. This last application implies an important investment in the petrol distribution
net, to avoid difficulties with the water in the tank.
Because of that reason, it is better to use the ethanol in ETBE production than in combination
with petrol.
Table 15 : ETBE PLANTS (Refineries)
LOCATION
ALGECIRAS
PUERTO LLANO
LA CORUÑA
TARRAGONA
BILBAO
TOTAL
OPERATION
YEAR
2.000
2.002
ETBE
(m3/year)
70.000
90.000
70.000
170.000
100.000
500.000
Biodiesel in Spain
In Spain there does not exist at the present time either production or continued use of
biodiesel. The only experiences are pilot test in urban fleets which use biodiesel from
experimental plants.
Page 35
General Liquid Biofuels situation
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Actually there are several biodiesel plants in project. The main raw material used is fried
oils, this offers a solution for the destination of those oils which generate an important
environmental problem. Moreover, the obtaining price of the used oils allow the biodiesel
production in a competitive cost
With biodiesel we can produce at medium and long term, the following main energetic
objectives:
•
Commercial distribution of several blends in petrol stations.
•
Heating use
•
Urban fleets consumption
•
Use in environmental protected sites.
Table 16 : Biodiesel plants
LOCATION PLANT
STATE
CAPACITY (ton)
Reus (Tarragona)
Construction
50.000
Alcala de Henares
(Madrid)
Construction
5.000
Sevilla
In project
50.000
Osuna (Sevilla)
In project
45.000
Jerez de la Frontera
(Cádiz)
In project
10.000
TOTAL
160.000
Barriers
The main barriers for the liquid biofuels development in our country is the fiscal taxation for
hydrocarbon, which must be applied to all substitutive or hydrocarbon additives, unless they
are produced in experimental plants for research and development. It is very important to
obtain the exemption for taxes.
Another barrier is the high cost of raw material, specially in biodiesel production from seeds
oil because of less production than Central European countries.
We also must adapt the fuels distribution net to liquid biofuels, and we must also get the
guarantee from vehicles manufacturers for the use of the new fuel in their cars.
A specific barrier for ETBE production is the availability of isobutylene, and in the case of
biodiesel, the necessity of product normalisation.
Page 36
A. Kisling
W. Körbitz
E. Scheiber
M. Dusek
Kisling Andreas
ABI – Austrian Biofuels Institute
ÖBV – Österreichischer
Biomasseverband
Novaol Austria / Ölmühle Bruck
IMU - Institut für Mineralölprodukte M. Hutter
und Umweltanalytik
Hr. Prossnigg
Grazer Verkehrsbetriebe
Page 37
A-2460 Bruck/Leitha
A-1010 Wien
Franz-Josefskai 13
A-2241 Schönkirchen 88
Gut Zuckermantelhof
A-1014 Wien
Graben 14/3
A-8010 Graz Steyrergasse
114
A-1120 Wien
Rosasgasse 27
A-3250 Wieselburg,
Rottenhauserstraße 1
A-8073 Feldkirchen/
Graz,Eduard-Ast-Str.1
W. Hammer,
H. Gössler
M. Wörgetter
H. Prankl
J. Rathbauer
ADDRESS
A-7540 Güssing,
Wiener Straße 12a
CONTACT
F. Jandrisits
Bundesanstalt für Landtechnik
ORGANISATION
BAG - Bäuerliche Alternativ- Treibund Heizstofferzeugung Güssing /
Jennersdorf
BDI Anlagenbau Ges.m.b.H. /
BioDiesel International
AUSTRIA
3.3 LIQUID BIOFUELS PLAYERS IN EUROPE
General Liquid Biofuels situation
process engineering of biodiesel
production plants
MAIN ACTIVITY
biodiesel producer
www.biodiesel.at
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and know
how
Interessensvertretung der
Biomasseproduzenten und verarbeiter
biodiesel production
biodiesel production
[email protected]. production, fleet tests, emission
tests, standardisation
gv.at
www.blt.bmlf.gv.at
http://www.blt.bmlf.
gv.at/
bus company using used frying oil
methyl ester
analyses, standardisation
www.biodieselintl.com
INTERNET
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
RME -Alternativ-Treib-und
Heizstofferzeu-gung Starrein
SEEG-Südsteirische Energie und
Eiweißerzeugung
Graz University of Technology /
Institute of Internal Combustion
Engines
University Graz, Institute of
Chemistry
Donauwind
Energea
PPM Energie aus nachwachsenden
Rohstoffen GmbH
OMV
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Hr. Ergün
M. Mittelbach
Page 38
A-8010 Graz Heinrichstraße
28
A-8480 Mureck
Pestkreuzweg 3
A-8010 Graz Inffeldgasse
25
K. Totter
S. Hausberger
A-2084 Starrein 45
H. Spitaler
W. Zeiner
F. Heger
P. Münzberg
Industriegelände
West 3
A-2320 Schwechat
Mannswörther Str. 28
A-3041Asperhofen
Mühlengasse 5
www.donauwind.at
www.energea.at
www.omv.com
biodiesel production
biodiesel production
biodiesel analyses
bench tests, emission tests, engine
technology
biodiesel production
biodiesel production
engine tests, oil analyses. heating
system tests
biodiesel production
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Dr Ir Yves Schenkel
Chef de travaux - Section
Biomasse
Head - Biomass Unit
Mr Francis Dumez
Mr Christian Pinon
VALBIOM Valorisation de la
Biomasse
OLEON
Association pour la
Mrs. Cartrysse
Promotion des
Protéagineux et des
Oléagineux
A.P.P.O. asbl
Université catholique Pr. Martin
de Louvain
Unité TERM
Fédération Wallonne Mr Masure
de l'Agriculture
F.W.A.
BASF Feluy
CONTACT
ORGANISATION
BELGIUM
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Page 39
Place du Levant, 2
1348 Louvain-La-Neuve
Phone: 010/47.22.00
Fax: 010/45.26.92
Parc Industriel Zone A
7181 Feluy
tel : 064 51 36 77
fax : 064 54 93 24
Industriezone Ter Straten
Vaarstraat 130
2520 Oelegem
tel : 03 470 62 70 / 010 61
25 57
fax : 03 470 62 00
Chaussée de Namur, 47
5030 Gembloux
Phone: 081/60.00.60
Fax: 081/60.04.46
Passage des Déportés, 2
5030 Gembloux
Phone: 081/62.21.37
Fax: 081/62.24.07
Chee de Namur, 146
B-5030 Gembloux
ADDRESS
Processing into biodiesel
Coordination, exchange of
information,…
MAIN ACTIVITY
[email protected]
http://www.term.ucl.ac.be
[email protected]
[email protected]
Engine trials
Representative of farmers,
technical assistance for rape
production
Representative of farmers
[email protected] Processing into biodiesel
m
http://www.oleon.com/EN/
e_start.html
http://www.basf.be/
INTERNET
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
CONTACT
Jean-Pierre
Leroudier
DIESTER Industrie
Cristal Union
Club des Villes Diester
Champagne Céréales
technical centre for agricultural
production
professional organisation
representing the sugar-alcoholethanol sugar beet
producers/growers
biodiesel tests in captive fleets
wheat producers association
MAIN ACTIVITY
association for the development of
agricultural fuels involving various
syndicates (growers, ethanol
producers…)
[email protected] different studies, funding research
www.ademe.fr
and development projects
www.ademe.fr/partenaires
/agrice/index.htm
INTERNET
[email protected]
8 avenue du Président Wilson [email protected]
F-75116 PARIS
www.agpb.com/
Centre de Grignon, BP4
www.cetiom.fr
F678850 Thiverval Grignon
43-45, rue de Naples
[email protected]
F-75008 PARIS
http://www.cgb-france.fr.
27, rue Louis Vicat
F-75737 PARIS Cedex 15
ADDRESS
45, rue de Naples F-75008
Paris
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Page 40
2, rue Clément ADER
F-51000 REIMS
12, Av. George V
www.villesdiester.asso.fr use of ester in urban captive fleets
F-75008 PARIS
Jean-Louis
Route de Pomacle - BP 10 –
ethanol producer
Rapin
F-51110 Bazancourt
Marc
12, Av. George V
[email protected]
production and marketing of ester
Vandecandelae F-75008 PARIS
www.prolea.com/dossiers/ and glycerine
re
diester/present/droite.htm
Yves-Marie
Laurent
Gaël Petton
CGB - Confédération Générale des Stéphane
planteurs de Betteraves
Halgan
ADEME - Agence de
Etienne Poitrat
l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de
l'Energie
AGRICE - AGRIculture pour la
Chimie et l'Energie
AGPB Association Générale des
Pierre Gatel
Producteurs de blé
CETIOM
ORGANISATION
ADECA - Association pour le
développement des carburants
agricoles
FRANCE
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Paul Gateau
Bertrand
Dufrenoy
Georges
Vermeersch
LOIRE 21S
NOVAOL FRANCE
ONIDOL
SOFIPROTEOL
FOP
SNPAA
Union SDA
TOTAL FINA ELF
Florence
Lacoste
ITERG
[email protected]
www.iterg.com/
[email protected]
www.ifp.fr
21, rue de la Poterie
44640 Saint Jean de Boiseau
14, Bd . du Général Leclerc www.novaol.it
F-92572 NEUILLY sur
SEINE cedex
12, Av. George V
www.prolea.com
F-75008 PARIS
1 et 4, avenue de Bois-Préau,
BP 311
F-92506 Rueil Malmaison
Cedex
Rue Monge-Parc Industriel
F-33600 PESSAC
biodiesel tests in captive fleets,
different studies
ester production
expert
test methods
engine’s tests
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Page 41
Jean-Pierre
45, rue de Naples F-75008
[email protected] ethanol producers association
Leroudier
Paris
m
Michel Girard 51, Esplanade du Général de www.totalfinaelf.com
petroleum company
Gaulle, La Défense 10
F-92907 PARIS La Défense
Cedex
George Alard 11 rue Pasteur F-02390
ethanol producer
Origny sainte-Benoite
Xavier
Montagne
IFP - Institut Français du Pétrole
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Hofplatz 1
D-18276 Gülzow
Dr Andrej Stanev Hofplatz 1
D-18276 Gülzow
Professor Dr
Postfach 1652
Jürgen Krahl
D-96406 Coburg
Ms Nuse Lack
Page 42
FAL, Institut für Biosystemtechnik Professor Dr Axel Bundesallee 50
Munack
D-38116 Braunschweig
Fuchs Petrolub AG
Mr Rolf Luther
Friesenheimer Str 15
D-68169 Mannheim
GET mbH
Dr Klaus
Karl-Heinz-Beckurts-Str 13
Scharmer
D-52428 Jülich
ifeu-Institut
Dr Guido
Wilckensstraße 3
Reinhardt
D-69120 Heidelberg
Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Rohstoffe e.V.
Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Rohstoffe e.V.
Fachhochschule Coburg
Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Rohstoffe e.V.
P.O. Box 60 06 49
D-22205 Hamburg
Hofplatz 1
D-18276 Gülzow
Dr Thomas
Feuerhelm
Mr Birger
Kerckow
DIN/FAM
Knochenhauerstr. 36/37
D-28195 Bremen
P.O. Box 140270
D-53107 Bonn
Professor Dr
Setzermann
CONTACT
ADDRESS
Mr Dieter Bockey Reinhardstraße 18
10117 Berlin
Bundesministerium für
Mr Hubert
Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung, und Honecker
Landwirtschaft
ORGANISATION
Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Qualitätsmanagement Biodiesel
(AGQM)
Bremer SonderabfallBeratungsgesellschaft mbH
GERMANY
General Liquid Biofuels situation
processing of waste oils
MAIN ACTIVITY
biodiesel producers and traders
standardisation
lubricants for biodiesel fuelled cars
consultant biodiesel production
chain
biodiesel ecology
www.fuchs-oil.de
www.ifeu.de
[email protected]
European co-operation
www.fnr.de
[email protected]
R&D measures
www.fnr.de
http://www.fhBiofuels R&D
coburg.de/fbp/PER
SONEN/krahl.html
emission tests
[email protected] biodiesel economics,
www.fnr.de
standardisation
www.din.de
www.verbraucherm biodiesel political framework
inisterium.de
INTERNET
www.agqmbiodiesel.de
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Mr C. Heine
Mineralöl Anwendungstechnik
GmbH
Motorenwerke Mannheim AG
(MWM)
Oelmuehle Leer Connemann & Co.
GmbH
Robert Bosch GmbH, FV/FLM
Dr Onno Syassen
University of Kaiserslautern,
Fachbereich Maschinenbau und
Verfahrenstechnik
University of Magdeburg, Institut
für Maschinenmeßtechnik und
Kolbenmaschinen
University of Rostock, Institute for
Energy and Environmental
Technology
UFOP
Thüringer Landesanstalt für
Landwirtschaft
TÜV Automotive GmbH
Mr Stefan Knittel
LUBRIZOL GmbH
Windeckstraße 90
D-68163 Mannheim
Billbrookdeich 157
D-22113 Hamburg
Buchtstraße 10
D-22087 Hamburg
P.O. Box 102263
D-68022 Mannheim
Sägemühlenstrasse 45
D-26789 Leer
P.O. Box 10 60 50
D-70049 Stuttgart
Apoldaer Straße 4
D-07778 Dornburg
Ridlerstraße 57
D-80339 München
Reinhardstraße 18
D-10117 Berlin
P.O. Box 3049
D-67653 Kaiserslautern
Professor Dr
Prescher
Page 43
Mühlweg 55
D-69502 Hemsbach
Justus-von-Liebig Weg 6
D-18059 Rostock
Professor Dr-Ing.
habil. Ulrich
Hattingen
Professor H.
Universitätsplatz 2
Tschöke
D-39106 Magdeburg
Mr Raimund
Zilmans
Mr Bockey
Mr Torsten Graf
Mr K. Meyer
Mr Nicholas Alan
Burley
Dr J. Connemann
Dr Axel Kunz
John Deere Werke Mannheim
General Liquid Biofuels situation
biodiesel engines
biodiesel promotion, lobbying,
quality management
biodiesel engines
biodiesel emissions
injection equipment manufacturer
standardisation
biodiesel user
biodiesel producer
consultant biodiesel production
chain
biodiesel engines
additives for biodiesel
biodiesel tractors
http://www.fms.uni biodiesel R&D, lubricity
rostock.de/ieut/start
.html
consultant engine manufacturing
www.ufop.de
[email protected]
www.biodiesel.de
www.bosch.de
www.deere.de
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Mr. Avramidis I. Lekka 1 61100 Kilkis, Greece
Energy centre of Kilkis
Mrs. Panoutsou
Calliope
Pr. Stournas
Stamoulis
National University of Athens
Centre for Renewable Energy
Sources
Pr. Kyritsis
Spyridon
Agricultural University of Athens
Page 44
19th km Marathonos Avenue,
Athens
Zografou Campus, 157 73
Zografou, Athens, Greece
Iera Odos 75, Athens
Kountourioti square
712 02 Heraclio, Greece
Dr. Zografakis
Nikolaos
Neoktista Aspropirgou
193 00 Aspropirgos, Greece
ADDRESS
Regional Energy Agency of Crete
CONTACT
Mr. Liapis
Nikolaos
INSTITUTE
ELINOIL (private oil company)
GREECE
General Liquid Biofuels situation
INTERNET
Pilot distribution of biodiesel in
the framework of an Altener
program
Economic evaluation of producing
biodiesel from waste oils on
selected islands (Altener program)
Economic evaluation of liquid
biofuels (study for the Ministry of
Transportation)
Estimation of biodiesel emissions,
demonstration projects concerning
biodiesel.
Marketing of biodiesel in Northern
Greece. (Altener Program).
National co-ordinator on biofuels.
Techno-economic evaluation of
energy crops for biodiesel
production.
LCA of biodiesel.
MAIN ACTIVITY
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Dr. R. Howard
Hildige
Dr. K.
McDonnell
Mr. P. Walsh
University of Limerick
Cork County Council
University College Dublin
Mr. B. Rice
CONTACT
Teagasc
INSTITUTE
IRELAND
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Page 45
Mech & Aeronautical Dept,
Limerick.
Ag. & Food Eng. Dept
Earlsfort Tce, Dublin 2
Energy Agency Office,
Spa House Mallow, Co. Cork.
Oak Park, Carlow
ADDRESS
INTERNET
Practical experience with biodiesel
in vehicle fleets
Biodiesel from waste vegetable oil,
tallow
Biofuel combustion,
emissions, low temp properties
Degummed oil and tallow as fuels.
MAIN ACTIVITY
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Page 46
P.zza Erculea 9
I – 20122 Milano
Via Corsia dei Sevi 3
I – 20122 Milano
NOVAOL
SISAS SpA
I – 21058 Solbiate Olona
VA
Ing. Prof. Aldo De
Lorenzo
BAKELITE ITALIA
SpA
Istituto Motori del
CNR
FOX PETROLI
ESTERECO
Via Mantova, 7
I – 20063 Cernusco sul
Naviglio (MI)
Zona Industriale Pian
d’Assino
I – 06019 Umbertide (PG)
Via Senigallia, 29
I – 01100 Pesaro
P.zza Barsanti e Matteucci 1
I – 80125 Napoli
DE.FI.LU.
Via Acireale, 185
I – 00182 Roma
ADDRESS
Via Industriale, 13
I – 25014 Castenedolo (BS)
Co-ordinator
Vito Pignatelli
CONTACT
COMLUBE
Working Group on
Biodiesel ITABIA
INSTITUTE
ITALY
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Producer
Producer
Producer
Producer
Italian Association for
Biomass
MAIN ACTIVITY
www.novaol.it/
[email protected]
Import
Producer
Test of biodiesel on
motor vehicle / technical
reports
www.bakelite.de/eng/frame22.htm Producer
www.foxpetroli.com
[email protected]
www.cnr.it
www.stcgroup.com/estereco
[email protected]
www.biodiesel.it
[email protected]
www.comlube.it
[email protected]
www.itabia.it
INTERNET
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
NOVEM (The Netherlands agency
for energy and the environment)
INSTITUTE
THE NETHERLANDS
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Eric van den
Heuvel
CONTACT
Page 47
PO Box 8242 NL - 3503 Re
Utrecht
ADDRESS
MAIN ACTIVITY
www.novem.org Knowledge centre for energy and
[email protected] the environment and expertise.
National and international
governmental progrmmes
management.
INTERNET
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Engº Vascocellos Rua 1º de Maio 103
1300-472 LISBOA
Mr J.L.Barroso,
Mr J Mendes
Mr. A.J Amaral
Mr André
Espenica
Mr. Fernando
Neto
Escola Superior Agrária de
Santarém
Associação de Municípios do
Distrito de Évora
Universidade de Aveiro
Page 48
Rua 24 de Julho , 1
7000 Évora
Departamento de Mecânica
Universidade de Aveiro
Campus de Santiago
3600-193 Aveiro
Apartado 310,
2004 Santarém Codex
Rua Castilho, 3
1269-074 Lisboa
Praça do Município
1194 lisboa codex
CARRIS- Companhia Carris de
Ferro de Lisboa, SA
(Lisbon captive fleet)
ISTP-Instituto Superior
Transportes Português
Lisbon City Hall
Rua Dr. António Cândido, 10 4.o 1050-076 LISBOA
Mr.Manuel
Fernandes
Mr.Valdemar
Rodrigues
Engº Salgado
Prata
Mr. Rui Amaral
CEEETA- Centro de Estudos em
Economia da Energia dos
Transportes e do Ambiente
ADDRESS
INETI-Departamento Energias
Renováveis- Estrada do Paço
Lumiar, 1649-038 Lisboa
CONTACT
INETI- National Industrial
Dra. Fernanda
Technologic Engineering institute Rosa
INSTITUTE
PORTUGAL
General Liquid Biofuels situation
National Transport Institute
Research, Demonstration and
Technological Development
organisation, integrated within the
Ministry of the Economy
Research Centre for the Economics
of Energy, Transport and the
Environment
MAIN ACTIVITY
www.ua.pt
Association of Alentejo
Municipalities
Academic institution/ Mechanical
Department
www.cm-lisboa.pt Department of Urban Environment
and Solid Wastes (6 vehicles of the
municipality use biodisel mixture)
www.carris.pt
Exclusive concessionary enterprise
for provision of public surface
transports in Lisbon, and its fleet is
composed by tramways, buses and
funiculars/elevator
Academic institution related to
agriculture production
www.ceeeta.pt
www.ineti.pt
INTERNET
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Mr. Luis Barata
DGE- Directorate General for
Energy
Directorate General for Customs
Page 49
Rua da Alfândega, 5
1194-005 Lisboa
Mr. José Paulino Rua Padre António Vieira, 1-8º,
1149 Lisboa
Ms. Teresa São
DGE - Av. 5 de Outubro, 87
Pedro
1069-039 Lisboa
Agricultural Ministery
Estrada Nacional 116,Km31, 25
Vila de Rei- Ed. Transgás
2674-505 Bucelas
Mr. Carlos
Pombo
Rodrigues
Galp Power, SGPS, S.A
General Liquid Biofuels situation
www.minagricultura.pt
www.dge.pt
www.galpenergia.
pt
Develops production and provides
energy services to Galp Energia
group as well as cogeneration
projects, based on NG.
Division of planning and policy
related to agro-food
National administration body
responsible for conception,
execution and evaluation of energy
policy
Division of mineral oil taxes
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
José Antonio La Cal
Alvaro ESPUNY
Agecam
Alvaro Espuny
Angel Jauregui
Engelgert BRRAS
Pedro MIRO
Valentin CASTAÑO
Mercedes
BALLESTEROS
Engelbert BORRAS
Jose Luis MURIEL
Biocombustibles vascos
Bionet
CAMPSA
Cepsa
Cidaut
Ciemat
Compalsa
Consejería agricultura y
AUVASA
CONTACT
Joaquin ALARCON
ORGANISATION
Abengoa
SPAIN
General Liquid Biofuels situation
Page 50
34 94 453 16 50
www.auvasa.es
Bus company, fleet tests
MAIN ACTIVITY
Bioethanol producer
R&D measures, co-ordination
of activities, exchange of
experiences and know how
[email protected] co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
34 955 82 00 00
biodiesel production project
e-mail / web / Phone
www.abengoa.es
process engineering of
biodiesel production plants
[email protected] biodiesel production project
www.campsa.es
petroleum company
P.I. San Fernando de Henares www.cepsa.es
petroleum company
Madrid
Boecillo 47151 Valladolid
www.cidaut.es
Fuels characterisation, motor
and vehicles experimentation,
development and
industrialisation process in
biofuels obtaining
Av. Complutense, 22 (28040 [email protected] co-ordination of activities,
Madrid)
s
exchange of experiences and
know how
R&D measures
A. Gual , 4 (41206 Reus)
[email protected] Recycling of vegetable used
oils
C/Tabladilla, s/n
www.cap.juntaR&D measures
Av. Estación 41640 Osuna
(Sevilla)
Polígono Argales. 47008 Valladolid
Carretera de Sangroniz,
48150 (Vizcaya)
A. Gual , 4 (41206 Reus)
Tesifonte Gallego 02002
Albacete
ADDRESS
Av. Buhaira 41018 Sevilla
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
J.JavierR AREÑOS
De Smet
Juan Jose LOPEZ
Rafael Ayuste Cupido
Jose BLANCO
ALFONSO
EMT
Entaban
Eren
FCO. JOSÉ BLANCO
ALFONSO
Page 51
49334 LITOS-FERRERAS
Manuel ALONSO
Pza. ayuntamiento 46002
Valencia
MANUEL ALONSO
Mario Azara
Impiva
Paseo de la Castellana 95
(28046 Madrid)
Sevilla
LOPEZ DEL AMO
Idae
C/ Abedul 47193 LA
CISTERNIGA
(VALLADOLID)
C/ Gaztambide, nº 29
28015 MADRID
Av. Diagonal 08036
(Barcelona)
Independencia 28 (Zaragoza
50004)
Parque San Francisco 24004
León
C/ Valladolid, 10
47140 LAGUNA DE
DUERO (VALLADOLID)
14915 El Tejar (Córdoba)
41071 SEVILLA
Serrano, 117, 28006
MADRID
Colombia 64 (28016 Madrid)
Larecsur
Marta Gubiol
Icaen
GAVE, S.L.
Miguel MANAUTE
El tejar
ECO-SYSTEM, XXI, S.L.
Juan FERNANDEZ
pesca
CSIC
General Liquid Biofuels situation
34 (980)59.68.34
34 954 39 24 25
www.impiva.es
www.idae.es
www.icaen.es
34 (91) 895.20.16
34 (983)40.23.54
[email protected]
oleicola@oleicolaelteja
r.es
www.ctm-madrid.es
www.ENTABAN.com
34 (983) 54.55.53
34-1-359 92 05
andalucia.es
www.csic.es
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
Recycling of vegetable used
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
Oil producer
R&D measures
Bus company, fleet tests
biodiesel production project
process engineering of
biodiesel production plants
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
R&D measures
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Luis CABRA
PUMARIEGA Y
DOMÍNGUEZ, S.L.
Repsol YPF
Tecnología medioambiental
( BDI Anlagenbau
Ges.m.b.H)
Tussam
Universidad complutense
Madrid
Universidad de cordoba
TAGÚS BURGOS, S.C.
Antonio LOPEZ
PINTO
Rafael Ruiz Cuevas
Jose ARACIL
Jordi Vaquer
SISTEMAS INTEGRALES
SANITARIOS, S.A
Sodean
Francisco BAS
Resigrass
FERNÁNDEZ
Jesus PARRA
FERNÁNDEZ
Proder de jerez
General Liquid Biofuels situation
[email protected]
34 (947) 24.07.63
www.sodean.es
34 968 52.70.25
31 (91) 816.12.56
www.repsolypf.com
34 (985) 16.88.58
34 956 35 94 60
Page 52
C/Diego de Riaño, 10
www.tussam.es
Fac. Ciencias Químicas 28040 www.alcion.es
Madrid
AV. Menéndez Pidal 14080
www.uco.es
Córdoba
09192 ORBANEJA RÍO
PICO (Burgos)
Crta. Reus Montblanc,
43470 (Tarragona)
DE ABAJO (ZAMORA)
11570 Jerez de la Frontera
(España)
C/ Galileo Galilei,
33392 GIJÓN (Asturias)
Arcipreste de Hita 28015
(Madrid)
28990 TORREJÓN DE
VELASCO (MADRID)
Avda. Luxemburgo
30395 CARTAGENA
Isaac Newton 41092 Sevilla
R&D measures
Bus company
R&D measures
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
co-ordination of activities,
exchange of experiences and
know how
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
process engineering of
biodiesel production plants
Recycling of vegetable used
oils
petroleum company
oils
biodiesel production project
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
Tasks Reports
EUBIONET - Liquid Biofuels Network
4 TASKS REPORTS
TASK 1 : SPECIFICATION OF BIODIESEL
TASK 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCES OF BIOFUELS
TASK 3 : NON BIODIESEL FUEL USES OF OILS/FATS
Page 53
Innovative solutions for solid, gaseous and liquid
biomass production and use
EUBIONET- Liquid biofuels network
Biodiesel specification
Final report
1.1.2002 – 31.03.2003
Contract No:4.1030/S/01-1000/2001
Task leader : BLT, Austria
Partners :
ADEME, France
FNR, Germany
ITABIA, Italy
Austria, February 2003
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 2
The work was carried out in the frame of
•
European Bioenergy Networks
•
NTB – liquid bioenergy network – Non technical barriers to the
development of liquid biofuels
•
Task 1: Specification of Biodiesel
Thank you very much for the contributions of
•
Sabine Host (ADEME, France)
•
Birger Kerckow, Nuse Lack and Annemarie Ammerer (FNR, Germany) and
•
Maria Cantarella (ITABIA, Italy).
Heinrich Prankl
BLT - Bundesanstalt fuer Landtechnik
Federal Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Rottenhauser Strasse 1
A 3250 Wieselburg
Austria
Tel.: +43 7416 52175 27
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.blt.bmlf.gv.at
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 3
Content
Introduction .....................................................................................................................4
Working programme........................................................................................................5
European Biodiesel Standardisation ...............................................................................6
3.1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................6
3.2
National standards as a basis for the European work ..............................................6
3.3
The Standardisation Process of Biodiesel in CEN....................................................7
3.4
Some important parameters...................................................................................10
3.5
Summarising the long way to a high quality ...........................................................11
3.6
References ............................................................................................................11
4 Questionnaire: Biodiesel production quality in Europe...................................................12
4.1
Austria ...................................................................................................................12
4.2
France ...................................................................................................................13
4.3
Germany ................................................................................................................14
4.4
Italy ........................................................................................................................16
5 Summary ......................................................................................................................17
6 Attachment....................................................................................................................18
1
2
3
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
1
page 4
INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester = FAME) has become a fast growing renewable liquid
biofuel within the European Community. In order to ensure customer’s acceptance
standardisation and quality assurance is the key factor to the market introduction of biodiesel
as a transport and heating fuel. In 1997 the European Commission gave a mandate to CEN
(Comité Européen de Normalisation) to develop standards concerning minimum
requirements and test methods for biodiesel. It was the task to elaborate standards for the
following applications:
• FAME as sole diesel engine fuel (100%);
• FAME as extender to EN590 diesel engine fuel;
• FAME as sole fuel or as extender to mineral oils for the production of heat.
The work was based on experiences gathered during national standardisation processes so
far. Standards or specification are available in the following countries:
Austria
Czech Republic
France
Germany
Italy
Sweden
USA
ON C1191
CSN 656507
CSN 656508
CSN 656509
JORF 14.9.1997
E DIN 51606
UNI 10946:2001
UNI 10947:2001
SS 15 54 36
ASTM D 6751-02
1997
1998
1997
1997
2001
1996
2002
FAME
100% RME
diesel fuel + 30% RME
(diesel fuel + 5% RME
VOME
FAME
FAME as automotive diesel fuel
FAME for thermal uses
VOME
Mono alkyl esters from vegetable oils
or animal fats
RME......................... Rape seed oil methyl ester
VOME ...................... Vegetable oil methyl ester
FAME....................... Fatty acid methyl ester
Within CEN four different working groups were involved. In 2001 the following two drafts
were presented and have been subject to the 6-months inquiry process.
• prEN 14214 – FAME as automotive fuel for diesel engines and
• prEN 14213 – FAME as heating fuel
The final standards are defining the highest requirements for biodiesel and will be published
during 2003.
Open problems:
There are remaining questions which could not be solved sufficiently and therefore are still of
interest.
•
Stability: The stability of biodiesel was considered as important parameter while there is
only little experience available. Thus, a European funded project ‘Stability of Biodiesel’
(BIOSTAB – QLK5-2000-00533) was started in 2001 in order to establish clear criteria
and appropriate analytical methods to determine the stability of biodiesel.
•
New raw materials: The most experiences with biodiesel are based on rape seed oil
methyl ester (RME) but the surfaces for producing rape are limited. In order to fulfil the
targets of the European Commission concerning the use of biofuels an extent of the raw
material basis is required. Therefore the European standards don’t specify the raw
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 5
material but define the properties of the final fuel. There is a need of scientific based
experiences with new raw materials (e.g. recycled oils).
•
2
Quality management system: Especially when biodiesel is used as a sole fuel quality
assurance is a key factor for success. Experiences have shown that fuel logistic has to be
included in a quality management system.
WORKING PROGRAMME
The standardisation process in CEN was carried out very intensively and led to the strongest
requirements for biodiesel worldwide. High production technology has to be used and much
experience is necessary in order to fulfil the quality requirements along the fuel’s life.
The biodiesel production is heterogeneous in Europe. Different raw materials are used as
well as different production technology. It is important to receive a feedback from the industry
what raw materials are processed and what problems are expected by establishing the new
quality requirements.
Thus, the working programme concentrated on summarising and reporting of the recent
development of biodiesel standardisation and reflecting the experiences and expectations of
the biodiesel producers on the future standard.
Activities
Who
Deadline
Activity 1: Standardisation
Summarise and report on the current state of biodiesel BLT
standardisation in CEN
Amsterdam meeting;
Interim
report
and
final
Activity 2: Questionnaire
Work out a questionnaire
All partners
30 June 2002
Distribution
BLT
Begin of July
List of contacts (production facilities)
All partners
30 August
Interim report
BLT
September 2002
National inquiry
All partners
30 September 2002
National report
All partners
30 October 2002
Final report including all information received
BLT
December 2002
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
3
3.1
page 6
EUROPEAN BIODIESEL STANDARDISATION
Introduction
The European Commission has set itself the ambitious aim to increase the market share of
renewable energy to 12% until 2010. The ways and means used for accomplishing this aim,
i.e. establishing regulations concerning the creation of favourable conditions for renewable
sources of energy, are summarised in the “White Paper on Renewable Sources of Energy”
[1].
In November 2001 the European Commission released a draft Proposal for a Directive of the
European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of the use of biofuels for transport
[2]. The objective is to provide for a Community framework that would foster the use of
biofuels for transport within the EU. The proposal lays down an obligation on Member States
to ensure that as from 2005 a minimum share of transport fuel sold on their territory is
occupied by biofuels, while leaving it to the Member States to decide how best to meet this
aim. A minimum share of 2% is proposed for 2005 which shall be increased by 0.75% per
year up to 5.75 % for 2010.
Standards are of importance for the producers, suppliers and users of biodiesel. Authorities
need approved standards for the evaluation of safety risks and environmental pollution.
Standards are necessary for approvals of vehicles operated with biodiesel and are therefore
a prerequisite for the market introduction and commercialisation of biodiesel.
Consequently a mandate was given by the European Commission to CEN to develop
standards for biodiesel as well as the necessary standards concerning the methods applied
[3].
3.2
National standards as a basis for the European work
The introduction of biodiesel as a fuel for diesel engines called for the development of
standards in the respective countries. Thus, a working group was installed in Austria to
prepare a standard for rape oil methyl ester. The world wide first (pre-) standard for RME,
ON C1190, appeared in 1990. Standards or specification are available in the following
countries:
Austria
Czech Republic
France
Germany
Italy
Sweden
USA
ON C1191
CSN 656507
CSN 656508
CSN 656509
JORF 14.9.1997
E DIN 51606
UNI 10946:2001
UNI 10947:2001
SS 15 54 36
ASTM D 6751-02
1997
1998
1997
1997
2001
1996
2002
FAME
100% RME
diesel fuel + 30% RME
(diesel fuel + 5% RME
VOME
FAME
FAME as automotive diesel fuel
FAME for thermal uses
VOME
Mono alkyl esters from vegetable oils
or animal fats
RME......................... Rape seed oil methyl ester
VOME ...................... Vegetable oil methyl ester
FAME....................... Fatty acid methyl ester
It has to be observed that a formal decision to start work on elaborating a CEN standard is
always accompanied by a status-quo decision. The member states are committed to refrain
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 7
from working on the same subject at national level. Due to the time needed for development
a European standard, Italy requested for an exception and published two FAME standards in
2001.
3.3
The Standardisation Process of Biodiesel in CEN
In 1997 the European Commission gave a mandate to CEN to develop standards and test
methods concerning the minimum requirements of fatty acid methyl ester used as a fuel for
diesel engines and for heating purposes [3]. The proposed standards are aimed at the
following targets: enabling a free movement of goods concerning biodiesel and providing
guarantees for the use of biodiesel on the part of vehicle and plant producers. As a
consequence an essential contribution to the accomplishment of the common aims preserving the environment, guaranteeing the energy supply and preserving jobs - shall be
made.
Biodiesel is used as a fuel for diesel engines and as fuel used for the production of heat.
Therefore, the mandate provided for the development of the following standards:
∗ biodiesel as sole diesel engine fuel (100%)
∗ biodiesel as extender to diesel engine fuel according to EN590
∗ biodiesel sole or as extender to mineral oil products, in particular for the production of
heat.
It was decided by CEN to divide the work between two existing Technical Committees (TCs)
[4]:
∗ TC 19: Petroleum products, lubricants and related products
∗ TC 307: Oilseeds, vegetable and animal fats and oils and their by-products - methods of
sampling and analysis.
The following working groups (WGs) are involved:
CEN TC19
CEN TC307
|
|
WG24: Specification of automotive
diesel / Task Force ‘Biodiesel’
WG1: Test methods on FAME
WG25: Specification of FAME used as
fuel for heating
WG26: Verification of FAME related
fuel test methods
Co-ordination group
A co-ordination group was installed where the Chairmen and Secretaries of TC19 and TC307
and the Convenors of the Working Groups are involved to ensure an overall co-ordination.
The group is chaired by Mr Michel Girard from Total Fina Elf.
CEN/TC19/WG24: Specification of automotive diesel (Convenor: Mr Chris Bartlett, UK)
Task Force ‘Biodiesel’ (Convenor: Mr G.F. Cahill, P.S.A., France)
The task was to standardise requirements for 100% FAME and for mixtures of FAME to
mineral oil based fuel for diesel engines and to verify the applicability of EN590 for blends of
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 8
mineral oil based fuel with FAME (5% maximum). A task force was entrusted with the
standardisation work. First priority was given to work out drafts for 100% biodiesel and for
biodiesel used as a 5% blend to mineral diesel fuel.
The following parameters were considered to be necessary in the standard:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ester content
Density at 15°C
Viscosity at 40°C
Flash point
Sulfur content
•
Carbon residue (on 10% dist. res.)
Cetane number
Sulfated ash content
Water content
Total contamination
Copper strip corrosion
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Oxidation stability
Acid value
Iodine value
Linolenic acid methyl ester
Polyunsaturated (>= 4
bonds) methyl esters
Methanol content
Mono-, Di-, Triglycerides
Free and total glycerol
Group I metals (Na + K)
Group II metals (Ca+Mg)
Phosphorus content
double
The difficulties consisted in the fact that so far most experience is concentrating on biodiesel
produced from rape seed oil. But it was aimed by the European Commission that the new
standards shall be valid for fatty acid methyl ester in general. The raw material is not predetermined and thus the choice of the limiting values is attributed special importance. A
‘finger print’ system including limits for the fatty acids was rejected.
During the process it was decided to elaborate only 1 standard being valid for both, biodiesel
as sole fuel and as a blending component to EN 590 diesel fuel. Therefore an amendment to
EN 590 had to be issued to allow a 5% incorporation of FAME into diesel fuel.
The final standard EN 14214 specifies the requirements and test methods for marketed and
delivered fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) to be used either as automotive fuel for diesel
engines (100%) or as an extender for automotive fuel for diesel engines in accordance with
the requirements of EN 590.
CEN/TC19/WG25: Specification of FAME used as fuel for heating (Convenor: Mr Franz
Heger, OMV AG, Austria)
The task of the working group was proposed as to specify requirements for FAME used as
fuel for heating oil and as a blending component for the production of heating oil.
Heating oil has so far only been standardised on a national level, but not on a European
level. Besides, the national requirements differ fundamentally. Thus, the instructions given to
the WG have been altered. Henceforth, only one standard had to be developed, which
determines the requirements for biodiesel as pure heating oil as well as the requirements for
biodiesel used as mixing component for fossil heating oil. The resulting blends have to meet
the requirements of the national standards for heating oil in the countries applying the
standards.
The following parameters were considered to be necessary:
•
•
•
•
Viscosity at 40°C
Density at 15°C
Flash point
Carbon residue (on 10% dist. res.)
•
•
•
•
Mono-, Di-, Triglyceride content
Free glycerol
Cold filter plugging point (CFPP)
Pour point
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
•
•
•
•
•
Sulfated ash content
Water content
Total contamination
Acid value
Ester content
page 9
•
•
•
•
•
Net calorific value (calculated)
Iodine number
Oxidation stability, 110°C
Sulfur content
Polyunsaturated compounds
The final standard EN 14213 specifies requirements and test methods for marketed and
delivered fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) to be used as heating fuel (100%) or as a blending
component for the production of heating fuel.
CEN/TC19/WG26: Verification of FAME related fuel test methods (Convenor: Mrs MarieFrance Benassy, Total Fina Elf, France)
The task of the working group was to establish the applicability of already existing standards
for petroleum test methods including precision data and to develop new standards for test
methods. Round robin tests had to be carried out for each test method with sole biodiesel.
Later the round robin tests were repeated with blends of biodiesel and fossil diesel fuel. The
working items were defined as follows:
Working item
WI6
WI7
WI8
WI9
WI10
WI11
WI12
WI13
WI14
WI15
WI16
WI18
WI20
WI20
Parameter
Density at 15°C
Viscosity at 40°C
Flash point
CFPP
Sulfur content
Carbon residue (10% dist.)
Cetane Number
Sulfated ash content
Water content
Total contamination
Copper strip corrosion
Distillation I.B.P
Pour Point
Cloud Point
Methods
EN ISO 3675, EN ISO 12185
EN ISO 3104
ISO/CD 3679
EN 116
ISO/CD 20846, EN ISO 14596
EN ISO 10370
EN ISO 5165
ISO 3987
EN ISO 12937
EN 12662
EN ISO 2160
ASTM D1160
ISO 3016
ISO 3015
The precision data from this programme are given in normative annexes of the standards EN
14213 and EN 14214, where these were found to be different from the precision data given
in the test methods for petroleum products.
CEN/TC307/WG1: Test methods on FAME (Convenor: Mr Francois Mordret / Mrs. Florence
Lacoste, ITERG, France)
The task is to standardise necessary test methods for the determination of the composition of
100% FAME, including the establishment of precision data. The following working items are
under the responsibility of TC307:
Working item
WI 307-040
WI 307-041
Parameter
Ester and linolenic acid
content
Acid value
Methods
NF T60-703 (1997) → prEN 14103
ISO 660 (1996) → prEN 14104
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
WI 307-042
WI 307-043
WI 307-044
WI 307-045
WI 307-046
WI 307-047
WI 307-048
WI 307-060
Free and total glycerol,
Mono-, di- and tri-glycerides
Phosphorus content (ICP)
Sodium content
Potassium content
Methanol content
Iodine value
Oxidation stability
Free glycerol
page 10
NF T60-704 (1997) → prEN 14105
NF T60-705 (1997) → prEN 14107
NF T60-706-1 (1997) → prEN 14108
NF T60706-2 (1997) → prEN 14109
NF T60-701, DIN 51608 → prEN 14110
ISO 3961 (1996) → prEN 14111
ISO 6886 (1996) → prEN 14112
UNI 22054 (1997) → prEN 14106
In some cases the precision level claimed by ISO 4259 (2R rule) could not be achieved with
FAME. An improvement of the methods is necessary.
3.4
Some important parameters
Viscosity: There was no discussion to define the limit at 40°C, 3.5-5.0 mm²/s. But at deep
temperatures there is a big difference between fossil diesel and FAME. Therefore fuel
injection equipment manufacturer claimed: If the CFPP is < -20°C, the viscosity at -20°C
shall not exceed 48 mm²/s.
Carbon residue: Is an important parameter reflecting the tendency of carbonisation. The
micro method EN ISO 10370 which is also included in EN590 for fossil diesel fuel is applied
on a 10% distillation residue of the sample (using ASTM D1160). The limit was set at 0.3 %
(m/m).
Stability: There is little experience on the effects of a low stability on engines or boilers so
far. It has to be distinguished between oxidation, thermal and storage stability. That was why
a European funded project “Stability of Biodiesel” (BIOSTAB) was started in 2001. 9 well
experienced European partners are involved under the leadership of BLT Austria. The
objective of the project is to establish clear criteria and the corresponding analytical methods
to determine the stability of biodiesel. The working programme covers investigations on
determination methods, storage, antioxidants and tests with both, engines and heating
systems.
The oxidation stability determined by EN 14112 (Rancimat) at 110°C is already included in
both standards: 6 hours in EN 14214 and 4 hours in EN 14213. Thermal stability and storage
stability will be included as far as results are available from the BIOSTAB programme.
Iodine value: The fatty acid profile of the raw material defines the properties of the fuel. The
engine manufacturer always have been aware of the iodine number which expresses the
number of double bonds. Rape seed oil shows an iodine value of 115-120, sunflower oil
about 130-135. The limit was set at 120 in EN 14214 and 135 in EN 14213.
Linolenic acid methyl ester, polyunsaturated (>= 4 double bonds) methyl esters: A high
content of unsaturated acids in the esters increases the risk of polymerisation in the engine
oil [5]. That was why additional parameters were introduced. The limit was set at 12% for
linolenic acid and 1% for fatty acids with >= 4 double bonds. The problem is that there is no
method to determine fatty acids >= 4 double bonds at such low limits.
Total contamination: The limit of 24 mg/kg (the same like in EN 590) was included in both,
EN 14213 and EN 14214. Former investigations with different fuel components have shown
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 11
the importance to meet that limit [6]. Unfortunately EN 12662 is not applicable with the
precision required. Further improvement of the method or a modification is necessary.
3.5
Summarising the long way to a high quality
In January 1998 the standardisation work was started with the initial meetings of the different
working groups. The work was based on knowledge being gathered so far during the national
biodiesel standardisation. Nearly 50 meetings in total were needed to go through the difficult
and comprehensive matter.
At the beginning of 2000 two drafts could be presented by TC19/WG24 and WG25. Both
drafts, prEN 14213 (FAME as heating fuel) and prEN 14214 (FAME as automotive fuel for
diesel engines) have been subject to the 6 months inquiry process in 2001. Deadline for
national comments was November 10th, 2001. The replies were treated in 2 meetings of the
appropriate working groups in November 2001. The final standards were subject to the
formal vote and will appear during 2003.
3.6
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
References
Energy for the future: Renewable Sources of Energy. White Paper for a Community Strategy and
Action Plan. European Commission (1997).
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of the use of biofuels
for transport COM (2001) 547 final.
M/245 Mandate to CEN for the elaboration and adoption of standards concerning minimum
requirement specification including test methods for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) as fuel for
diesel engines and for space heating (29 January 1997).
CEN/TC 19, N 955: Standards Programme for the Execution of Mandate M/245 (Oct. 1997).
PRANKL, H., RATHBAUER, J., WÖRGETTER, M., FRÖHLICH, A.: Technical Performance of
Vegetable Oil Methyl Esters With a High lodine Number. First World Conference and Exhibition
on Biomass for Energy and Industry. Sevilla (2000).
MITTELBACH, M., SCHLAG, S., PISCHINGER, R.: Chemische und motortechnische
Untersuchungen der Ursachen der Einspritzpumpenverklebung bei Biodieselbetrieb. Endbericht
zum Forschungsauftrag. Universität Graz (2000).
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
4
4.1
page 12
QUESTIONNAIRE: BIODIESEL PRODUCTION QUALITY IN EUROPE
Austria
An increasing interest can be observed in the production of biodiesel in Austria. While
Oelmuehle Bruck (Novaol Austria) has been the only industrial production plant for a longer
period of time, two new facilities went into operation in Zistersdorf and in Woellersdorf in the
last year. A further plant is under construction in Arnoldstein. A total capacity of more than
100.000 t/a will be available soon.
Production plant
Biodiesel Kärnten
Biodiesel production plants in Austria
Location
in operation
since
Arnoldstein
under
construction
Asperhofen
1989
PPM Energie aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen
Ölmühle Bruck (NOVAOL
Österreich)
BAG Güssing
SEEG Mureck
RME-Alternativtreibstoff
Starrein
Zuckermantelhof
Bioenergy Biodieselerzeugung
Bio-Diesel Raffinerie
capacity [t/a]
25.000
1.500
Bruck/L.
1992
25.000
Güssing
Mureck
Starrein
1991
1991
1993
2.000
5.000
3.000
Schönkirchen
Wöllersdorf
Zistersdorf
1991
2002
2001
1.000
20.000
40.000
Raw material:
In Austria mainly rape seed oil is processed for biodiesel production. But used frying oil
becomes more and more interest because of lower raw material costs.
Product quality at production:
Quality management system is installed in every case. The fuel quality is complying with the
Austrian ON C1191 and the German DIN 51606. In co-operatives sometimes problems occur
with the flash point due to the technology applied.
Problems during fuel logistics and storage:
Fuel transport may cause pollution with fossil fuels or water. Condense water occurs in some
cases when biodiesel is stored in home filling stations. Old fossil diesel fuel residues have
caused problems in storage tanks when refilled with biodiesel. Thus the following parameters
may become critical during storage: flash point, water content, total contamination and
oxidation stability.
New raw materials:
Used frying oils are of increasing interest. Maybe animal fats will be considered in future.
Future challenges:
Economy is the main challenge in future. The price of rape seed oil is too high in order to be
competitive with fossil diesel fuel. A mix of raw material could be used for reducing
production costs.
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
4.2
page 13
France
In 2001, France was able to produce 310 700 t among alloted quota and 50 000 t for
exportation of biodiesel mainly from rape seed oil. An alloted quota of 10 000 t from
Oelmühle Leer Connemann (Germany) is also consumed in France. The total of a.q.
amounts 317 500 t/year in 2001 and 2002.
Actually two operators are sharing the market, Novaol with one production plant located in
Verdun and the other one is Diester Industrie which owns 3 production plants respectively
located in Venette, Rouen and Boussens (see table below). Cognis France in Boussens is
the only plant where biodiesel is produced out of sunflower oil.
Biodiesel is used in France in following applications:
• as blending component up to 5% RME sold to general public
• as blending component up to 30% of biodiesel, intended for monitored fleets where
environmental advantages can be evaluated.
Biodiesel production plants in France in 2001 and 2002
in operation
under
Production plants
Location Capacity [t/y]
since
construction
60 000
Novaol
Verdun
1994
planning
stage
(33 500 a.q.)
DiesterIndustrie/Robbe
DiesterIndustrie/SAIPOL
DiesterIndustrie/Cognis
France
Venette
Rouen
Boussens
60 500
(60 500 a.q.)
180 500
(180 500 a.q.)
60 000
(33 000 a.q.)
1992
1995
100 000 t
(70 000 a.q.)
?
.(1)
a.q. : alloted quota.
Product quality
Since biodiesel is used as blending component, there is a tough quality requirement from the
petroleum industry. Production units are ISO 9002 and ISO 14000 certified. VOME fulfil
French specifications defined in JO n°214 from 14/09/1997. The French standard is the
strongest in Europe e.g. water content <200 ppm.
Since the French standard is stronger than the future standard no serious difficulties are
expected to fulfil the future requirements.
Iodine value : the French standard requires iodine value < 115, the future standard will
procure more flexibility (eventually for the use of sunflower oil).
Water content : the French standard sets the maximum to 200 mg/kg, the future European
standard will be easier to fulfil, nevertheless it is expected that the petroleum industry using
biodiesel as blending component would require a lower water content.
Oxidation stability : the French standard does not take in consideration such parameter. In
some cases an addition of antioxidant will be necessary to fulfil this parameter. It is expected
more data on the effects of a low stability on engines and the establishment of clear
analytical methods.
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 14
Problems during fuel logistics and storage:
In France the logistic is already well organised and optimised:
• production facilities are situated near seed producers and near consumers.
• fuel transport first uses water then rail and at last road
• no storage problems are expected
New raw materials:
Used frying oils do not offer enough guaranty of quality. Moreover there is a necessity of
guarantying the vegetable origin of the raw material, this is of a crucial importance for the coproduct, glycerol. Sunflower oil could be used in addition to rape seed to dispose of an
important stock of the raw material but the high raw material price is very limiting. Soya oil
would have been of interest if absence of GMO could be guarantied.
Future challenges:
•
•
The achievement of new amounts of allotted quota and the preservation of a tax
exemption level still sufficient to compete with fossil fuels
The raw material availability. Set aside lands are limited and will not be sufficient to
achieve the objectives proposed by the European Commission of minimum share of 5.75
% for 2010.
4.3
Germany
Germany represents currently the first producer of biodiesel worldwide. Around 18 production
plants provide a total capacity of more than 900.000 t/a. It is of great importance to care for a
high fuel quality in the market. That was why a national quality management system, the so
named ‘AGQM Biodiesel’ was installed in order to force and to ensure the product quality.
Production facility
Biodiesel production plants in Germany
Location
Capacity
Ölmühle Hamburg AG
Ölmühle LeerConnemann GmbH & Co
Mitteldeutsche Umesterungswerke Bitterfeld
NEW Natural Energie West GmbH
Nevest AG (Biodiesel Schwarzheide GmbH +
Biodiesel Rostock GmbH)
RBE Rheinische Bioester GmbH
Campa Biodiesel GmbH & Co KG
Biodiesel Wittenberge GmbH
Bio-Ölwerk Magdeburg
TME, Thüringer Methylester Werke
(Mittelberger Gruppe, NAWARO GmbH)
Petrotec GmbH
SARIA Bio-Industries GmbH & Co. Verw. KG
Biodiesel Bokel GmbH
Leer
Zörbing
Neuss
Butzbach
120.000
100.000
100000
100.000
100000
Start of
Production
9/2001
9/1996
9/2001
4/2002
10/2002
Neuss
Ochsenfurt
Wittenberge
Magdeburg
Harth-Pöllnitz
100.000
75000
60.000
50000
45000
12/2002
1/2000
8/1999
03/2003
01/2002
Borken/Burlo
Malchin
SprakensehlBokel
35.000
12000
10.000
5/2002
10/2001
9/2002
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
Hallertauer Hopfenveredelungsgesellschaft
mbH
Landwirtschaftliche Produkt- Verarbeitungs
GmbH
BioWerk Sohland GmbH
PPM Umwelttechnik GmbH & Co KG
BKK Biodiesel GmbH
Verwertungsgenossenschaft Biokraftstoffe
Vogtland e.G.
Under construction:
Marina Biodiesel GmbH & Co KG
EOP Elbe Oel AG
Biodiesel Kyritz GmbH
Kraftstoffverwertungsgesellschaft Cordes &
Stoltenburg GmbH & Co
BioWerk Kleisthöhe GmbH
page 15
Mainburg
8.000
4/1995
Henningsleben
5.000
4/1998
Sohland
Oranienburg
Rudolstadt
Großfriesen
5000
5.000
4000
2.000
7/2002
11/2001
12/2001
1996
Brunsbüttel
Falkenhagen
Kyritz
Schleswig
100.000
30.000
28000
10.000
Uckerland
5.000
Raw material:
Biodiesel is mainly produced out of rape seed oil.
Product quality at production:
The national quality management system ‘AGQM Biodiesel’ strongly supervises the
production quality of all members by sampling and analysing by independent institutes. The
quality requirements are based on DIN 51606 and in future on EN 14214. ISO 9001/9002 is
applied in some companies. No problems are expected by introduction of the new European
standard.
Stability and cold temperature properties may be difficult to be fulfilled when using other raw
materials than rape seed oil.
Expected problems during fuel logistics and storage:
Condense water in some cases. Due to the big demand of biodiesel the storage period is
very short currently.
Remark: From the point of view of the biodiesel producer no or only minor problems are
expected by fuel distribution. In fact it could be observed that the quality at the filling station
might be quite different to the quality at production (reason: water, pollution, residues from
fossil fuels, stability,..).
New raw materials:
Due to the requirements of AGQM only rape seed oil is accepted for their members. Further,
the approvals for biodiesel are related only to RME. For non members also recycled
vegetable oils and animal fats are used.
Future challenges:
• The main challenge is the economy due to high raw material prices especially for rape. A
raw material mix will be necessary to reduce costs. It is expected that the price of rape
seed oil will increase due to shortage. Currently there is no mineral oil tax on biodiesel but
the situation will change in future.
• Further, the acceptance of biodiesel by the vehicle industry and public should be
increased.
• The petrol industry aims at reducing harmful substances from fuels. Strong emission limits
call for a development of the fuel quality in the future. A close co-operation with the
vehicle industry is necessary.
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
4.4
page 16
Italy
Assobiodiesel, the Italian Association of the biodiesel producer is actually the only
responsible for the Italian strategy on biodiesel.
Production plant
Location
BAKELITE ITALIA SpA
I – 21058 Solbiate Olona VA
COMLUBE
Via Industriale, 13
I – 25014 Castenedolo (BS)
40.000
DE.FI.LU.
Via Mantova, 7
I – 20063 Cernusco sul Naviglio (MI)
Zona Industriale Pian d’Assino
I – 06019 Umbertide (PG)
Via Senigallia, 29
I – 01100 Pesaro
35.000
ESTERECO
FOX PETROLI
Industrie Generali
ItalBi-oil
NOVAOL
OlmuhleGmbh
SISAS
Capacity
[t]
150.000
20.000
70.000
Ital Bi Oil s.r.l.
Monopoli (BA) Via Baione 222, 224
Tel. 080 9302011 fax 080 6901767
[email protected]
P.zza Erculea 9
I – 20122 Milano
Sprea Valpolicella
Valpolicella (VR)
closed
80.000
-
125.000
Srl
di
S.
Ambrogio Importer 1.000
Closed
Raw material:
Biodiesel is mainly produced from rape seed oil. Some minor percentage amount is
produced from soybean and sunflower oil and also from used frying oil.
Product quality at production:
All Italian producer implemented a quality management system based on Italian UNI 10946
drawn from prEN14214.
All parameters are reachable with the right plant process and raw material mix. The
BIOSTAB project will supply more information about oxidation stability.
Problems during fuel logistics and storage:
The logistic chain pay attention to tank cleaning: residual water, deposits, no varnished
tanks.
New raw materials:
Italian producers do not exclude any raw material provided that the final product complies
with UNI10946 – EN14214 specs. At present only vegetable raw materials are permitted by
Italian legislation.
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 17
Future challenges:
• Develop the biomix (biodiesel blend with gasoil in high percentage) use
• Car maker warranty
• Work in a clear regulation system
5
SUMMARY
The standardisation process in CEN was carried out very intensively and led to the strongest
requirements for biodiesel. The European standards for fatty acid methyl ester EN 14213 (for
heating purposes) and EN 14214 (for automotive) will appear during 2003. They contribute
essentially to improve and ensure a high fuel quality in the European market. A standardised
fuel quality is the main precondition for market introduction and a long term market success.
The biodiesel production is heterogeneous in Europe. Different raw materials are used and
different production technology are applied. It is important to receive a feedback from the
industry what raw materials are processed and what problems are expected by establishing
the new quality requirements.
Biodiesel is mainly produced from rape seed oil in Europe. Other raw materials such as
recycled vegetable oils or even animal fats are of interest but realised only in limited markets.
A high quality is absolutely necessary to avoid problems and to ensure that biodiesel is
accepted by the vehicle industry as well as by public. Quality problems during the fuel
distribution often are underestimated.
The main challenge now and in future is the economy. Due to the increasing demand the
price of rape seed oil also will increase. Currently biodiesel is exempted from mineral oil
taxes but the situation will change in future.
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
6
ATTACHMENT
Questionnaire:
Biodiesel production quality in Europe
1) General:
Production facility
Location
Address:
Contact
Name
Tel. No.
E-mail
Date:
2) Biodiesel production
Capacity
[t]
Rape seed oil:
Sunflower oil:
Used frying oil:
Other:
Raw material
used
Production [t]
2000
approx.:
2001
approx.:
page 18
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 19
3) Product quality
Did you implement any kind of quality management system? Based on which standard?
Are there problems expected considering the future EN14214 quality requirements /
Which parameter might be difficult to be fulfilled?
Properties of
prEN14214
Ester content
Density at 15 °C
Unit
max
Test method
% (m/m)
3
kg/m
> 96,5
860 - 900
EN 14103
EN ISO 3675
EN ISO 12185
EN ISO 3104
e
ISO/CD 3679
2
mm /s
°C
mg/kg
% (m/m)
3,5 - 5,0
> 120
< 10
< 0,3
% (m/m)
mg/kg
mg/kg
rating
> 51
< 0,02
< 500
< 24
class 1
EN ISO 5165
ISO 3987
EN ISO 12937
EN 12662
EN ISO 2160
hours
>6
EN 14112
mg
KOH/g
< 0,5
EN 14104
% (m/m)
< 120
< 12
EN 14111
EN 14103
% (m/m)
<1
% (m/m)
% (m/m)
% (m/m)
% (m/m)
% (m/m)
< 0,2
< 0,8
< 0,2
< 0,2
< 0,02
Total glycerol
Alkaline metals (Na+K)
% (m/m)
mg/kg
< 0,25
<5
(Ca + Mg)
Phosphorus content
mg/kg
mg/kg
<5
< 10
Viscosity at 40 °C
Flash point
Sulfur content
Carbon residue
(on 10 % distillation
g
residue)
Cetane number
Sulfated ash content
Water content
Total contamination
Copper strip corrosion
(3 h at 50 °C)
Oxidation stability, 110
°C
Acid value
Iodine value
Linolenic acid methyl
ester
Polyunsaturated (>= 4)
methyl esters
Methanol content
Monoglyceride content
Diglyceride content
Triglyceride content
b
Free glycerol
EN ISO 10370
EN 14110
EN 14105
EN 14105
EN 14105
EN 14105
EN 14106
EN 14105
EN 14108
EN 14109
EN 14107
EUBIONET / NTB – Specification of Biodiesel
page 20
What problems might occur / do you expect during the fuel distribution (logistics) and
during fuel storage?
Do you consider any new raw materials (beside rape seed oil) in future?
• sunflower oil ?
• used frying oil ?
• animal fats ?
• others ?
What is the big challenge of the biodiesel production industry in the future? (Technical /
financial ?)
>>> Remark: The data will be processed anonymously! <<<
Innovative solutions for solid, gaseous and liquid
biomass production and use
EUBIONET- Liquid biofuels network
Environmental balances
of liquid biofuels
Final report
1.1.2002 – 31.03.2003
Contract No:4.1030/S/01-1000/2001
Task leader : ADEME, France
Partners :
BLT, Austria
VALBIOM, Belgium
FNR, Germany
CRES, Greece
ITABIA, Italy
ADENE, Portugal
SODEAN, Spain
NOVEM, The Netherlands
France, March 2003
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 2
1 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................1
2 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................3
3 ENERGY BALANCES AND GREENHOUSE GASES BALANCES .........................................5
Energy and greenhouse gases balances of biofuels’ production chains in France......................... 6
Co-generation and production of ethanol from wheat ................................................................. 10
Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Transportation Systems............................................................... 11
Study on Bio Ethanol, technique, potentials and costs of bio ethanol on fuel market................. 13
Reduction of the environmental impact of diesel motors ............................................................ 14
Three studies on energy and environmental balance of RME and rapeseed oil .......................... 16
Bioenergy for Europe : which ones fit best?................................................................................ 18
Comparative LCA of Bioenergy and Fossil Energy Systems in Greece ..................................... 23
Ecobalance – Biodiesel................................................................................................................ 24
Oil crop for biodiesel production in Italy .................................................................................... 25
Biodiesel report 1999................................................................................................................... 27
Comparison of LCA and external-cost analysis for biodiesel and diesel .................................... 29
The energetics of sunflower crop as a source for biodiesel production in Greece ...................... 30
Cleaner and greener liquid and gaseous fuels.............................................................................. 31
Environmental impact of three energy crops and energy balance ............................................... 32
Combustibles and liquid biofuels from agriculture ..................................................................... 33
Energy balance for sugarbeet and wheat crop as a source for ethanol production ...................... 35
4 EXHAUST EMISSIONS ................................................................................................36
Emissions of light duty vehicles performed with gasoline blended with ethanol and ETBE...... 37
Emissions from the application of liquid biofuels in engines...................................................... 39
Emissions from waste frying oil biodiesel................................................................................... 40
Impact of the incorporation of VOME on non regulated emissions of diesel engines, both for
light and heavy duty vehicles ...................................................................................................... 41
Evaluation of the impact of rape seed methyl ester (RME) on the additives used with Carme(e)x
type particle filters ....................................................................................................................... 43
Effect of biodiesel on performance, emissions, injection and combustion characteristics of a
diesel engine ................................................................................................................................ 44
A study about the emissions produced by the combustion of biodiesel and of biodiesel - fossil
diesel mixtures............................................................................................................................. 45
Biodiesel in Portugal: Results from the BIOPOR project ........................................................... 46
Pilot actions aimed at introducing liquid fuels derived from biomass in place of petroleum in the
transport sector ............................................................................................................................ 48
Fuelling a small diesel engine by using gas-oil and RME: comparative results and particulate
characterisation............................................................................................................................ 49
Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel.......................................................................................... 51
5 BIODEGRADABILITY AND ECOTOXICITY...................................................................52
Environmentally friendly properties of vegetable oil methyl esters............................................ 52
6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................54
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 3
2 INTRODUCTION
Context
The increasing dependence of the European Union (EU) on oil imports and the commitments
to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases following the Kyoto protocol, are urging the
European Commission (EC) to explore the possibility of alternative fuels for road transport.
The substitution of oil derived transport fuels by biofuels in the short term could fulfil these
ambitions with low investments. The EC has recently put forward a Communication on
alternative fuels for road transportation accompanied by a proposal for a directive on the
promotion of biofuels for transport and one that allows tax breaks for these fuels. The
Commission states in its Communication that “any long-term solution (concerning alternative
fuels for transport) will, as a minimum, have to offer a reduction in oil dependency and a
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, compared to the most fuel-efficient vehicles running
on conventional fuel. In addition, it must be required that such alternatives permit a continued
reduction in emission of “conventional” air pollutants from the vehicles.” (COM (2001) 547,
page 3).
Within this context and considering the use of biofuels will increase in the transport sector, a
strict evaluation of their related environmental impacts is needed. There are several studies in
which the environmental performance of biofuels is assessed, usually in comparison to other
fuels. Since the energy crisis in 1973, various tests have been carried out with analyses
continuously refined and improved.
Environmental expertise
Evaluation of fossil energy use and greenhouse gas emissions can be done by comparing
greenhouse gas emissions during the biofuel lifecycle with those during the lifecycle of the
conventional fuels they replace. In order to come to comparable lifecycle data, they have to be
standardised. Several methods have been developed:
1. The output-input ratio is used to express the fossil energy input in the lifecycle of the
biofuel. This reflects the energy content of a certain amount of biofuel (e.g. 1 MJ or 1 kg)
divided by the fossil energy used in the production of this amount.
2. CO2 savings are expressed in absolute numbers referred to a parameter like a hectare of
agricultural land, or a certain amount of biofuel.
3. Relative figures are given on the share of CO2 or total greenhouse gas emissions (as a
percentage) that are avoided when biofuel is used instead of conventional fossil fuel for the
same type of transport.
The use of fossil fuel in the production of biofuels gives rise to CO2 emissions. Another
greenhouse gas that is emitted during the lifecycle of biofuels is N2O. This is a particularly
powerful greenhouse gas, because it is very persistent in the atmosphere. N2O is emitted in
the cultivation of the biomass feedstock due to the application of nitrogen fertiliser. The total
emission of greenhouse gases is expressed in CO2 equivalents.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Emissions of regulated and non-regulated air pollutants are also evaluated. The group of
regulated air pollutants comprises the substances causing acidification, eutrophication,
photochemical smog formation, or substances that are detrimental to human health. These
substances are regulated by means of emission limits. Also, reduction percentages have been
established, at least in the EU. The group of regulated air pollutants includes mainly
sulphurdioxide (SO2), nitrogenoxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), volatile organic compounds
(VOC), particulate matter (PM), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and carbonmonoxide (CO).
Non-regulated emissions comprise aldehydes, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and
individual speciated hydrocarbons emissions.
Task
It is difficult to compare these studies, since they differ in methods and assumptions.
Moreover, large differences between the different types of biofuels are possible and in
particular from one country to another. That is why within the framework of the EUBionetLiquid Biofuels Network it was decided to carry out an expertise on this crucial subject,
communicating on studies concerning environmental impacts of biofuels (biodiesel, vegetable
oils, bioethanol and ETBE) that have been carried out for the few past years in the EU.
A similar work has been done in March 1999, ECO-BALANCE BIODIESEL. This report has
been prepared by the Federal Institute of Agricultural Engineering (BLT), it is available on
www.liquid-biofuels.com. It contains a comparative analysis of the major studies carried out
between 1982 and 1997, summarises the essential results and presents the differences between
the methods and the results; special emphasis is laid on the topic of CO2 emissions.
In this report, it will be given an overview of the most updated European studies on
performance of biofuels with regard to fossil energy use and greenhouse gas emissions,
exhaust emissions, ecotoxicity and biodegradability.
Each study will be compiled into one or two pages stipulating the title, authors, ordering
parties and references, a summary will give a short description, main results will be given and
discussed.
Though it is difficult to compare results, some interpretations of the impact of liquid biofuels
may be formulated and may thus be used as a decision basis for measures to be expected.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 5
3 ENERGY BALANCES AND GREENHOUSE GASES BALANCES
Evaluation of fossil energy use and greenhouse gas emissions is done by comparing greenhouse gas
emissions and fossil energy input during the biofuel lifecycle with those during the lifecycle of the
conventional fuels they replace.
1. The output-input ratio is used to express the fossil energy input in the lifecycle of the biofuel. This
reflects the energy content of a certain amount of biofuel (e.g. 1 MJ or 1 kg) divided by the fossil
energy used in the production of this amount.
2. CO2 savings are expressed in absolute numbers referred to a parameter like a hectare of agricultural
land, or a certain amount of biofuel.
3. Relative figures are given on the share of CO2 or total greenhouse gas emissions (as a percentage)
that are avoided when biofuel is used instead of conventional fossil fuel for the same type of transport.
Overview
Subjects
Title, country, date
Energy and greenhouse gases balances of biofuels’
production chains in France (France, 2002)
Biodiesel, Vegetable oil, Ethanol, ETBE,
Rapeseed, Sunflower, Wheat, Sugarbeet
Co-generation and production of ethanol from wheat (France,
2002/2003)
Ethanol, Wheat, Straw boiler, Cogeneration
Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Transportation Systems
(Austria, 2002)
Liquid biofuels, Reduction GHG
Study on Bio Ethanol, technique, potentials and costs of bio
ethanol on fuel market (Germany, 2002)
Ethanol
Reduction of the environmental impact of diesel motors
(Italy, 2002)
Biodiesel, Rapeseed, Sunflower
3 studies on energy and environmental balance of RME and
rapeseed oil (Germany, 2000/2001)
Biodiesel, Vegetable oil, Rapeseed
Bioenergy for Europe : which ones fit best? (EU, 2000)
Biodiesel, Sunflower, Italy
Comparative LCA of Bioenergy and Fossil Energy System in
Greece (Greece, 2000)
Biodiesel, Sunflower
Oil crop for biodiesel production in Italy (Italy, 2000)
Biodiesel, Rapeseed, Sunflower, Soybean,
Extensive/intensive agriculture
Ecobalance – Biodiesel (Austria, 1999)
Biodiesel, comparative LCAs
Biodiesel report 1999 (Italy, 1999)
Biodiesel, Rapeseed, Sunflower
Comparison of LCA and external-cost analysis for biodiesel
and diesel (Belgium, 1998)
Biodiesel
The energetics of sunflower crop as a source for biodiesel
production in Greece (Greece, 1998)
Sunflower oil, Greece
Cleaner and greener liquid and gaseous fuels (Netherlands,
initiated in 1998)
Climate-neutral gaseous and liquid energy
carriers
Environmental impact of 3 energy crops and energy balance
(Walloon region, 1995)
Biodiesel, Ethanol, Rapeseed, Sugarbeet
Combustibles and liquid biofuels from agriculture (Walloon
region, 1992)
Biodiesel, Vegetable oil, Ethanol,
Rapeseed, Sugarbeet, Wheat
Energy balance for sugarbeet and wheat crop as a source for
ethanol production (Greece, 1992)
Ethanol, Sugarbeet, Wheat, Greece
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 6
Energy and greenhouse gases balances of biofuels’ production
chains in France
Authors : ECOBILAN (PriceWaterHouseCooper)
Ordering parties : ADEME (French Agency of Environment and Energy Management) and
DIREM (French Ministry of Economy, Finances and Industry)
References : Elaboration des bilans énergétiques des filières de production des biocarburants
(Ecobilan, 2002), France, www.ademe.fr/partenaires/agrice/htdocs_gb/com03.htm
Summary
This study is a technical as well as a methodological update of energy and greenhouse gas
emissions balances of biofuels and of fossil fuels, regardless of economic aspects. This work
enabled to set up a representative and updated database covering the different French fossil
fuels and biofuels sectors in 2005 : i.e. gasoline, diesel oil, MTBE, rapeseed oil, rapeseed
methyl esters (RME), sunflower oil, sunflower oil methyl esters (SME), wheat based ethanol,
wheat based ETBE, sugar beet based ethanol, sugar beet based ETBE.
The balance elaboration follows the standardized Life Cycle Analysis method (ISO standards
from 14040 to 43), limited however to the follow through of some energy indicators and to
greenhouse gas flux.
The study limits includes all the production stages between the extraction of raw materials
and the regional distribution depot. The downstream frontier of the studied system is the
deposit before distribution, whether or not the product is incorporated in a blend.
Nevertheless, illustratively, this study also presents an estimation of balances concerning the
combustion stage of pure products. The emission calculation after combustion is a theoretic
calculation, only based on the carbon content of the products.
In compliance with the ISO 14040 norm, the taking into account of co-products fulfilled two
rules:
Extension of system limits: substitution of avoided impacts of co-products. In the study
that rule has been retained for the products buried and spread out on the agricultural
parcel,
Imputation or allocation based on a physico-chemical rule : the mass imputation has
been retained. That rule has been applied when co-products find new applications (in
animal nutrition or industrial use).
The results of energy and greenhouse gas balances are shown at the same time per energy
product unit (MJ) and per mass unit (kg product).
Results : Energy Balances
The main retained indicator to express the results corresponds to the mobilisation of nonrenewable energy, it has the interest of making it possible to compare the performance of the
products with regard to the vulnerability of the energy resources.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 7
Table 1 - Energy balances (2005 reference scenario)
Input
Input
Energy ratio
MJ/MJ
MJ/kg
Output/Input
Gasoline
1.150
48.70
0.873
Fossil Diesel Fuel
1.090
46.70
0.917
Wheat Ethanol
0.489
13.10
2.050
Sugarbeet Ethanol
0.488
13.10
2.050
Wheat ETBE
0.979
35.10
1.020
Sugarbeet ETBE
0.979
35.10
1.020
MTBE
1.320
46.40
0.760
Rapeseed Oil
0.214
7.95
4.68
Sunflower Oil
0.183
6.88
5.480
RME
0.334
12.50
2.990
SME
0.316
11.70
3.160
Another indicator of energy performance per area unit fills in the analysis: it corresponds to
the released energy of which the mobilized energy is subtracted; the whole is then taken back
to the usable agricultural area. This indicator has been used for the vegetable oil and ethanol
production chains.
Table 2 – Energy released per area unit (MJ/m2) (2005 reference scenario)
Energy released
(MJ/m2)
Wheat Ethanol
8.10
Sugarbeet Ethanol
10.83
Rapeseed Oil
8.98
Sunflower Oil
6.91
Results : Greenhouse gases balances (with the hypothesis of total
combustion)
The greenhouse gas emissions balance is restricted to 5 fluxes, namely : CO2, biomass CO2,
fossil CH4, biomass CH4, N2O. The retained indicator corresponds to the impact of such
emissions in the terms of warming potential over a one hundred-year period fixed by IPCC.
Flux
IPCC 2002 (g eq. CO2)
CO2
1
CO2 biomass
0
CH4 fossil
23
CH4 biomass
23
N2O
296
The CO2 emitted in the atmosphere during the combustion of biomass products does not
contribute to the greenhouse effect. Actually, this emitted carbon had been previously
absorbed from the atmosphere by the plant during its growing.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 8
Table 3 - GHG balances with total combustion hypothesis (2005 reference scenario)
Greenhouse
indicator
Greenhouse
indicator
g eq CO2/MJ
g eq CO2/kg
Gasoline
85.9
3 650
Fossil Diesel Fuel
79.3
3 390
Wheat Ethanol
34.4
922
Sugarbeet Ethanol
33.6
902
Wheat ETBE
70.5
2 530
75 %
Sugarbeet ETBE
70.3
2 522
75 %
MTBE
88.9
3 130
Rapeseed Oil
17.8
660
74 %
Sunflower Oil
13.2
498
78 %
RME
23.7
888
SME
20.1
745
Percentage of
reduction /kg
The results present broad variability between the different production chains, nevertheless
whole biofuel chains evidence environmental superiority in terms of energy balance as well as
GHG emissions when compared with fossil fuels. It is also noted a good actual positioning of
the sunflower and rapeseed production chains (as vegetable oils and FAMEs) compared to
other biofuels and traditional fossil fuels.
Discussion
Some work on biofuels energy balances has already been done for the 10 past years but it is
the first time all chains are treated jointly, taking into account the same hypothesis and the
same methods. Thus this study provides homogeneous results and allows comparisons
between various routes. Moreover the analysis is based on current data which gives the most
realistic description of these routes.
One of the goals of the balance analysis was to identify the relevant contributions of
different stages of the production chain. It appears that dispatching of the contribution of
different phases are quite similar in the case of energy and greenhouse gas balances,
results with regard to the energy balances of biofuels production chains are shown in
tables below :
Table 4 - Energetic contributions of the different stages of biofuels production chains
1st industrial 2nd industrial
Agricultural
transformation transformation
stage
stage
stage
Ethanol
20 %
80 %
-
ETBE
4%
16 %
80 %
Oils
70 %
20 %
-
FAME
40 %
20 %
40 %
the
the
the
the
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 9
In the case of biofuels chains, the transport stages hardly contribute to the energy balances
(<5%).
Concerning the traditional fuel networks (gasoline and gas diesel oil), it appears that the
refinery phase represents an important part of the balance namely 60% of the gasoline energy
balance and 40% of the fossil diesel oil energy balance. The phase of petroleum extraction
contributes for 30% to the energy gasoline balance and 50% to the energy balance of fossil
diesel oil. The transport stages represent about 10% of the energy balances.
This study allows also simulation of some parameters. Some prospective scenarios to the
horizon 2009 have been tested for each route taking into account new production units,
technologic innovations, new agricultural techniques… The following table provides a
summary of these evolutions.
Table 5 - Evolution of energetic performance and GHG emissions (2009 prospective scenario)
Impact on GHG
Impact on Energy
emissions
ratio
(with total combustion
Main influence
hypothesis)
0.5 %
1 %
Fossil Diesel fuel
2%
0
Wheat Ethanol
45 %
75 %
Wheat ETBE
8%
8%
Sugarbeet Ethanol
43 %
44 %
Sugarbeet ETBE
7%
2%
Rapeseed Oil
9%
9%
Sunflower Oil
6%
6%
RME
11 %
11 %
SME
10 %
9%
Gasoline
straw-fired boiler installation +
CO2 capture (co-product)
energy efficiency of the distillation
+ CO2 capture (co-product)
yields +
Agricultural stage efficiency
esterification process efficiency
In terms of energy balance biofuels routes should improve their energy ratio whereas classical
fuel chains would not progress. In terms of GHG emissions, once again some progresses are
expected from renewable.
The study of prospective scenarios, for the next years until 2009, places emphasis on a major
upgrading potential of the wheat and sugar beet production chains (ethanol in particular).
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Co-generation and production of ethanol from wheat
Authors : J.C. Sourie, S. Rozakis, B. Gabrielle, G. Gosse (INRA), E. Poitrat (ADEME), J.-F
Vaquié (FNCUMA), G. Alard (BENP)
Ordering parties : ADEME (French Agency of Environment and Energy Management) and
INRA (French Institute of Agronomic Research)
References: Une approche intégrée, énergétique, environnementale, économique, des
nouvelles filières de production de biocarburants, fondées sur une utilisation des pailles de
céréales : cogénération et production d’éthanol de grain, production d'éthanol par hydrolyse
enzymatique des pailles (INRA/ ADEME/ FNCUMA/ BENP, 2002/2003), France, contact :
[email protected]
Summary
This study is an integrated approach of new fields of production of biofuels, based on the use
of cereal straw. It aims specifically at :
1) Examine possibilities of utilisation of straw with energy purpose :
- co-generation of electricity and heat which will be used in the process of ethanol
production in order to improve energetic and economic efficiency of the global chain
taking into account environmental effects;
- utilisation of straw as energy feedstock for the process and as raw materials for ethanol
production further to an enzymatic hydrolysis.
2) Evaluate the straw feedstock considering the agronomic and environmental constraints
due to large producing areas. Harvesting and collecting costs should be quantified.
3) Establish a method consisting of a combined analysis of various criteria, energetic,
environmental and micro-economic, allowing a comparison between different routes.
Results
A previous study "Energy balances and greenhouse gases balances of biofuels production
chains (Ecobilan, 2002)" thanks to an LCA method produced updated balances on biofuels
chains and established some prospective scenarii. Thus a prospective scenario of ethanol
production taking into accounts various evolution criteria and in particular the integration of a
straw boiler to the process, was described. An improvement in terms of energy balance of
approximately 30 % is expected and this evolution should be mainly due to the boiler.
This present study is in progress and will produce in-depth results soon.
Discussion
This evaluation concerns new routes of ethanol production and energetic uses of straw that
were never compared.
This is the first study that gives an integrated approach : energy, environment, microeconomy, using last methods of analysis.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Transportation Systems
“Treibhausgas-Emissionen von Transportsystemen”
Authors : G. Jungmeier (Joanneum Research) and S. Hausberger (Technical University Graz Institute for Internal Combustion Engines and Thermodynamics)
Ordering parties : Austrian Federal Ministry of Forestry, Agriculture, Environment and Water
Management, Ministry of Innovation and Technology and Styrian State Research Funds
References : First results are published in the 12th European Conference on Biomass for
Energy, Industry and Climate Protection, 17-21 June 2002, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 1128
Contact : Joanneum Research, Elisabethstrasse 5, A-8010 Graz, Austria - Tel: +43-3168761313 - Fax:+43-316-8761320 - e-mail: [email protected]
Summary
This project deals with the greenhouse gas emission and costs of transportation systems with
biofuels and fossil fuels based on fossil primary energy. Scenarios for Austria based on the
requirements of the draft EU Biofuels directive and the future development in the
transportation sector are developed to analyse the possible greenhouse gas reduction and costs
of biofuels and future propulsion systems. Biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, hydrogen and
methanol are analysed as biofuels; gasoline, diesel, natural gas and hydrogen and methanol
from natural gas are analysed as fossil based fuels. As future propulsion systems the
combustion engine, hybrid systems – combination of combustion engine and electric engine –
and electric engine with fuels cell are considered. The greenhouse gas emissions and the costs
are analysed for the current (2002) and future transportation systems. Different vehicles for
personal cars, buses and trucks are considered where all in all 141 different transportation
systems are included.
The greenhouse gas emissions based on a life cycle analyses including construction, use and
disposal are calculated according to ISO 14.040 “Life cycle Assessment” are analysed for the
different transportation systems. Based on a cost analyses the transportation cost are
calculated. The influence on greenhouse gas emissions and on transportation costs of the use
of by-products of the production of biofuels (e.g. rape cake from biodiesel production) are
considered. In the system boundaries all greenhouse relevant processes are included, from raw
material extraction to the restoration of material and energy to the environment. The
greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (N2O) – for 141
different transportation systems with personal car, bus and truck are calculated. The
contribution to global warming from the greenhouse gases CO2, CH4 and N2O are considered
separately and as global warming potential in CO2-equivalent, like it is used for the
documentation in the Kyoto-protocol.
Results
Transportation systems with biofuels have significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions than
transportation systems with fuels based on fossil energy. In terms of low greenhouse gas
emission biodiesel made from rape seed, sunflower and recycled vegetable oil, bioethanol
from sugar beet and maize, biogas from animal manure and hydrogen from wood chips are
most favourable.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 12
Future propulsion systems like combustion engine, hybrid concepts and electric motor with
fuel cell may contribute significantly to greenhouse gas reduction.
The most favourable biofuels for Austria in terms of current available technology and
economy are biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas; whereas biodiesel has the lowest additional
costs compared to conventional fossil fuels.
The fulfilment of the requirements of the EU-Biofuel Directive (draft) with biofuels and
future propulsion systems will lead to a greenhouse gas reduction up to 1,0 Mio. t CO2equivalents per year with mitigation costs of 180 up 1.400 € per tonne of CO2-equivalent
avoided. The annual additional costs to fulfil the Biofuel Directive are about 50 up to 550
Mio. €.
Discussion
The study is nearly complete and will be approved in the next time by the Ministry.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 13
Study on Bio Ethanol, technique, potentials and costs of bio
ethanol on fuel market
Authors : Dr. Norbert Schmitz, meó Consulting Team, Köln
Ordering parties: FNR and the Federal Ministry for Consumer Protection, Nutrition, and
Agriculture
References : FNR, Schriftenreihe Band 21 - Kraftstoffe der Zukunft – Technik, Potenziale und
Kosten von Bioethanol im Kraftstoffmarkt, 2002 .Author Dr. Norbert Schmitz, meó Consulting
Team, D-50735 Köln, Fon: +49-221-97 27-232, Email: [email protected]
Summary
Since summer 2002 in Germany tax exemption of biofuels is realized. Thus biofuels moving
more and more into centre of interest.
Starting in 2003 biofuels could be mixed with petrol directly or after one more conversion as
ETBE. But the use of ethanol is still disputed. Arguments of opponents were:
bad environmental balance,
less net energy profit,
expensive environmental measure which must be supported by government.
That is why the German Ministry of Agriculture and the Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR) put a new study concerning the use of ethanol based on renewable
recourses out to tender. The meó consulting team got the contract.
Results
In spite of changed frame conditions the supply of ethanol will increase considerably but its
production might be no longer really profitable.
Concerning the future development the increase of demand would reach 700.000m³ if only
2% petrol will be substituted by ethanol.
Most of this bio ethanol could be produced out of agro resources as wheat, rye, sugar beet or
potatoes. Especially in Germany there are enough acreage to realize the increasing supply.
Technology and process of an ethanol production are almost developed. Nevertheless
production costs of bio ethanol are more expensive than the production of petrol. Currently
the ethanol costs are three times higher compared with petrol (related to 20 US$ / barrel oil).
The production prices of petrol as well as of ethanol won’t be the same until one barrel oil is
60 US$. A solution could be the exemption of mineral oil tax, which makes ethanol
competitive.
Within the meó – project they developed a simulation system with which companies may
check different strategies and which might be a help for the political legislative.
On one hand this systems presents varied influences of future development in a shortly
manner on the other hand it is a kind of main thread collecting the most important data of
different disciplines and of economic sectors.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 14
Reduction of the environmental impact of diesel motors
Authors : Giovanni Riva, Antonio Panvini, Julio Calzoni
Ordering parties :
References : Riduzione dell’impatto ambientale dei motori diesel. Published on CTI
(Comitato Termotecnico Italiano) – Energia e Ambiente 2002 and on www.cti2000.it
Summary
This study, based on Literature reports, presents the to-day available technologies with
particular attention on alternative fuels (biodiesel, aqueous-gas oil and ethanol-gas oil
emulsions). The evaluation of energetic and environmental advantages is performed with
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology. The product is analysed from the production until
its final use as biofuel in a combustion engine that produces for the different fuel the same
amount of work. Energetic input and output are considered together with pollutant emission in
the environment all along the production-use chain. (Biodiesel production from sunflower in
central Italy).
Results 1
LCA analysis evidences the environmental superiority of pure biodiesel when compared with
fossil diesel, emulsion and B20. B20 presents a higher reduction of greenhouse effect, of
resource use and environmental impact; while the emulsions present a particulate reduction.
More in depth comparisons are at the moment rather limited since only few data are available
and should be improved on a statistic level. The emission at the end of the exhaust pipe are
linked to the type, age and regulation of motor, and lubricating oil used. Consequently the
improvement of air quality in urban area should be realised at different levels (for public and
private fleet) taking into account the replacement of technically obsolete motors, the regular
planned maintenance and possibly motor modifications to control the environmental impact.
Results 2
(*) Results of the program Biofit – CTI 2000 are reported
Discussion
Due to the limited availability of experimental data, the LCA analysis is limited to the
emissions that contributes to a) the greenhouse effect expressed in g of CO2 equivalent for
relevant gases (CO2, CO, N2O, CH4, VOC were considered); b) particulate emissions; c)
consumption of non-renewable resources.
Two biodiesel chains are compared, that from rape cultivated in Germany and that from
sunflower cultivated in Central Italy. The assumed mean cultivated yield was 3.17 t/ha and
3.2 t/ha respectively even though the real national yields are 1.7÷2 t/ha for rape and 2÷2.3 t/ha
for sunflower.
The agricultural system considered as reference in this report is the set-aside one, as actually
provided for no-food cultures.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 15
The results are expressed as MJ produced by diesel engine, taking into account a 35.8%
average yield. The amount of fuel needed to achieve a MJ is 75.6 g of biodiesel and 64.22 g
of diesel (biodiesel 36.95 MJ/kg and diesel fuel 43.5 MJ/kg as calorific (value) power).
Engine CO2 emission considered 95% renewable, the remaining 5% is from the non-biogenic
component (methanol). Carbon content in co-products (fodder, glycerine, soap) and wastes
(wastewater, and emission other than CO2) at the end of the stack were considered renewable.
The authors considered the following emissions for both their energetic consumption and
mass balance:
Greenhouse effect : CO2, CO, N2O, CH4, VOC
General environmental impact (ozone formation, acidic rains)
Impact on human health (problems related to the respiratory apparatus) : benzene,
benzopyrene, VOC, soot, SO2, NOx.
Table 1 Analysis of the production chain of biodiesel from sunflower in Central Italy
(Biofit – CTI, 2000 data)
transport to biodiesel
distribution
the factory. production
9.14E+02
6.00E+03 5.35E+02
Sunflower
cultivation
harvesting
transport
storing
Energy ( MJ/ha)
Greenhouse effect
(gCO 2eq/ha)
Emissio ns (g/ha)
Fossil CO 2
CH 4
CO
N 2O
VOC
Health and environmental
impact (g/ha)
C 6H 6
C 20H 12
NO x
soot
SO 2
VOC
1.01E+04
3.34E+02
5.59E+01
2.71E+02
1.19E+06
2.60E+04
4.63E+03
3.82E+04
6.89E+04
3.27E+05
4.05E+04
7.68E+05
1.35E+03
8.33E+02
2.26E+03
3.46E+02
2.54E+04
8.37E+00
2.61E+01
2.49E+00
2.22E+01
4.53E+03
1.79E+00
5.01E+00
4.48E -01
3.87E+00
3.71E+04
4.91E+01
5.16E+01
2.70E+00
7.54E+00
6.73E+04
1.62E+01
4.66E+01
6.77E+00
3.63E+01
7.87E+05
2.19E+03
1.82E+03
1.00E+02
1.53E+02
3.95E+04
7.77E+00
3.31E+01
3.94E+00
3.42E+01
5.79E+00
7.97E-04
3.45E+03
3.65E+02
1.93E+03
3.46E+02
3.79E -01
5.12E -05
1.24E+02
6.00E+00
2.40E+01
2.22E+01
6.57E -02
8.85E -06
2.18E+01
1.07E+00
4.57E+00
3.87E+00
4.09E -02
3.85E -06
9.76E+01
8.15E+00
6.34E+01
7.54E+00
5.71E -01
1.46E -04
3.54E+02
9.65E+00
5.93E+01
3.63E+01
1.52E-02
9.59E-05
1.06E+03
9.84E+01
1.16E+03
1.53E+02
5.90E-01
8.73E-05
1.88E+02
6.79E+00
3.27E+01
3.42E+01
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 16
Three studies on energy and environmental balance of RME and
rapeseed oil
Authors : 1) IFEU Institute Heidelberg, 2) Klaus Scharmer, GET, 3) Dreier and
Tzscheutschler, Technical University Munich
Ordering parties : 1) FNR and the Federal Ministry for Consumer Protection, Nutrition, and
Agriculture, 2) UFOP, 3) Bavarian State Ministry for Agriculture
References :
1) Ökologischer Vergleich von RME und Rapsöl (2001). Internet www.ifeu.de , Email
[email protected].
2) Biodiesel Energie- und Umweltbilanz Rapsölmethylester. Author Klaus Scharmer, GET;.
November 2001. Contact: www.ufop.de, Email [email protected]. Download (only a
German version is available)): www.ufop.de/Biodiesel_Study.pdf
3) Ganzheitliche Systemanalyse für die Erzeugung und Anwendung von Biodiesel und
Naturdiesel im Verkehrssektor (December 2000). Contacts: TU Munich, Tel: +49 89 / 289 28301, Fax: +49 89 / 289 - 28313, e-mail: [email protected]; C.A.R.M.E.N. www.carmenev.de
Summaries
1) Environmental comparison of RME and rapeseed oil: this study, elaborated by an
ecological research institute, makes the comparison between rapeseed oil, biodiesel (FAME)
and fossil diesel.
2) Biodiesel - energy and environmental balance rapeseed oil methyl ester : the study was
commissioned by the German association of oil and protein crop producers, UFOP. It dealt
only with the comparison of Biodiesel (FAME) and fossil diesel.
3) Integrated systems analysis for the production and use of biodiesel and natural diesel in the
transport sector. This study compares fossil fuels and rapeseed oil and biodiesel.
Results
1) Some of the main results are:
Compared with diesel and heating oil both renewable fuels have advantages regarding
saving of fossil resources and greenhouse gases; they have disadvantages regarding
acidification, intake of nutrients and reduction of the ozone layer. Therefore an objective
positive or negative statement is not possible.
Biodiesel is equal or better than pure rapeseed oil, unless glycerol is used for energy
production only. This alternative is not applied now and not expected in the future.
Comparing decentral and central processing of pure rapeseed oil, the central system seems
more favourable.
2) Some of the main results are:
per litre of fossil diesel substituted by biodiesel, 42,8 MJ fossil energy are saved.
per litre of fossil diesel substituted by biodiesel, 3,24 kg CO2 equivalents are saved.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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The following emissions are reduced, in comparison to diesel fuel:
Table 1 – Percentage of reduction of emissions
Pollutant
Reduction
NOx
- 13 %
SO2
- 77 %
diesel particles
- 25 %
benzene
- 61 %
PAC
- 75 %
NMHC (non methane
hydrocarbons)
- 15 %
3) Some of main results are :
Regarding energy, the utilisation of all co and by products is necessary to improve the
energy yield and energy balance of renewable fuels
Regarding emissions, the study comes to positive results for rapeseed oil and biodiesel
with regard to CO2. If co products are used, there are no major differences for
accumulated CO, NOx and SO2 emissions between all renewable and fossil fuels under
investigation. One advantage of pure rapeseed oil is the lower input requirement
(compared with biodiesel) due to less processing steps.
Discussion
Altogether the above-mentioned studies judge the environmental balance of rapeseed oil and
RME compared to fossil diesel positive excepted the parameter “ozone relevant emission”
and acidification potential.
Through the use of e.g. rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) fossil energy resources could be
saved. The use of RME as fuel results in a positive energy balance.
The emissions of CO2 are almost insignificant caused by their largely CO2 neutrality.
Therefore the greenhouse effect is much smaller.
Concerning the ozone relevant emissions 2 of 3 studies are saying that the processing
chains of rapeseed oils and RME are better than comparable chains of fossil basis.
Considering the use of by products related to the production of rapeseed oil/ RME there
will be no significant difference between rapeseed oil / RME and fossil diesel concerning
the added emissions of CO-, NOx- and SO2.
2 of 3 studies outline that it exists much more acidification potential by using rapeseed oil
/RME than fossil diesel. These are the results of some test calculations.
All in all there will be some questions left open, which could soonest be answered after some
more research and development.
Considering the results of these studies it is sure in view of the environmental and climatic
aspects: Biofuels must be judge positive!
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Bioenergy for Europe : which ones fit best?
Authors : Giovanni Riva, Julio Calzoni, Antonio Panvini
References : Published on CTI - 2000 , www.cti2000.it
Summary:
This report presents the methodology and the results of a project carried out in a co-operative
task by eight European countries from 1998 to 2000. Its aim was to assess – by means of Life
Cycle Analyses (LCA) – the environmental effects of various biofuels and to compare each
other and with their fossil equivalents. BLT (Austria), TUD (Denmark), INRA (France),
IFEU (Germany), CRES (Greece), CTI (Italy), CLM (The Netherlands), and FAT
(Switzerland) participated in the project. The study was partially funded by the E.C. and by
the different countries. The main target groups of this report are intended to be decision
makers in the E.C. directorates and in national ministries for agriculture, energy and the
environment.
The present project provides – for the first time – a high quality decision base regarding the
environmental effects of the production and utilisation of biofuels in Europe. It discusses the
environmental advantages and disadvantages of the different biofuels in the various countries
involved and the EU, compared to corresponding fossil fuels by means LCA; the comparisons
between biofuels within each country and the EU; the comparisons between countries and the
EU for each biofuel; the most favourable biofuels in each country and the European
respectively, with the help of LCA and of socio-economic and political analysis.
Results 1
The results can be summarised into four sections.
1. Comparisons between biofuels and fossil fuels
The main qualitative conclusions for the comparison of each biofuel with its fossil counterpart
are reported in the table 1. Five impact categories are introduced to describe the entire biofuel
chain of production and utilisation. It’s worthwhile to notice that these results were quite
similar for the various countries and the whole Europe.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Table 1 Investigated biofuels, their utilisation and fossil counterparts
Biofuel
Utilization
Corresponding fossil
fuel
Triticale
Co-firing for electricity
Hard coal
Willow
District heating
Light oil and natural gas
Miscanthus
District heating
Light oil and natural ga s
Rape seed oil methyl
ester (RME)
Sunflower oil methyl
ester (SME)
ETBE from sugar beet
Transport
Fossil diesel fuel
Transport
Fossil diesel fuel
Transport
MTBE
Traditional firewood
Residential heati ng
Light oil and natural gas
Wheat straw
District heating
Light oil and natural gas
Biogas from pig
manure
Heat and electricity
Natural gas
Use of
fossil
fuel
Green house
effect
Acidification
Eutrophic ation
Summer
smog
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+/+/-
+/-
+
+
+
+/+/+/+
+
+
+ advantage for biofuel, - advantage for fossil fuel, +/- insignificant or ambiguous result
2. Comparisons among different biofuels
The following issues were addressed: heat production, transport, efficiency of land use and
impacts related to saved energy.
Heat production: traditional firewood, Miscanthus, willow and wheat straw were
compared each other and no significant differences among them were found regarding the
use of fossil fuels and the greenhouse effect. Traditional firewood shows the most
favourable values in all the impact categories with the exception of summer smog.
Transport: RME, SME and ETBE were compared each other. SME achieves the best
results regarding the use of fossil fuels, the greenhouse effect and eutrophication, while
RME achieves the lowest for most categories.
Efficiency of land use: triticale, willow, Miscanthus, RME, SME and ETBE were
considered. The impact of each fuel produced on an equal amount of land area was
assessed. Triticale reveals by far the highest benefits regarding the categories: use of fossil
fuels, greenhouse effect and acidification. However, it has also the greatest disadvantages
with respect to ozone depletion and eutrophication. RME and SME show the smallest
advantages regarding the use of fossil fuels and the greenhouse effect.
Impacts related to saved energy: here the comparison revealed the “side-effects” of each
biofuel for every MJ saved through its use instead of the fossil fuel. All biofuels were
compared each other. Results here are very heterogeneous, depending on the biofuel and
“side-effect” impact category respectively. For every MJ of fossil energy saved, a
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions also ensues for all biofuels. This best result was
achieved for biogas, followed by triticale, and the lowest for RME. On the other hand, for
most of the biofuels negative “side-effects” were found in most of the other categories.
No single biofuel can be regarded as “the best” for all of these issues. The final decision
depends upon which of the impact categories is considered more important by the individual
decision maker.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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3. Comparisons between the countries for each biofuel
The differences between each biofuel and its corresponding fossil fuel in each country were
compared with those of the other countries. The results give a very heterogeneous picture: for
certain biofuels and impact categories, the differences between the countries are relatively
small, while for others they are significantly large. The magnitude of the differences appears
to be more dependent on the biofuel than on the impact categories. Thus for some chains,
such as wheat straw, the values for all countries are relatively similar to the European average,
while for other chains, e.g. biogas, the values differ significantly. It is noticeable that with the
exception of biogas for all biofuels the categories use of fossil fuels, greenhouse effect and
human toxicity show very similar results between the countries, while for the other categories
the differences tend to be larger.
4. Socio-economic and political analyses
The economic aspects, the visual impact of landscape changes and the political factors were
also investigated to validate the results of the environmental analysis. It was beyond the scope
of the project to perform a comprehensive assessment since in many cases the methodology
was not advanced enough or insufficient reliable data were available. For the cost calculation
the same input and yield figures were used as in the environmental analysis, supplemented
with price data from the literature. Effects on landscape and an impression of policy and
political arguments by each country in favour of or against certain biofuel chains are mainly
qualitative.
Economic aspects
The lack of reliable data for the economic analysis was limited only to forestry and to the
agricultural biofuel production while insufficient data were available for the processing
and utilisation as well as for the production of the fuels and a final comparison could
therefore not be carried out.
The economic analysis of forestry and the agricultural production of the biofuels partly
showed large differences between the various countries. This is due to differences in land
prices, production costs, cultivation practices and yields. A cost assessment based on the
production costs at farm gate level leads to the following ranking (based on useful energy
as a reference unit): wheat straw is the most economic option (being a residue produced at
low cost), followed by willow, Miscanthus and wood logs, then triticale and ETBE and
finally rape and sunflower as the most expensive ones.
Visual impact of landscape changes
The bright yellow flowers of rape and sunflowers are widely appreciated. However, in
areas that are attractive without these flowers, their introduction might be seen as a
disruption.
The perennials positive contributions to the attractiveness of a landscape, due to their
variation in structure, are counterbalanced by negative aspects (the same crop remains for
many years and in the later stages may block the view as a result of its height).
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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The method to assess the biofuel impact on landscape through the variation in structure
and colour seems a valuable method that needs to gain in objectivity and representativity
but that is relatively easy to carry out and for which data are readily available.
Political factors
In order to successfully introduce or increase the cultivation of energy crops, not only
laws and directives are required but also the support from local authorities, e.g.
environmental groups and farmers.
An increased emphasis on extensification, nature development, new outlets and reduction
of imports may have the result that land availability becomes the major limiting factor for
energy crops.
Despite the goal of opening up the energy market, there is no level playing field as yet.
Major distortions are the differences in environmental regulations and in subsidies, giving
fossil fuels advantages over renewables.
Farmers experience three main constraints with biofuels: poor farm economics, poor fit
into cropping systems and poor logistics concerning harvest and post-harvest
management.
Within the liberalised energy market, temporary regulations are required to ensure the
contribution of energy crops to the national CO2 reductions.
Results 2:
The case of biodiesel in Italy
The table reports the results of comparisons between complete life cycles where SME is used
in a diesel engine instead of diesel. The unit refers to an amount of 100 million km. This is
equivalent to the average annual distance in kilometres of about 4,000 Europeans. In this case
for example the amount of fossil fuel saved is equal to the amount which about 1,000 Italian
citizens would on average consume in one year (this is what is meant by “Italian inhabitant
equivalents”). Again, the use of SME leads to a reduction of greenhouse effect equal to that
that 660 Italian citizen would cause in one year.
Table 2 SME versus diesel fuel for transportation - Italy
Impact category
Use of fossil fuel
Greenhouse effects
Acidification
Eutrophication
Summer smog
Nitrouse oxide
Human toxicity
Italian inhabitant equivalents per 100 million km
- 1100
- 740
+ 380
- 900
-60
+ 4060
- 50
The results show that both SME as well as Diesel fuel have certain ecological advantages and
disadvantages, depending on the parameters given highest priority, even if SME seems to be
more advantageous from a general point of view.
Advantages of the biofuel: use of fossil fuels, greenhouse effect, eutrophication, summer
smog (small)
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Advantages of the fossil fuel: acidification (small)
The data for ozone depletion and human toxicity tend to have a high uncertainty. Therefore
these categories have not been included in the final assessment.
A further assessment in favour of or against SME or diesel cannot be carried out on a
scientific basis, it depends upon the focus and priorities of the decision makers.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to create a decision tool, based on reliable scientific data, with
regard to the question of which biofuels or fossil fuels are ecologically the most suitable for
specific purposes and countries within Europe. Within the scope of this project this goal has
been partly successfully achieved:
The LCA method has been adapted so that any energy carrier can be assessed (10 biofuels
were investigated in this project).
The calculation tool has been successfully implemented.
The socio-economic analysis on the other hand was only partially successful.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Comparative LCA of Bioenergy and Fossil Energy Systems
in Greece
Authors : Nikolaou A., Kavadaki, G., Panoutsou C.
Ordering parties : EU funded project (1998-2000)
References : Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Bioenergy and Fossil Energy Systems in
Greece, in the Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Environmental Science and
Technology, Ermoupolis, Syros Island Greece, 3 – 6 September 2001, University of the
Aegean, Ed. T.D. Lekkas.
Summary
In the framework of the EU funded project “Bioenergy for Europe. Which ones fits best? A
comparative analysis for the community” (Contract Number FAIR CT 98/3832), the various
participating countries investigated different biofuels in comparison to the fossil fuels most
likely to substitute. For Greece, sunflower seed oil methyl ester (SME) was compared to fossil
diesel fuel for transportation.
Results
The total energy balance was calculated to be 1.25 MJuseful energy / MJfossil energy.
The total emissions over the life cycle of Sunflower Methylester for transportation were
estimated and the results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 - Total Life Cycle Emissions of Biodiesel from Sunflower Methylester
Environmental parameter
Greenhouse effect
Acidification
Eutrophication
Photochemical smog
Nitrous oxides (N2O)
Unit
g CO2 eq. / MJ
g SO2 eq. / MJ
g SO2 eq. / MJ
g C2H4 eq. / MJ
g / MJ
Value
124.8
1.2
4.9
0.1
0.3
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Ecobalance – Biodiesel
Authors : Manfred Wörgetter, Marion Lechner, Josef Rathbauer, BLT Wieselburg
Ordering parties : Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry
References: “Ecobalance – Biodiesel” made by the Federal Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, , March 1999 - http://www.blt.bmlf.gv.at/bio_nawa/biodies_e.htm
Summary
In the Kyoto Protocol Europe assumed the commitment to reduce CO2 emissions by 8% until
2005. The White Paper of the European Commission “Renewable Sources of Energy“
considers it possible to double the share of renewable energy until 2010, attributing major
importance to bioenergy.
The traffic sector depends on high-grade fuels, suitable for the operation of existing fleets.
While a number of energy sources can be used for stationary energy plants, the possibilities
for the transport sector are rather limited. Currently, biofuels are the only renewable sources
of energy which can be used in this sector from a technological point of view.
Since the beginning of the 1980s a number of studies on the energy and environmental
efficiency of alternative fuels was carried out. Most of the studies caused heated discussions
among proponents and opponents on an expert level, but also in the public. An analysis of the
most important studies shows that the results only differ slightly.
Results and discussion
The studies confirm the positive energy balance, stating that with one unit of fossil energy
two to three units of renewable fuel can be produced. The reduction of the greenhouse gas
emissions is also confirmed, the range of the CO2 reduction expands from 25 to 80 %. The
differences in the results depend on the agricultural practice, the chain of procedures, but also
on the quality of the data and the level of knowledge when the study was carried out. The
studies describe the actual situation when the study was completed, the technological and
agronomical progress however, will improve the results.
More fundamental differences can be found in the interpretation of the data which may be
caused by the different interests of the ordering parties. A methodical problem occurs when
assessing the derived product “feed”: as regards the environmental and energy balance feed
imports (because of the low costs of overseas production) and the solution “burning of the oil
cake” are to be preferred.
The results available suffice for a safe assessment of the energy and environmental
advantages. An assessment which is relevant to the society has to include factors like e.g.
guaranteeing the supply of energy, food and feed, preserving the cultural landscape and
improving the foreign trade balance.
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Oil crop for biodiesel production in Italy
Authors : S. Bona, G. Mosca
References : S. Bona, G. Mosca, Oilcrop for biodiesel production in Italy, Renewable Energy
Journal, no. 16 pp. 1053-1056, 1999
Summary
In this paper the feasibility of using methylester as a fuel in terms of energy gain, evaluating
the main oil seed crops currently cultivated in Italy was investigated. Two possible scenarios
were considered for Energy Balance: extensive and intensive, characterised by low and high
inputs levels respectively. In extensive management, the limiting factor is low yield and the
energy gain may increase if energy cost is reduced. On the contrary, intensive management
can be chosen when the available surface is limited; and high yields associated with high
levels of both agronomic inputs and costs may be expected.
Results 1
Three crops were considered: sunflower, rape, and soybean.
The sunflower energy balance shows that outputs doesn't vary with inputs and the energy gain
tends to decrease as input level increases, indicating that sunflower may be considered
tolerant to reduced energy inputs. Nevertheless, very low energy inputs (less than 15 GJ/ha)
may lead to a dramatic reduction in energy gain. The adaptability of sunflower to poor
environments, characterised for example by low water availability, is due to its good drought
tolerance. The yield of sunflower also remain stable under low input management.
Rape is mainly cultivated in southern and central Italy as an alternative crop to wheat. In the
last years significant yield increases have been obtained using new hybrids. These hybrids
have higher above-ground biomass and nitrogen than old varieties. With the aim of improving
the crop energy balance and minimising environmental impact, as the life cycle of oil seed
rape develops during winter, when much rain falls, careful agronomic management, especially
nitrogen fertilisation, must be applied to avoid nitrogen leaching.
In Italy soybean is only cultivated in the Po valley because this environment fits with its water
needs. Although soybean is used more for protein than for oil production, its energy balance
is positive when it is cultivated as either main or second crop. The average energy gain of a
good yielding crop (5 tons/ha) is very small when compared with sunflower because of low
oil seed content. Among the three species studied in this work, soybean is the least sensitive
to crop inputs levels, allowing reduction of tillage, irrigation, and weed control. This
significantly decreases production costs, reduces environmental impact and increases final
energy gains.
Discussion
These three crops are not expected to increase further the level of outputs which is linked to
oil seed content and which can only be genetically modified. Only for oil-seed rape an
increase in yield (10-15%) seems possible by using new hybrids now available. Although
high inputs are usually required to achieve high yields, the three crops considered here are
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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able to tolerate input reduction without leading to important yield losses, thus allowing
optimisation of cultivation techniques with consequent energy saving (especially as regards
tillage and fertilisation). Nevertheless, the possibility of extensive management depends on
available acreage and, since the surface area can be decreased, Italy is oriented towards
intensive management.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Biodiesel report 1999
Authors : Giovanni Riva, Julio Calzoni, Antonio Panvini
References : “Rapporto sul biodiesel 1999” Published on CTI - 1999 , www.cti2000.it
Summary
This report illustrates 1) the perspectives of the development, at the Italian national level, of
the oleaginous cultures and particularly of rape seed and sunflower that are the raw materials
for liquid biofuels production (biodiesel); 2) the energetic aspects of the production of methyl
esters from rape seed and sunflower oils together with their impact on the reduction of CO2
emission (when compared with fossil fuels).
Results 1
The energy balance of the biodiesel production is greatly positive: 2.5 energy units can be
produced for each energy unit consumed. This means that it is roughly 250% higher than that
of gas-oil.
As far as the environmental impact is concerned, it has been calculated that the CO2
emission can be reduced of 2.1 kg (60% of the total emission) for each kg of gas-oil
substituted with biodiesel.
Some numeric results of this study are summarised below:
Maximum possible production of biodiesel from
200 – 250 000 t
“set-aside” cultures in 2003
Amount of gas-oil not used and substituted with
170 – 210 000 t
biodiesel
Saved energy from fossil sources
0.15 – 0.19 Mtep
Reduction of CO2 emissions
415 – 510 000 t
Total amount of required national incentives
113 – 140 M€
Cost of reduced CO2 (*)
279 €/t
(*)
this cost is calculated on the basis of a national incentive of 670 €/t and doesn’t take into
account the UE contribute for the obligatory set-aside
The reduction of CO2 emissions was calculated with the following assumptions:
all the renewable CO2 produced by the biodiesel combustion is absorbed by the energetic
culture;
part of fossil CO2 derived from biodiesel was allocated on mass base in the co-products
glycerine and oil cake for fodder. Roughly 80% of the fossil CO2 is allocated in the oil
cake (this assumption is valid only if the oil cake produced by this way substitutes the
imported one);
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Rape seed and sunflower for the biodiesel production are cultivated in set-aside lands. The
CO2 fixing capacity of the substituted culture was assumed negligible as compared with
the energetic culture.
N.B. This reduction is lowered to 30% if the assumption that the fossil CO2 is allocated in the
co-products is removed. In this case, the cost of reduced CO2 becomes roughly 512 €/t.
Results 2
The amount of raw materials available in Italy is quite low: if the amount of 1999/2000 is
considered, it is possible to produce only 12-15 000 t of methyl ester (mainly from
sunflower). This situation tends to get worse, due to the agricultural policy of the UE for Italy
that will improve the cultivation of cereals (that are anyway interesting for the ETBE
production).
Discussion
Two main considerations can be done: the energy balance of the biodiesel production is 2.5
times higher than that of the diesel oil and, consequently, the emissions of CO2 from fossil
sources are 30-60% lower.
On the contrary, the availability of set-aside lands to be devoted to energetic cultures is quite
limited and permanent incentives (in addition to those already supplied by the UE) in the
order of 0.6 €/L are required to make the biodiesel production economically advantageous as
compared with that of the fossil fuels (diesel oil).
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Comparison of LCA and external-cost analysis
for biodiesel and diesel
Authors : L. De Nocker, C. Spirinckx, R. Torfs
Ordering parties : Belgian Federal Office for Scientific technical and Cultural Affairs, and
JOULE programme of EU.
References : "Comparison of LCA and external-cost analysis for biodiesel and diesel", paper
presented at the 2nd international conference LCA in agriculture, agro-industry and forestry,
Brussels, 3-4 December 1998. VITO, Belgium.
Summary
Biodiesel and diesel are compared using both the traditional LCA approach and the external
cost analysis (ExternE approach).
Results and discussion
The results differ but are complementary. LCA analysis shows benefits in fossil fuels use and
greenhouse gas emission but higher other environmental for biodiesel, especially for
eutrophication.
The external cost analysis estimates the damage to public health, materials, agriculture and
global warming, through a detailed assessment of the environmental damagers and their
values based on market prices or willingness to pay studies. It shows that biodiesel and fossil
diesel are in the same range (round 70-80 ECU/100 l), and are dominated by the impacts of
the use phase. Particles emissions that damage public health are the most important external
cost category (and not agriculture). Adding external cost the commercial production costs
gives the social cost
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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The energetics of sunflower crop as a source for biodiesel
production in Greece
Authors : Kallivrousis L., Natsis A., Papadakis G., Melidis V., Kyritsis S.
References : The energetics of Sunflower Crop as a Source for Bio-diesel Production in
Greece, 1998, In: Proceedings of AgEng Oslo 98; Paper No: 98-D-002.
Summary
Kallivrousis studied the energy balance between the inputs and the outputs per unit area for
sunflower crop in Greece, in order to evaluate it as a source for biodiesel production. The
energy required for sunflower production was calculated based on the operations applied and
on the various inputs used by farmers in a Greek region, namely Evros.
Results
The total energy consumed was calculated to be 10 690 MJ/ha.
For an assumed sunflower seeds yield 1 800 kg/ha, which can be obtained under normal
conditions on fertile dry-lands, the net energy value and the ratio of energy outputs to energy
inputs were estimated to be 36 668 MJ/ha and about 4.4 respectively.
Discussion
In order to estimate the energy required to produce seeds, fertilizers and pesticides and to
produce and use the farm machinery, appropriate energy equivalents, provided by various
sources, were taken into account.
The energy outputs were estimated by multiplying the quantity of sunflower seeds and stems
by the corresponding energy value.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Cleaner and greener liquid and gaseous fuels
Authors : Novem
Ordering parties : Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM) and
Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ)
References : http://www.gave.novem.org/
Summary
Nowadays, the total proportion of gaseous and liquid energy carriers account for 50% of the
total provision of energy. It is expected that the need for mobility in The Netherlands and thus
the demand for fuel will continue to increase in the future. Therefore, the Dutch government
initiated, in 1998, a survey into climate-neutral gaseous and liquid energy carriers. The
background for this decision was that an accelerated introduction of clean replacements for
petrol, diesel and natural gas could speed up the reduction of the CO2-emissions and make
energy provision sustainable.
The primary objective of this initiative was to compile, order and assess knowledge relating to
new energy carriers -from fossil sources as well as from biomass. The first efforts focused on
several energy chains for the transport and natural gas sectors: from production to application.
Results and discussion
The inventory of the Dutch government started in 1998 with a survey into climate-neutral
gaseous and liquid energy carriers. The inventory was completed at the end of 1999. This was
followed up by research into the availability of biomass. In mid-2001 the demonstration phase
was started, aiming at the formation of alliances for the demonstration of climate neutral fuel
chains. The start of commercialisation and market introduction is expected in 2007 or 2008.
Mid 1998: Start of the inventory; a number of formal and informal meetings with the most
important parties was organised. During these sessions several energy and technology
chains were identified that could play a major role in a sustainable future. The chains
became subject to further analysis and evaluation.
End of 1999: The inventory was finished and it was concluded that climate-neutral energy
carriers seem to have an exceptional CO2-reduction potential. But first it was necessary to
get more insight on the prospects of the world-wide availability of biomass and on the
willingness of market players to participate in the next steps.
2000: The availability of biomass and the market’s willingness to participate was
surveyed and showed very promising results. Based on the findings it was decided to
start-up demonstration of energy and technology chains.
Mid 2001: This phase will contain the demonstration of fuel chains, techniques and the
development of entities and organisations.
2007 / 2008: End of fuel chain demonstration programme and the start of
commercialisation and market introduction phases.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
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Environmental impact of three energy crops and energy balance
Authors : JM Jossart, JL Vanhemelrijck, JF Ledent
Ordering parties : from studies conducted with the support of the Walloon Region, Ministry
of environment, natural resources and agriculture.
References : JM Jossart, JL Vanhemelrijck, JF Ledent, “Impact environnemental de trois
cultures énergétiques”, in : Cahiers Agricultures, 1995; 4; 377-82, France
Summary
This paper compares oilseed rape, sugar-beet and short rotation coppice regarding their
cultivation and CO2 emission impact.
Results
Table 1 - CO2 gain with biodiesel from rape and bioethanol from sugarbeet
in comparison with Diesel fuel and gasoline.
Biodiesel
Diesel fuel
Ethanol
Gasoline
Energy balance1
3.2
0.85
1.9
0.75
Total emission (t CO2/toe)2
1.0
3.7
1.7
4.2
Gain (t CO2/toe)
Productivity (toe/ha)
Gain (t CO2/ha)
2.7
1.0
2.5
2.7
2.7
7.0
1 : energy balance = ratio of energy in fuel on fossil energy needed for production but without energy needed for
by products
2 : Total emission = emission of the fuel + emission to produce it – absorbed CO2 by biomass. toe = ton oil
equivalent.
Discussion
From the energy balance and the productivity of liquid biofuels, CO2 gains can be calculated.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 33
Combustibles and liquid biofuels from agriculture
Authors : Prof. J. Martin, Ir JL Vanhemelrijck
Ordering parties : Walloon Region, Ministry of environment, natural resources and
agriculture
References : “Les combustibles et carburants d’origine agricole” Final report of a study for
the Walloon region, Catholic University of Louvain, Unit TERM, November 1992, 142 p, in
French
Summary
The report gives a detailed overview of technical and environmental issues, particularly the
energy balance, related to biodiesel, pure vegetable oil and bioethanol.
Results
Table 1 - Biodiesel and pure vegetable oil
Rape
Inputs
MJ/ha
Outputs
MJ/ha
crop : 18 080
process for pure oil : 6 051
transesterification : 16 677.
straw : 82 836
oil : 42 120
RME : 39 571
feed and glycerine : 33 502
From these figures the energy balance might be expressed under several ways :
Table 2 - Energy balance
Energy balances (MJ/ha)
Pure Rape Oil
RME
Net energy production
134 327
121 152
6.6
4.5
1.7
1.1
3.1
2.1(1)
outputs – inputs
Global efficiency
outputs of biofuels and by-products / inputs
Limited efficiency
outputs of biofuels / inputs
Usage efficiency
outputs of biofuels / inputs allocated to the main
biofuels (according to mass or energy content)
(1)
energy allocation and straw not taken into account
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 34
Table 3 - Bioethanol from wheat and sugarbeet
Wheat
Inputs
MJ/ha
Outputs
MJ/ha
Sugarbeet
crop : 16 888
process into anhydrous
ethanol : 36 706
crop : 16 688
process into anhydrous
ethanol : 105 833
straw : 94 162
ethanol : 57 497
by-products : 37 479
leaves : 47 327
ethanol : 117 057
by-products : 61 372
Energy balances (MJ/ha)
Wheat
Sugarbeet
Net energy production
135 544
103 235
Global efficiency
3.5
1.8
Limited efficiency
1.1
1.0
Usage efficiency
3.6
1.5
Discussion
It is important to point out that the energy balance calculation depends on hypothesis (what is
taken into account, how are the crops cultivated,…) and calculation methods. Calculation of
usage efficiency which allocates inputs to the main and the by-products makes sense.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 35
Energy balance for sugarbeet and wheat crop
as a source for ethanol production
Authors : Tsatsarelis C.
References : Energy Flow in sugarbeet production in Greece, 1992, American Society of
Agricultural Engineers 0883-8542 / 92 / 0805-0585, Vol. (8) 5
Energy inputs and outputs for soft winter wheat production in Greece, 1993, Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 43 (1993) pp. 109 – 118
Summary
Tsatsarelis studied the energy inputs and outputs of several crops in Greece. In the paragraphs
below the results for wheat and sugarbeet are presented since these crops could provide the
raw material for bioethanol production.
Results
In the case of sugarbeet, a total sequestered energy of 108 400 MJ/ha has been estimated and
the major inputs found to be irrigation, transportation, and fertilizers.
Sugarbeet yield was 61.1 t/ha of roots and 40 t/ha of beet tops, which correspond to an energy
output of 244 000 MJ/ha.
Energy productivity was calculated as 0.564 kg/MJ, energy intensity as 1.78 MJ/kg, and
efficiency as 1.42.
Total energy inputs for soft winter wheat production in Greece were calculated to be between
16,000 and 26,000 MJ/ha, according to the production system. Extra energy inputs of 3,000
MJ/ha are needed for straw harvesting and additional inputs of 1,500 – 3,000 MJ/ha for
irrigation, when practised. The major energy inputs were found to be fertilizers and fuel,
amounting to 81% - 84% of the total inputs.
Wheat yields ranged between 2,500 and 6,000 kg/ ha, corresponding to 38,000 – 91,0000
MJ/ha. When straw was baled, its yield was 4,500 – 6,000 kg/ha (74,000 – 98,000 MJ/ha).
Discussion
Published works on the energy balances of liquid biofuels in Greece focused mainly on the
production of the raw material.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 36
4 EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Emissions of regulated and non-regulated air pollutants are evaluated. Reduction percentages have
been established.
The group of regulated air pollutants comprises the substances causing acidification, eutrophication,
photochemical smog formation, or substances that are detrimental to human health. These substances
are regulated by means of emission limits. The group of regulated air pollutants includes mainly
sulphurdioxide (SO2), nitrogenoxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), volatile organic compounds (VOC),
particulate matter (PM), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and carbonmonoxide (CO).
Non-regulated emissions comprise aldehydes, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and individual
speciated hydrocarbons emissions.
Overview
Title, country, date
Subjects
Emissions of light duty vehicles performed with
gasoline blended with ethanol and ETBE (France,
2002)
Ethanol (5% and 10% blends)
Emissions from the application of liquid biofuels in
engines (Spain, 2002)
Biodiesel (100% and 20 % blends),
Sunflower
Emissions from waste frying oil biodiesel (Spain,
2002)
Waste frying oil (100% and 30%
blends)
Impact of the incorporation of VOME on non regulated
emissions of diesel engines, both for light and heavy
duty vehicles (France, 2001/2002)
VOME (5% to 30% blends)
Evaluation of the impact of rape seed methyl ester
(RME) on the additives used with Carme(e)x type
particle filters (France, 2001)
Biodiesel (30% blend), Rapeseed,
Additive, Particulate filter
Effect of biodiesel on performance, emissions,
injection and combustion characteristics of a diesel
engine (Italy, 2000)
Biodiesel (100% and various %
blends)
A study about the emissions produced by the
combustion of biodiesel and of biodiesel - fossil diesel
mixtures (Italy, 2000)
Biodiesel (5 % to 50% blends)
Biodiesel in Portugal: Results from the BIOPOR
project (Portugal, 1999)
Biodiesel (5% and 30% blends), Sunflower
Pilot actions aimed at introducing liquid fuels derived
from biomass in place of petroleum in the transport
sector (Greece, 1998)
Biodiesel, Sunflower
Fuelling a small diesel engine by using gas-oil and
RME: comparative results and particulate
characterisation (Italy, 1996)
Biodiesel (100% and 50 % blends),
Rapeseed
Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel (Belgium, 1994)
Biodiesel and Used VOME
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 37
Emissions of light duty vehicles performed with gasoline
blended with ethanol and ETBE
Authors : ETS (Expertises Technologies et Services)
Ordering parties : ADEME/AGRICE (French Agency of Environment and Energy
Management) / ADER
References/contacts : Mesures des emissions polluantes sur véhicules légers à allumage
commandé, alimentés en carburants contenant de l’éthanol et de l’ETBE (ETS/ADER, 2003),
France, contact : [email protected]
Summary
In France, mixed ethanol with gasoline is used in the form of ETBE. The aim of the study is
to test ethanol use in gasoline in a different form, blended or not with ETBE, and check the
effect of its direct blend use on emissions. It will be checked the feasibility of the use of
ethanol blended with gasoline on the engine, equipped or not with a direct injection system.
This study will compare the use of 4 fuels. Samples are obtained by splash blending, no other
particular blending technology has been used.
Table 1 : fuels’ characteristics
Vapor pressure
Water
Octane
Kpa
content mg/kg level
Samples
E1
Petrol (CEC RF83A91)
59.5
-
95.4
E2
E1 + 5 % ethanol
67.8
410
97.4
E3
E1 + 5 % ethanol + 3.2 % ETBE
66.9
575
97.7
E4
E1 + 10 % ethanol
68.0
685
98.3
Emissions and results of 4 types of engine, representative of petrol vehicles on road at present
and in the medium term, are studied.
Table 2 : engines’ characteristics
Brand
Citroen Xsara
engine
L4-TU5 1.2 L
Type of injection
indirect
Peugeot 406
Citroen C5
LA-EW10 1.6 L LA-EW10 2.0 L
indirect
direct
Renault Clio
F4R 2.0 L
direct
These engines were performed with 2 operating cycles :
MVEG cycle : reference test to check the emission level.
INRETS cycle operated in highway cycle : to measure emission under maximum
conditions of utilisation of the engine.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 38
Results
Regarding CO, CO2 and PAH emissions, results outline a gain due to the addition of
ethanol at 5% blend. For the whole tested vehicles it is noted an improvement according
to these pollutant emission. This is also the case during the critical steps of cold start up.
An improvement of fuel consumption is also observed when ethanol is added.
As ethanol is a precursor of acetaldehyde formation, the use of ethanol results in slightly
increased levels of acetaldehyde. NO, NOx and N2O emission do not show any significant
variation. The same conclusion is made concerning HC emission.
When ethanol blends overcome 5% no appreciable evolution is noted whatever the
pollutant is and whatever the considered vehicle.
Discussion
Although the PCI of ethanol is lower than gasoline’s, the trials showed a diminution of the
consumption.
The level of emissions during the INRET cycle was low, repeatability of the measures
was not satisfying, so it is difficult to make a conclusion on the effect of addition of
ethanol on this type of cycle.
Though the aim of these trials was not to judge the reliability of the engines operated with
ethanol, it seems important to underline that no dysfunction, neither disturbance of the
results of the vehicles appeared along the trials.
No test on durability were operated.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 39
Emissions from the application of liquid biofuels in engines
Authors : F.V. Tinault Fluixá; V. Castaño Pérez
Ordering parties : CIDAUT. Research and Development Centre for Automobile
References/contacts : CIDAUT. Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Automoción. P.T.
Boecillo, Parc. 209. 47151-BOECILLO (Valladolid), Spain - Phone: +34 983 548035; Fax:
+34 983 54 80 62; e-mail: [email protected] - www.cidaut.es
Summary
In the present study, it is evaluated different possibilities for the use of liquid biofuels in
automobiles. The well known are vegetable alcohols and its by-products (ETBE and MTBE)
in internal combustion engines and vegetables oils and by-products in diesel engines.
The study makes a review of the different available techniques used, finding as more suitable
for the use in the actual internal combustion engines the ether (ETBE and MTBE) mixed with
gasoline till 20%, and the FAME from vegetable oil, at 100% or mixed in different ratios, in
diesel engines.
Finally, it is shown the different works in sunflower methyl ester characterisation made by
CIDAUT, it includes the determination of its properties as fuel, characterisation in test stand
(power, fuel consumption, emissions), dirtying injectors test, emissions in European cycle and
length of time test.
Results
The next table shows the results in emissions in European cycle (Urban+Interurban) made by
CIDAUT on 2 vehicles with fuel from blending diesel oil and SME.
CO
g/km
difference
HC
g/km
difference
0.146
NOx
g/km
difference
0.991
Particles
g/km
difference
Diesel Oil
0.634
0.078
SME
(20%)
0.574
-9 %
0.128
-12 %
0.986
-1%
0.083
+6 %
SME
(100%)
0.497
-22 %
0.058
-60 %
1.025
+3 %
0.072
-8 %
Discussion
The use of Sunflower ME in diesel engines produce a better and effective combustion,
because of the oxygen presence in the ester molecules, which affect to the yield improve, an
important decrease of particles and, in general a decrease of CO and HC emissions. NOx
emissions can increase slightly.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 40
Emissions from waste frying oil biodiesel
Authors : Francisco V. Tinault F.; Valentín Castaño P.; Yolanda Briceño B.; Laura Vegas M.
Ordering parties : CIDAUT. Research and Development Centre for Automobile
References/contacts : CIDAUT. Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Automoción. P.T.
Boecillo, Parc. 209. 47151-BOECILLO (Valladolid), Spain - Phone: +34 983 548035; Fax:
+34 983 54 80 62; e-mail: [email protected]
Summary
The aim of the study is to characterize the biodiesel from waste frying oil and examine the
behaviour in engine test benches.
The study shows that waste vegetable oils can be employed as raw materials to produce
biodiesel through a transesterification process.
With reference to environmental aspects, CO, HC, NOx, and CO2 emissions are very similar
to diesel engine one’s ; the smoke produced by the engine has less opacity when biodiesel is
used.
Results
Test were performed with three fuel types: 100% biodiesel, a blend of a 30% biodiesel and
the reference fuel, 100% diesel. The engine is a Peugeot XUD9.
Variation of power, consumption and emission were determined in a test bench. During the
tests, the pollutant emissions were slightly lower. A nozzle fouling test has shown that
biodiesel combustion is less damaging for the injectors than diesel oil combustion.
The next table shows the Nitrogen oxides emissions
Nitrogen Oxides
600
NOx (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500 4675
Speed Regime (rpm)
NOx 100% BIO
NOx Diesel oil
NOx 30% BIO
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 41
Impact of the incorporation of VOME on non regulated
emissions of diesel engines, both for light and heavy duty vehicles
Authors : A. Philippet, S. Raux, X. Montagne (IFP)
Ordering parties : ADEME (French Agency of Environment and Energy Management) and
ONIDOL (National Inter Professional Oilseed Organisation)
References : Impact de l'incorporation d'esters d'huiles vétales sur les émissions non
règlementées des moteurs Diesel (IFP, 2000/2001), France, contact : [email protected]
Summary
The aim of this study is to increase knowledge related to the influence of Diesel fuel blended
with VOME on particle emissions, regulated compounds and particularly on non-regulated
exhaust components like polycyclic aromatic compounds, aldehydes and nitrogen.
This study has 3 parts :
1. Experiment on light duty vehicles test bench:
Renault G8T pre chamber Diesel engine with EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) system
performed with 4 operating cycles : 2 cycles without EGR and 2 other within MVEG cycle,
run with standard Diesel fuel (EN590) and vegetable oil methyl esters (VOME) at various
blends (from 5 % to 30 %).
2. Experiment on light duty vehicles:
3 different Diesel engine technologies were tested:
- pre chamber engine G8T (Renault Laguna)
- direct injection engine 1Z (Audi 80, 1.9L TDI)
- high pressure injection engine DW10 (Peugeot 406 HDI)
Tests were performed according to the modified ECE+EUDC driving cycles with standard
Diesel fuel (EN590) and VOME at various blends (from 5 % to 30 %).
3. Experiment on heavy duty vehicles test bench:
RVI MIDR 62045 engine (Euro 2), bus application, without combustion gases post-treatment
performed with ESC (European Steady-state Cycle) and ELR (European Load Response)
cycles, with diesel fuel Euro 2000 (320 ppm sulphur content) compared to a 30 % VOME
Diesel fuel blend.
Results of light duty vehicles
Tests on light duty vehicles have shown that incorporation of VOME in 5 % blends has
almost no influence on emissions. However 30 % blends of VOME into Diesel fuel can have
a noticeable positive impact on emissions :
4. Both test bench and vehicles test draw to the conclusion of an increase of NOx emissions,
respectively 12% and 7 %, the 3 vehicles give same results;
5. No significant influence on CO emissions of VOME blending on test bench, however a
lower emission level is noted during the transient cycle on vehicles test at all blends and
moreover at 30 % blend;
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 42
6. VOME blends give lower HC emissions and higher differences are observed with vehicles
tests, it depends also on the technology. This way, test with EMC30 on Laguna results of
5% less emissions, 20 % on 206 HDI and 12 % on Audi 80;
7. According to test bench, particles emissions tend to decrease and from vehicles tests it
emerges a more significant tendency, particle emissions diminution appears very clearly
with EMC30 on direct injection technologies : 15% reduction on Audi 80 and 19% on 406
HDI;
8. Conclusions concerning aldehydes and ketones emissions are mitigated : sometimes
emissions are higher and under certain conditions a reduction is observed. No influence of
VOME blends on individual and aromatic hydrocarbons is observed;
The following table provides a summary of these results.
Table 1
Pollutants evolution when VOME is incorporated at 30 % blend
Pollutants
NOx
CO
HC
Particles
Aldehydes
PAH(1)
IHC(2)
Test bench
= or =
= or = or or =
=
Vehicles test
+ 7%
-7 to -30%
=
=
=
-12 to -50% -11 to -19%
(1)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(2)
Individual Hydrocarbons
Results of heavy duty vehicles
These tests show that regulated emissions reduction is allowed by VOME blending excepted
for NOx. Indeed VOME addition plays a significant role on HC, CO and smoke emissions,
more the VOME percentage blend is important, more lower they are. However it does not
significantly affect aldehydes and PAH emissions. Oil type, (rapeseed or sunflower) does not
influence these results.
Results are summarised in the table below.
Table 2
NOx
(g/kWh)
CO
(g/kWh)
HC
(g/kWh)
Particles
(g/kWh)
Smoke
opacity (m-1)
Repeatability
2.3 %
1.8 %
2.1 %
5.2 %
4.1 %
EMHV 30 (30%)
6.107
0.39
0.28
0.0508
0.592
Diesel fuel Euro 2000
6.09
0.41
0.31
0.0613
0.744
% difference
0
-5
-10
-17
-20
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 43
Evaluation of the impact of rape seed methyl ester (RME) on the
additives used with Carme(e)x type particle filters
Authors : H. Dupont, J.B. Dementhon, B. Martin (ONIDOL/IFP)
Ordering parties : ADEME/AGRICE (French Agency of Environment and Energy
Management)
References: Evaluation du couplage ester méthylique de colza et additif de régénération pour
filtre à particules de type Carme(e)x (ONIDOL, 2001), France, contact :
[email protected]
Summary
The use of particle filters to reduce emissions of Diesel engines is becoming widespread. The
aim of this study is to estimate the influence of the combination of RME and additives of
regeneration on the cleanup system consisted of an oxidation catalyst and a particle filter. The
effects of the additive content and the RME on the functioning of the particle filter were
estimated for the various operation phases (load and regeneration).
A RVI MIDR 62045 engine (Euro 2), bus application, was performed with ESC (European
Steady-state Cycle) cycles, with diesel fuel Euro 2000 (350 ppm sulphur content) compared to
a 30 % VOME Diesel fuel blend.
Results
Compared to the results of previous studies without additives, it is shown that additive do not
have any influence on emissions upstream to the cleanup system and whatever the additive
rate is.
It is observed that higher additive rates allow higher emission reduction, both fuels give same
response. RME 30 % blend sample allow a lower load level when the same conditions are
operated.
RME 30% blend without filtration system produces less particle and smoke emissions than
unblended Diesel fuel. The cleanup system fully makes disappear these differences thanks to
a filtration efficiency over 90%. However RME keeps its advantages regarding CO and
unburned HC emissions.
Regeneration phases are the same for both samples.
Discussion
It does not appear a synergy between RME blends and the regeneration additive. The slower
loading filter when the engine is fuelled with RME 30 will limit the engine overconsumption
due to a reduction of exhaust pressure.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 44
Effect of biodiesel on performance, emissions, injection and
combustion characteristics of a diesel engine
Authors : A. De Vita. M. Alaggio
References/contacts : 1st World Conference and Exhibition on Biomass for Energy and
Industry, Sevilla, Spain 5-9 June, 2000, Paper no. V4.14 Page 1-5.
Summary
This paper deals with the biodiesel influence on the operating conditions of a indirect
injection diesel engine (VM Turbotronic 425 Clear). After a brief description of biodiesel
production process, the bench testing results, obtained feeding the engine with conventional
diesel fuel, blends of diesel fuel and biodiesel, and pure biodiesel are discussed. Moreover,
using an hardware/software set up, able to gather and to process spray visualisation,
comparisons between the diesel fuel and the biodiesel spray structure are presented.
Results
The biodiesel production process, characterised by an esterification reaction with two separate
stages with intermediate elimination of glycerine and final washing in centrifugal separator,
allows high conversion values and a outstanding reduction of contaminants. The produced
biodiesel presents, therefore, high quality and purity, making it suitable for optimal use in
diesel engines.
In the test conditions reported in the paper, it was found that:
full blends with 5% and 33% biodiesel do not cause significant variations, with respect to
diesel fuel. A slight specific fuel consumption (sfc) increase is encountered with 33%
blend;
when working with pure biodiesel, slight reductions of torque, brake power, and input
power have been measured. Sfc is increased by 10% and engine global efficiency by 3%;
the increased biodiesel content brings increased NOx and CO2 emissions, dramatic
reductions of smoke and particulate mass concentration, significant reduction of dry soot
and of the 16 polycyclic aromatic SOF compounds listed by Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA);
combustion seems to have shorter delays in the presence of biodiesel;
the images of the spray behaviour show that the spray onset is anticipated and the spray
tip penetration is more favourable.
Discussion:
From the above listed results, it seems useful to trace the guide-lines for the further research
developments. An extended experimental activity would be attractive in order to set suitable
criteria for comparison of engine performances when working with different fuels. A further
investigation on injection and combustion processes in the presence of biodiesel is required,
through more suitable theoretical tools. Further work is also due on physical and chemical
characterisation on the particulate emissions, measuring for example the size distribution and
improving the chemical analysis of the SOF.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 45
A study about the emissions produced by the combustion of
biodiesel and of biodiesel - fossil diesel mixtures
Authors : F. Canalini, S. Pascuzzi, A. Ferrante, G. Ressa
References/contacts : Studio delle emissioni prodotte da combustione di biodiesel e di miscele
biodiesel-gasolio. Rivista di Ingegneria Agraria (2000), vol. 1, pp. 24-30
Summary
This paper presents the experimental results of a study on the emissions generated by the
combustion of biodiesel pure or added with fossil diesel oil in a 3 MW plant equipped with a
gas turbine.
In this kind of plant, often combined with a steam turbine for the production of electricity,
many emissions are usually generated: COx, NOx, VOC (volatile organic compounds), PAC
(polycyclic aromatic compounds), SOx, particulate.
This study only deals with CO and NOx emissions, considered as the more dangerous for
their environmental impact.
Results
The experimental results are summarized in the following table 1, where the ratio of NOx
generated by the combustion of the mixed fuels and of the pure fossil diesel is reported. Data
of the table show that the combustion of a biodiesel - fossil diesel mixed fuel allows a
reduction of NOx emission as compared with the pure fossil diesel oil. Fuels with more than
50% biodiesel do not show substantial differences with 50% biodiesel fuel.
These results are explained with the high oxygen content of the biodiesel employed (higher
than 13%).
Table 1
Biodiesel
percentage
NOx ratio
0 (fossil diesel oil)
5%
10%
15%
50%
1
0.95
0.86
0.85
0.78
On the contrary, the presence of biodiesel in the feed does not affect the COx emissions.
Discussion:
The authors underline the importance of the NOx emissions reduction in order to improve the
environmental impact of gas turbine plants. They also emphasise the difficulties of the
biodiesel production as it is not yet economically competitive with the fossil fuel and the need
for fiscal and politic incentives.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 46
Biodiesel in Portugal: Results from the BIOPOR project
Authors : F. Neto da Silva (Aveiro University- Mechanic department), A. Salgado Prata
(National Institute of Transports) , J. Rocha Teixeira ( Porto transports fleet.).
Ordering parties : EU project within the JOULE III –Programme (JOR3-CT96-0118)
References/contacts : ISTP- Instituto Superior de Transportes (Prof. Dr. António Salgado
Prata) - www.istp.pt
Summary
Assessment of the use of methyl ester of sunflower oil in diesel engines.
Results
The Biopor project has been developed in order to assess the feasibility of developing a
biodiesel production chain in a Mediterranean country. The feasibility study encompassed the
agricultural production, the transformation and the utilisation phases. A complete
experimental program was conducted in order to compare conventional diesel and diesel
/SME blends from the point of view of engine performance, fuel consumption and pollutants
emissions.
Table 1 - Characteristics of the engine tested
Brand
VOLVO
Model of the engine
THD 100EC
Type of engine
6-cylinder, turbocharged
Power output(kW) at 2200 rpm
180 (245 HP)
Maximum torque (N.m) at 1400 rpm
900
Volume
9.6
Compression rate
15:1
Table 2 - Specific emissions of CO and NOx
CO(g/kWh)
NOx (g/kWh)
Diesel
2.66
19.47
30% SME / 70% diesel fuel
2.87
18.80
% difference
+8
-3
5% SME / 95% diesel fuel
2.69
20.33
% difference
+1
+4
Emission
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 47
SME influence in the engine power output is not significant. With a volumetric content of
30% of SME, the performance of the engine is slightly inferior. However, this trend is
reversed at lower (5%) SME contents. The differences between the several fuel mixtures
tested never exceeded the 5%. Regarding fuel consumption, a slight difference of 0.1l/100km
was verified in disfavour of the mixture 30% SME / 70%Diesel comparing with 100% diesel
fuel use. Addition of SME to diesel fuel favours a slight decrease in smoke opacity in exhaust
gases.
In what concerns SME/Diesel fuel blend utilisation in large diesel engines, the tests have
shown that the blend can be safely used without any changes to engine configuration or
settings.
Discussion
Nevertheless, methyl ester usage, despite its environmental advantages over conventional
diesel fuel, cannot be generalised in a country strongly dependent upon seeds imports for
vegetable oil production. A use restricted to captive fleets with central fuelling or niche
markets in environmental sensitivity areas is hence a better option.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 48
Pilot actions aimed at introducing liquid fuels derived from
biomass in place of petroleum in the transport sector
Authors : National Technical University of Athens
Ordering parties : Altener Project XVII/4.1030/ AL/103/95/GR
References : “Pilot actions aimed at introducing liquid fuels derived from biomass in place of
petroleum in the transport sector”, Final Report, October 1998
Summary
In the framework of the project entitled “Pilot actions aimed at introducing liquid fuels
derived from biomass in place of petroleum products in the transport sector” financed by the
Altener Programme (XVII/4.1030/AL/95/GR) co-ordinated by the Laboratory of Fuel
Technology and Lubricants of the National Technical University of Athens, an extensive
study was carried out on a variety of raw materials available in Greece for biodiesel
production, such as sunflower oil, corn oil and used frying oils.
Fuel consumption and exhaust emission measurements were carried out by employing a
single cylinder, diesel, stationary, Peter engine, model AV1 – LAB. In the same study
expanded fleet tests took place in Athens. Eight diesel engine vehicles, representative of the
Athens diesel vehicle fleet, were employed for this purpose.
Results
Fleet tests pointed out that in most cases black smoke is reduced when biodiesel is added into
the diesel fuel.
In some cases, the addition of biodiesel caused a small increase of NO and NOx emissions,
whereas in other cases a small decrease was also observed.
Under the same driving conditions (circulation in the Athens area), the use of biodiesel blends
resulted in slightly increased volumetric fuel consumption, as expected.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 49
Fuelling a small diesel engine by using gas-oil and RME:
comparative results and particulate characterisation
Authors : V. Rocco, M.V. Prati, A. Senatore, E. Cerri, M. Benfenati
References/contacts : Proceedings 1° Convegno Internazionale su: I Carburanti Alternativi e
Biocombustibili: Produzione e Utilizzazione, Lecce 1996, Paper 96A3005, pp. 57-68.
Summary:
This paper focuses on Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) employed as a pure or blended (with
commercial gas oil) fuel to feed an unmodified IDI diesel engine.
An experimental analysis is presented, aiming to compare the behaviours of RME and 50%
vol. blend diesel fuel.
The results confirmed that significant benefits are obtained for particulate emissions, while
engine performances do not substantially decay. The 50% RME-gas oil blend showed that a
particulate emission relative reduction (between the values of gas oil and pure RME) greater
than RME fraction in the fuel is achieved. From a chemical analysis of RME particulate
matter, the expected greater proportional amount of soluble organic fraction (SOF) with
respect to dry soot has been found. Furthermore, a physical characterisation of particles
resulting from gas oil and pure RME combustion is presented through the data obtained from
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) observations.
Results
As far as gasoil performances are concerned, experimental tests carried out by varying air-fuel
ratio and rpm showed that:
an appreciable torque reduction (up to 10%) has been measured by fuelling the engine
with pure RME, while the 50% in vol. blend allows to regain most of torque decrease at
any tested A/F ratio value;
accordingly, specific fuel consumption of the blend and of RME exhibits an opposite
trend with an increase which ranges between 12% and 20% (very lean mixture
composition);
it should be noted that these results do not account for the greater air dilution under which
the engine works when it is fuelled with pure RME or 50% blend;
due to oxygen group presence in RME molecule, as expected, significant greater
concentration of NOx, mainly in the field of lean mixtures, have been detected (up to
120% more than with pure gas oil);
substantial reduction of dry soot is in any case observed enriching fuel composition with
RME (up to 370% less than gas oil);
higher SOF fractions (more than double value at high engine load in the case of pure
RME) have been separated from the collected particulate matter at any operating
condition and mainly at 2000 rpm;
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 50
TEM observations allowed to confirm that Total Particulate Matter particles resulting
from RME combustion are characterised by a smaller mean diameter and save the typical
structure of gas oil particulate.
Discussion:
Scarcely significant engine modifications could result in a more effective exploitation of
vegetable derived fuels. A proper control and tuning of injection system (retarded timing and
fuel mass injected per cycle) could lead to strongly reduce NOx concentration even to diesel
fuel values and to obtain a mixture composition characterised by almost the same relative
lower heating value.
Additional benefits could be achieved by using oxidation catalysts which, working on the
exhausts of a RME-gas oil blended fuel, should draw advantages from greater SOF fraction of
TPM and from the sulphur proportional reduction.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 51
Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel
Authors : Pelmans L., VITO
Ordering parties : European Commission, Flemish government
References : Pelkmans L., “Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel”, VITO, Belgium.
Summary
In 1994 a demonstration project was conducted with 5 diesel cars driving on 100% rape
methyl ester on 300 000 km.
Results and discussion
No major technical problem was encountered. Performances were slightly lower and
consumption was slightly higher. Less particles and SO2 were emitted and other emissions
(CO, HC, NOx,CO2) were similar to mineral diesel.
As the rape potential in Belgium is limited, alternative vegetable oil supply would be
necessary, for example used frying oil, processed into Used Vegetable Oil Methyl Ester
(UVOME). In 1996 a second demonstration project took place using UVOME produced in
Austria. 2 cars and 3 refuse lorries were run with different percentages of UVOME.
Preliminary results (at the time of this report) show that no technical problem has arisen and
no consumption increased was noticed with blends.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 52
5 BIODEGRADABILITY AND ECOTOXICITY
Environmentally friendly properties of vegetable oil methyl esters
Authors : P. Gateau (Loire 2i.S), F. Van Dievoet (BFB Oil Research), G. Vermeersch, S.
Claude (ONIDOL), F. Staat (ITERG)
Ordering parties : ONIDOL (National Inter Professional Oilseed Organisation) and
ADEME/AGRICE (French Agency of Environment and Energy Management)
References/contacts : Environmentally friendly properties of vegetable oil methyl esters
(Loire 2i.S/ ONIDOL/BFB Oil Research/ITERG, 2001). Contact: [email protected]
Summary
Measurements were carried out on VOME (Vegetable Oil Methyl Esters) answering the most
recent specifications.
The products tested are RME (Rapeseed oil Methyl Ester), ERME (Erucic Rapeseed oil
Methyl Esters), SME (Sunflower oil Methyl Esters), and HOSME (High Oleic Sunflower oil
Methyl Esters). They are compared to a reference Diesel fuel CEC RF 73-A-93.
The tests of the German standard « Blue Angel » were retained to measure toxicological
aspects on mammals, fishes, daphnia, algae and bacteria, according to standard methods.
These tests enable the determination of hazardous to water classification WGK
(WasserGefährdungsKlassen), as the following: class1 = low hazard to waters, class 2 =
hazard to waters, class 3 = severe hazard to waters. A test on shrimps was also applied on
RME. Standard tests of dermal and ocular irritation (OCDE 404 and 405) were carried out.
Results of the tests on RME and SME
Ultimate biodegradability of VOME is very good (> 87%) whereas Diesel fuel is only slightly
biodegradable (38.7%).
Oral toxicity on mammals is the same with respects to the 5 products, VOME and Diesel fuel
are not toxic. Other toxicity tests on fishes, daphnia, algae, and bacteria show positive results
and an important gap for VOME in comparison with Diesel fuel. The RME is not either toxic
for shrimps.
VOME are classified with a WGK equal to 1, taken into account their solubility in water,
Diesel fuels are classified with a WGK equal to 2.
According to tests practised on rabbits, RME and SME are not irritating for the skin and the
eyes.
Some results are summarise in the table below.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 53
Test
Standards
Units
RME
SME
Diesel Fuel
Oral toxicity on mammals
OECD 401
LD50 (mg/kg)
> 5 000
> 5 000
> 5 000
Toxicity on fish
OECD 203
LC50-48h (mg/l)
> 100 000
> 100 000
134
Toxicity on daphnia
OCDE 202
EC50-48h (mg/l)
2 500
1 700
90
Toxicity on algae
OECD 201
EC50-72h (mg/l)
73 700
25 600
55
Toxicity on bacteria
ISO 10712
EC0-16h (mg/l)
5 250
1 000
< 10
Ultimate biodegradability
OECD 301B
%
87.4
89.9
38.7
Discussion
The whole of the results obtained shows that VOME resulting from various oleaginous seeds
have a better biodegradability and a lesser ecotoxicity than a Diesel reference fuel. VOME
display particularly attractive environmental properties.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 54
6 CONCLUSION
Task
Number of studies on the energy and environmental efficiency of alternative fuels has been
carried out. Biofuels environmental characteristics are more and more well known meanwhile
engine technologies are evolving as well as production facilities and agriculture. Regularly
new tests has to be performed to procure most updated environmental data. This work gives
an overview of most updated expertise on this subject. Nine partners were solicited in order to
give a large panel of results representative of their country, France, Belgium, Austria,
Germany, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Italy and Netherlands.
Biofuels out of interest through these studies were biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester) and
vegetable oil from rape seed, sunflower or soybean, bioethanol and ETBE from sugarbeet and
wheat.
Various parameters were investigated : energy balance, greenhouse gases balance, exhaust
emissions tested on biofuels used as sole fuel or at various blends.
Interpretation
Results present broad variability. Various causes can be advanced :
differences in the interpretation of the data which may be caused by the different interests
of the ordering parties;
differences in agricultural practice and chain of procedures;
quality of the data and level of knowledge when the study was carried out. The studies
describe the actual situation when the study was completed, it is expected that
technological and agronomical progresses will improve the results;
methodological choices (e.g. system boundaries, assess of derived product…).
Nevertheless, available results allow a safe assessment of the energy and environmental
advantages, results only differ slightly. An expertise of VOME biodegradability and
ecotoxicity has also been carried out. It shows that VOME display particularly attractive
environmental properties (Onidol, 2001).
Environmental expertise of biofuels
The studies confirm the positive energy balance, stating that with one unit of fossil energy 2
to 5.5 units of renewable fuel can be produced. A range of data extracted from the inventory
of studies presented into this report is shown in Table 1.
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 55
Table 1 - Energy efficiency (examples of results)
France
Studies
(Ecobilan, 2005)
Rapeseed Oil
4.68
Sunflower Oil
5.48
RME
2.99
SME
3.16
Wheat Ethanol
2.05
Sugarbeet Ethanol
2.05
Italy
Greece
Belgium
(Biodiesel report, 1999) (Kallivrousisi, 1998)
(1995)
3.20
4.4
2.50
1.90
The reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions is also confirmed, the range of the CO2
reduction expands from 60 to 80 %. A range of data could also be extracted from those
studies, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 - CO2 equivalent reduction (examples of results)
Studies
Rapeseed Oil
Sunflower Oil
RME
SME
Wheat Ethanol
Sugarbeet Ethanol
France
Italy
(Ecobilan, 2005)
(Biodiesel report, 1999)
81%
85%
74%
78%
75%
75%
60%
Several exhaust emissions reduction studies have been performed over the few past years. The
studies reported within this task mainly focus on biodiesel used as pure fuel or in blend.
Table 3 shows some results concerning exhaust emissions, obtained within this work.
Table 3 – Percentages of emissions difference when fuelling
with Biodiesel (examples of results)
100 % biodiesel
100 % biodiesel
30 % biodiesel
20 % Biodiesel
(Cidaut, 2002)
(UFOP, 2001)
(IFP, 2001)
(Cidaut, 1999)
Particulates
-8 %
-25 %
-11 % to -19 %
+6 %
HC
-60 %
-15 %
-12 % to -50 %
-12 %
CO
-22 %
-
-7 % to -30 %
-9 %
NOx
+3 %
-13 %
+7 %
-1%
Emissions
Significant benefits are obtained for particulate emissions, smoke emissions and dry soot.
Engine operating with Biodiesel will have less smoke, and less soot produced from unburned
fuel. A significant role on total hydrocarbons (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO) reduction can
be noted. In some cases it is observed an increase of NOx emissions. Indeed NOx are reported
by several studies to be increased with biodiesel. The nitrogen oxides result from the
EUBIONET - Environmental balances of liquid biofuels
page 56
oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at the high temperatures inside the combustion chamber of
the engine, rather than resulting from a contaminant present in the fuel. There are consistent
reports of slight increases (several percent) in NOx emissions with biodiesel blends that are
attributable, in part, to the higher oxygen content of the fuel mixture. However, some data
shows a reduction in nitrous oxides. NOx emissions from biodiesel increase or decrease
depends on the engine family and testing procedures. Moreover, it is expected that scarcely
significant engine modifications could result in a more effective exploitation of vegetable
derived fuels. A proper control and tuning of injection system (retarded timing and fuel mass
injected per cycle) could lead to strongly reduce NOx (Rocco, 1996).
Once again results present some variability however we can say that fuelling with
biodiesel/diesel fuel blends reduces emissions. Moreover blending with higher VOME
percentage leads to lower emissions. Thus using pure biodiesel produces the best effect.
Among biofuels chains some evidence higher environmental superiority, or higher potential.
French biofuels chain were examined (“Energy and greenhouse gases balances of biofuels’
production chains in France”, ECOBILAN, 2002), greenhouse gases and energy balances of
these chains were calculated for 2005 (reference scenarios) and 2009 (prospective scenarios).
Reference scenarios reveal a good positioning of RME, SME and vegetable oils compared to
other biofuels. Prospective scenarios reveal a major upgrading potential of wheat and
sugarbeet ethanol; production chains.
Thus this prospective study shows that some important progresses can be expected for the
future in terms of energy efficiency and CO2 emissions due to improved agricultural practise
and stronger processes (distillation, esterification stages…). For example the integration of a
straw boiler into the process of ethanol from wheat is now under consideration (“Cogeneration and production of ethanol from wheat”, J.C. Sourie, 2003). Mainly due to this
boiler, the global energy efficiency of this chain should be improved of 75% onto the horizon
2009.
Engines are also evolving towards less polluting technologies. The combination of these new
technologies with the use of biofuels are worth to be “good”. Most updated tests show that
biofuels are fully compatible with these technologies (e.g. particulate filters).
An assessment which is relevant to the society has to include factors like good agricultural
practices. Intensive and extensive scenario were considered, inputs and related yields were
calculated (“Oil crop for biodiesel production in Italy”, S. Bona, 1999). Optimisation of
cultivation techniques allows energy saving, nevertheless, the possibility of extensive
management depends on available acreage.
This work gives some instructive data related to environmental and energy aspects of liquid
Biofuels, most recent studies were considered, it gives a good overview of the level of
knowledge. There are fewer results concerning bioethanol than biodiesel. We miss also
practical experience concerning other technologies. Do not forget biofuels as they were
considered in the present study, biodiesel, vegetable oil, and ethanol produced out of
rapeseed, sunflower, sugarbeet or wheat are medium term solutions…
Innovative solutions for solid, gaseous and liquid
biomass production and use
EUBIONET- Liquid biofuels network
Non biodiesel fuel uses of oils/fats
Final report
1.1.2002 – 31.03.2003
Contract No:4.1030/S/01-1000/2001
Task leader : TEAGASC, Ireland
Partners :
BLT, Austria
FNR, Germany
ADENE, Portugal
Ireland, April 2003
Contents
1
Introduction............................................................................................................... 3
2
The use of vegetable oil in converted vehicle engines ............................................ 3
3
2.1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2
Vegetable oil crop production in the EU .......................................................................................... 4
2.3
Vegetable oil extraction.................................................................................................................. 10
2.4
Oil extraction costs ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.5
Vegetable oil as a vehicle fuel........................................................................................................ 14
2.6
Oil-seed cake .................................................................................................................................. 19
2.7
Total costs....................................................................................................................................... 19
2.8
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 20
Extracted olive pomace in CHP and heating systems.......................................... 20
3.1
Background .................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2
Volumes available .......................................................................................................................... 21
3.3
Current use ..................................................................................................................................... 22
3.4
Potential for CHP use ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.5
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 23
4
Recovered vegetable oil .......................................................................................... 23
5
Trap grease .............................................................................................................. 24
6
5.1
Definition........................................................................................................................................ 24
5.2
Volumes.......................................................................................................................................... 24
5.3
Quality ............................................................................................................................................ 27
5.4
Energetic use .................................................................................................................................. 27
5.5
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 27
References ................................................................................................................ 27
2
1 Introduction
The purpose of this task was to examine fuel uses other than biodiesel production for
vegetable oils or animal fats, either in virgin condition or recycled after an initial cooking
use.
The following were envisaged as potential alternative uses:
Virgin or recovered vegetable oils without esterification in converted diesel
engines, CHP systems and heating systems.
Beef tallow in heating and CHP systems
Trap grease as heating fuel.
It has not been possible to review all these options in detail within the resources of the
present task group. In this report, the use of vegetable oils in converted vehicle engines is
reviewed in some depth. In addition, some information is included on the use of
recovered vegetable oil, olive pomace and trap grease for energy purposes.
2 The use of vegetable oil in converted vehicle engines
2.1
Introduction
The use of vegetable oils in converted vehicle engines is considered in four countries
with very different circumstances:
Germany, with a well-developed infrastructure for rape-seed growing, oil extraction
and biodiesel production, a demand for non-food oil already exceeding the supply
that can be produced on set-aside land, a large number of converted vehicles already
running on unprocessed oil, and a tax regime favourable to biofuel development.
Austria, also with a substantial production of rape and sunflower crops, an established
biodiesel industry, a tradition of oil production and extraction and a generally
supportive tax regime.
Ireland, a predominantly grassland country with a small area of widely dispersed
arable set-aside. This would make it difficult to achieve the economies of scale of
large-scale extraction and esterification. Its island status increases the cost of
transport to other countries. Good yields of rape-seed can be achieved. To date
biofuel development has been slow, with few state incentives.
3
2.2
Portugal, where the oil source would be from the sunflower crop. While there is an
established sunflower production, yields have been low compared with most other EU
producers. There has been little commercial development of biofuels to date.
Vegetable oil crop production in the EU
Rape-seed is the main oil-seed crop grown in Europe; about 10Mt of seed is produced on
3 Mha of land. France and Germany account for about 70% of production. Yields vary
between 2 and 3.6 t/ha; over 3 t/ha should be attainable in most countries of Northern
Europe.
Sunflower seed production is also substantial in the EU. About 4 Mt is produced from
about 2.8 Mha. Yields vary from 0.5 to 2.6 t/ha. The main producers are France, Spain
and Italy, which together account for over 90% of production.
2.2.1 Austria
Austria has an area of 83,900 km² and 8.1 million inhabitants. The wooded area amounts
to approx. 39,000 km². This corresponds to a share of 47% in the total area. Due to the
decline in people working in the agricultural sector and the topography the wooded area
has recently grown by an average of 7,700 ha per year. Agricultural acreage amounts to
approx. 34,000 km². The share of arable land is decreasing steadily and currently
amounts to 1.38 million ha. The area of permanent grassland is also decreasing and
amounts to 1.92 million ha.
Table 1 contains statistical data regarding arable land and oilseeds. Until 1995 renewable
raw materials cultivated on fallow land were added to the respective crop, since 1996
these data have been included in the category fallow land.
4
Table 1: Arable land and oilseed cultivation land in Austria (Grüner Berich 2000)
oilseeds [ha]
winter rape
spring and turnip rape
sunflower
soybean
squash
poppy
Other (safflower, linseed,
milk thistle, etc.)
fallow land*
arable land total
1980
3,941
--291
------5,831
1990
40,844
--23,336
9,271
----6,871
1995
87,307
1.939
28,550
13,669
8,957
2,567
1,415
1999
64,775
993
24,249
18,541
12,004
1,175
8,027
2000
51,334
428
22,336
15,537
10,376
654
7,866
14,522
20,541
123,866
106,441
110,806
(7557 rape)
(5981 rape)
1,487.598 1,406.394 1,403.191 1,385.845
1,381.996
* since 1996: incl. renewable raw materials (1995 these were added to the respective crop)
In Table 2 the average rape yields per hectare are listed. The average amounts display
rather mediocre results. Under favourable conditions 4.5 t per ha is obtained.
Table 2: Oil seed rape yields per hectare (BMLFUW: Grüner Bericht 2000)
Winter rape for oil production
1980
---
1990
2.49
1995
3.01
1999
2.97
2000
2.43
Rape used in crop rotation should not exceed a share of 25%. Taking into consideration
this limit and the values listed before, a maximum cultivation area of 345,000 ha is
available. With an oil production of approx. 1000 kg/ha (1087 l/ha) a maximum amount
of rape-seed oil of approx. 345,000 t can be produced in Austria.
2.2.2 Ireland
About 6,000 ha of rape was grown in Ireland in 1994; 4,000 ha sown in spring, 2,000 ha
in winter. Average yield was a satisfactory 3.0 t/ha. The area sown to rape has declined
since then, mainly because EU Area Aid payments for oil-seed crops grown on ‘eligible’
land has declined relative to those for cereals.
Rape grows well on most Irish soils, and yields similar to neighbouring countries can be
achieved. The main concern is high seed losses in delayed harvests.
Teagasc has examined the suitability of other oil-seed crops for biofuel production. The
most promising, camelina sativa, would be cheaper to produce than rape, be more
5
durable at harvest and give similar oil yields. However, its high linolenic acid content
would raise some doubts about potential effects on the lubricating oil when used as an
engine fuel.
The total variable costs of rape-seed production are included in Table 3 (O’Mahony,
2001). Material inputs amount to €320-450/ha, or about €110-120/t. The estimates in
Table 3 include full contractor charges for all machinery operations; many farmers might
be prepared to accept a lower costing for machines already on the farm. They could also
deduct the cost of maintaining unproductive set-aside which would no longer be incurred
(about €50/ha), and they might make some allowance for an increased profit from the
succeeding crop. The ex-field price that farmers would find acceptable is likely to lie
between €150/t and €180/t.
Table 3: Estimated cost of production of oil-seed rape, 2002 (O’Mahony, 2001)
Sowing time
Materials
Seed
Fertilisers
Herbicides
Fungicides
Insecticides
Hire machinery
Plough, till & sow
Roll
Spray
Fertiliser spreading
Swathing
Harvesting
Misc.
Interest 8%
Transport (€4.2/t)
Bird control
Total variable costs (€/ha)
Assumed yield (t/ha)
Total variable cost (€/t)
Winter
(€)
477
41
251
88
79
19
410
126
13
57
42
63
110
44
22
16
6
931
4.0
233
6
Spring
(€)
276
47
75
0
0
47
304
126
13
42
14
0
110
19
9
9
0
599
2.75
218
2.2.3 Portugal
In Portugal sunflower is the most widely-grown oil-seed crop; the remaining cultures
included in this group, such as rape seed and soybean, do not have a great impact in terms
of cultivated area.
After the implementation of CAP (Common Agriculture Policy), Portugal was
guaranteed a maximum area of 93.000 hectares for oil-seed crops, but only sunflower is
cultivated on a commercial scale. However, the national production of the cultivated
oilseeds does not meet the national needs of vegetable oils consumption. Under these
circumstances, sunflower for energy purposes will have to compete with the strong
market for human consumption that is steadily increasing in Europe and throughout the
world.
After the introduction of the EC set-aside rules, the potential for growing crops for fuel
appears to be increasing. Despite that in Portugal, these lands are still only used for
pasture.
In Portugal the production of vegetable oils specifically for engine fuel purposes has been
limited to pilot demonstration projects, and always involved their conversion to biodiesel,
to be used as mixture with diesel in captive fleets. No trials have yet been performed on
the use of vegetable oils in its unprocessed form in diesel engines.
Sunflower is a well-adapted crop under various climatic and soil conditions. With its
well-developed root system it is one of the most drought-resistant crops and considered
suitable for the southern semi-arid countries. In Portugal sunflower is essentially
cultivated in non-irrigated soils representing more than 3/4 of the total area dedicated to
sunflower.
Sunflower is mostly produced in the south of Portugal in the region of Alentejo, in nonirrigated fields, with an average yield of 600kg/ha, although yields of 1000kg/ha have
also already been obtained.
In terms of dedicated area, rape-seed has much less expression than sunflower, being
sown mostly in irrigated soils, with yields varying between 500 and 1000 kg/ha.
From the BIOPOR1 project (1998/1999) it was concluded that the only national
agriculture regions with potential for the production of crops for energy purposes were
Alentejo and Ribatejo and Oeste, specifically in properties with more than 100 ha where
1
Biodiesel in Portugal: Feasibility study on biodiesel chain implementation in a
Mediterranean country (Contract JOR3-CT96-0118)
7
set-aside land could be used. The total potential area for the production of sunflower for
energy purposes in set-aside land would be about 60.000ha.
On the other hand if it is considered that 10 to 20% of the total national sunflower
production obtained in properties with more 100 ha was used for the production of
sunflower for energy purposes, the total required area would vary between 7.500-15.000
ha. In the following table potential scenarios for the maximum production of vegetable
oils for energy purposes are presented.
From Table 4, it can be seen that the vegetable oil potential production for energy
purposes, is about 36.000 tonnes (rape seed cultivated in 60.000 ha of set aside with a
yield of 1.500 kg/ha). For the specific situation of sunflower, the highest value reached
would be about 24.000 tons of oil (sunflower cultivated in 60.000 ha of set aside with an
average yield of 1.000 kg/ha).
Table 4: Potential seed and oil production of sunflower and rapeseed for energy purposes
Sunflower
Area (ha)
60.000
7.500
15.000
Rape-seed
600 kg/ha
1.000 kg/ha
500 kg/ha
1.500 kg/ha
Tonnes of seed
36.000
60.000
30.000
90.000
Tonnes of oil (40%)
14.400
24.000
12.000
36.000
Tonnes of seed
4.500
7.500
3.750
11.250
Tonnes of oil (40%)
1.800
3.000
1.500
4.500
Tonnes of seed
9.000
15.000
7.500
22.500
Tonnes of oil (40%)
3.600
6.000
3.000
9.000
The total variable costs estimated for sunflower production costs (2000, in scope of NTBNET Phase IV) are presented in Table 5.
8
Table 5: Estimated cost of production of sunflower seed in Portugal
Cost item
1. Indirect costs
2. Machinery
3. Wage-earning manpower
4. Amortization2
5. SUBTOTAL (1+2+3+4)
6. Other indirect costs
€/ha
Seeds
Fertilisers
Pesticides
Other raw materials
Fuels, maintenance etc
External services
TOTAL
General manpower
Specific manpower
TOTAL
TOTAL
Land renting
Interest paid
Family manpower
TOTAL
7.TOTAL PROD. COST (5+6)
Assuming a yield of 0.6 t/ha
costs (Euros/t)
Assuming a yield of 1 t/ha
costs (Euros/t)
19.95
29.93
49.88
62.35
112.23
37.41
37.41
12.47
211.99
49.88
49.88
261.87
436.45
261.87
Results from the BIOPOR project (1999/2000) showed that, in the case of biodiesel
production, sunflower oil production price was the most relevant factor, representing
about 75% of the SME price (0,60-0,62 Euros, without taxes) and that it was completely
dependent on the world price of the sunflower seeds. Though, the costs of producing
vegetable oil were in origin of its non-competitive prices in comparison to those of fossil
fuels (0,64 euros/litre, 1999/2000). Currently, there are better prospects, due to the fact
that, since February 2001, there is a tax relief (100%) for biofuels produced in the scope
2
The determination of the amortization costs was based on the life time of the machines
and on the number of operation hours per year.
9
of pilot scale projects, in which the produced biofuels have to be officially recognised as
products less damaging for the environment.
2.3
Vegetable oil extraction
Most vegetable oil is extracted in a small number of very big plants using solvents to
assist oil removal and handling from 20 to 100 t/hr. These units extract virtually 100% of
the oil, and achieve high levels of labour and plant efficiency. However, transport costs
for seed, cake and oil tend to be high, and excessive transport is hardly compatible with a
renewable transport fuels project.
In recent times there has been a growth in the installation of small decentralised
extraction units with throughputs from 5 to 1,000 kg/hr, giving annual capacities from 40
to 7,500 t. These extract the oil by cold pressing only; the maximum extraction is then
about 80% of the oil, and the cake has an oil content of 12-15%. The reduction in oil
output is partly offset by an enhanced cake value. A typical layout of a small
decentralised plant is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Layout of a small vegetable oil extraction plant
In Austria three categories of oil processing plants exist:
1. larger processing plants
2. agricultural cooperatives (partly combined with biodiesel production)
3. individual agricultural plants
10
In Table 6 the annual amount of oilseed processing (partly estimations), the technology
used and the different forms of use of the respective vegetable oil are summarised.
Table 6: Vegetable oil processing plants in Austria
1. Larger plants
•
•
2. Agricultural cooperatives/
industrial plants
•
•
•
•
•
3. Individual agricultural
plants
•
•
•
•
•
Bruck/Leitha: 250,000 t/a rape and sunflower; mechanical
presses and subsequent extraction, partly or fully refined,
edible oil, vegetable oil for technical purposes, biodiesel
Aschach: 40,000 t/a rape; mechanical presses, fully refined,
edible oil
Asperhofen: press output approx. 800 kg/h, no oil
processing at the moment, AME (edible oil methyl ester)
Mureck: approx. 3,000 t/a rape, RME (rape seed oil methyl
ester)
Güssing: approx. 3,000 t/a rape, RÖ (rape seed oil), RME
Starrein: approx. 3,000 t/a rape, RME, RÖ
Höhmbach: approx.. 1,000 t/a rape, additionally further
small amounts, edible oil, vegetable oil for technical use
Heidenreichstein: approx. 1,000 t/a rape; edible oil, RÖ
Kautzen: 610 t/a rape (2001), fuel
Oberwaltenreith: 3,200 t/a milk thistle, oil as by-product
Approx. 20 – 30 small-scale plants with continuous screwpresses; esp. rape; edible oil – direct sale, PÖ
Unknown number of intermittent presses for the production
of edible oil
A large part of the plants listed in the second group would still have free capacities for
vegetable oil processing. The continuously changing amounts of raw materials available
constitute an economic disadvantage.
In Portugal vegetable oils are extracted from a small number of big plants using solvent
extraction. Currently the sunflower oil extraction business is dominated by one very big
company located in the Lisbon area.
Nowadays, the number of small decentralised extraction units has decreased, as they
were unable to compete with larger plants, since the smaller ones can not incorporate the
scale benefits. In fact, the Portuguese small units have substantial difficulty to adapt their
cost structure to their productive capacity, because of the high fixed costs mainly
associated to labour and administrative costs.
In Portugal, small decentralised extraction units frequently process more than one type of
seasonable product. For instance, olive pomace oil extracting plants may also process
11
sunflower seeds. The production technology used in both products is the same,
characterised by a complete extraction process, consisting mainly in an initial coldpressing stage, followed by a solvent extraction process. Usually, even in this small scale
plants, high outputs of about 98% of oil are reached.
In Ireland, there is no large-scale oil extraction facility. Most seed is exported before
extraction. At present, two small plants are in operation and three more are at various
stages of development.
2.4
Oil extraction costs
The cost of oil extraction in this type of plant in Germany has been estimated for three
plants with throughputs of 15, 130 and 750 kg/hr (Maurer, 2000). With an annual usage
of 7,500 hr, the extraction costs of each plant were estimated at between 8 and 9 cent/litre
for all capacities. These figures suggest that there is little economy of scale associated
with this type of plant, as long as there is alternative employment for the part-time labour
required to operate the plant.
Kiernan (1997) came up with a somewhat higher estimate for an Irish plant to crush
2,500 t/annum. He estimated the operating cost of the plant at 8.2 cent/litre of oil (Table
7); overhead costs came to 4.3 cent/litre (Table 8). This gives a total cost of 12 cent/litre
of oil. The higher cost is probably due to the inclusion of two assumptions in the Irish
estimate: start from a green field site, and a 20% return on invested capital.
Table 7: Operating cost for a 750 tonne oil extraction plant
Labour
Part-time operator @ €10/hr
Energy (Weber. 1993)
1,250 kWh per tonne oil pressed @ 6 cent/kWh.
Repair and maintenance
Insurance
Total operating costs
Operating cost €/t (oil pressed)
Operating cost cent/litre (oil pressed)
12
€
10,000
56,250
9,500
1,350
67,100
89.47
8.23
Table 8: Capital cost of a 750 tonne oil extraction plant
Capital costs
Equipment/installation
Building, foundations.
Storage tanks
General engineering
Installation & commissioning
Total capital costs
Real annual cost of capital (20%)
Total annual operating cost (Table 2)
Working capital (1/12 of total costs)
Annual cost of working capital (12.5%)
Total annual costs (operating + capital)
Annual capital costs
Capital cost (Euro/tonne oil extracted)
Capital cost (cent/litre oil extracted)
€
109,000
12,700
7,600
2,500
12,700
144,500
28,900
67,100
7,750
1000
97,000
29,900
39.87
3.66
Therefore, the total operating and capital cost for the proposed 750 tonne oil extraction
plant comes to about 12 cent/litre of oil extracted (Tables 7 and 8).
In Portugal, no official data is available regarding vegetable oil production costs.
Nevertheless, estimation costs were provided for a 2000 tons oil extraction plant. These
show that the total operating and capital costs for the proposed 2000 tonne oil extraction
plant (cold pressing + solvent extraction) comes to about 32 cents per litre of oil extracted
(Tables 9, 10). This is very much higher than the German and Irish figures for coldpressing plants; it reflects the high capital cost of solvent extraction and the need for a
very high throughput to justify it.
13
Table 9: Operating cost for a 2000 tonne oil extraction plant3
Labour (20 operators @ 4 € / hr for 5 months (24 hours) working 8 hours per day
96.000
Energy
Extracted olive pomace (obtained from the olive pomace oil production)
30.000
Electricity
17.500
Repair and maintenance
25.000
Insurance
1.500
Total operating costs
170.000
Operating cost €/t (oil pressed)
85,0
Operating cost cent/litre (oil pressed)
7,85
Table 10: - Capital cost of a 2000-tonne oil extraction plant
Capital costs (Building, equipment, tanks, installation & commissioning)
3.500.000
Real annual cost of capital (15%)
525.000
Total annual operating cost (Table III)
170.000
Total annual costs (operating + capital)
695.000
Annual capital costs
525.000
Capital cost (Euro/tonne oil extracted)
262,5
Capital cost (cent/litre oil extracted)
24
2.5
Vegetable oil as a vehicle fuel
The use of unprocessed oil/fat in modified engines, while still lacking acceptance from
the vehicle industry, is expanding rapidly in Germany. Engine conversion kits aim to
overcome problems caused by the higher viscosity, low cetane number and poor lowtemperature properties of the fuel. These kits include various combinations of fuel preheaters, additional fuel filters and lift pumps, increased injection pressure and alternative
nozzles. The layout of a typical conversion kit is shown in Fig. 2.
3
Figures were provided by the owner of the plant ( February 2003)
14
A large number of German companies are now supplying conversion kits for a range of
vehicles. Several thousand of these kits have been installed in Germany, and small
numbers in many other countries, including Austria and Ireland. The cost of conversion
varies from under €1,000 (for a DIY kit) to over €2,000 (for parts and installation). Older
engines with indirect injection require little more than peripheral modification of heating
and filtration systems. More modern engines with direct injection require more attention
to injection pressures and nozzles. Conversion costs have been falling and may be
expected to fall further as the market develops.
Fig. 2: Engine conversion to allow the use of oils and fats as fuels
The recovery of a conversion cost of €1,000 over a five-year period at 10% interest
would amount to €264/yr. A vehicle driving 40,000 km/yr at a fuel economy of 15
km/litre would consume 2,667 litres of fuel. A price difference of roughly 10 cent/litre is
therefore needed to justify this expenditure on engine conversion.
While there is as yet no official specification for the vegetable oil to be used in converted
vehicles, in Germany a standard developed by the Bayerische Landesanstalt für
Landtechnik, known as the RK-standard, is the customary basis of trading adapted by oil
producers, vehicle converters and the wholesale and retail trade. The properties that are
characteristic of the oil e.g. iodine value, low-temperature properties, calorific value,
cetane number (method has still to be estimated), storage and oxidation stability, would
all be easily met by rape-seed oil. The properties that are dependant on the extraction
process (e.g. water content, other contaminants, P content) would have to be monitored
15
on a routine basis to ensure compliance, but should not present problems if the plant
design and operation are up to a reasonable standard.
In Austria, the first successful tests with vegetable oil-diesel-fuel mixtures were carried
out in the Federal Institute of Agricultural Engineering with a tractor with a singlecylinder precombustion-chamber engine in the 1970s. The subsequent tests with a direct
injection engine (43 kW) with a rapeseed oil-diesel mixture (50/50) was not very
successful. After some 400 operating hours the test had to be stopped. [Wörgetter, 1981]
Recently the interest in vehicles which can be operated with vegetable oil has increased
in Austria. In most parts the German engine technology (conversion kits) has been
adopted. Most of the vehicle owners produce the required vegetable oil themselves. The
performance per vehicle amounts to 70,000 km vegetable oil operation. The converted
passenger cars and light lorries are manufactured by the VW-group (VW, Seat, Skoda),
Daimler-Chrysler, Renault, Ford and Mitsubishi. From the legal point of view rape oil or
vegetable oil is not defined as fuel in the fuel regulation. However, the use of this liquid
energy source in vehicles is not being punished.
In Ireland, dynamometer and emission tests have been carried out on one converted
vehicle running on rape-seed oil. The vehicle chosen for adaptation was a Toyota Dyna
100 Pick-up Transporter, with a 2400 cc indirect-injection naturally-aspirated engine. A
30-litre biofuel tank was fitted with a copper coil through which the engine coolant was
circulated to heat the tank contents (Fig. 2). In addition, the fuel and coolant lines to the
tank operated as a counter-flow heat exchanger to ensure that the fuel temperature was
maintained until it reached the fuel filter. Solenoid valves switched the fuel supply from
mineral to biofuel, and opened/closed the coolant flow to the biofuel tank under
thermostatic control.
Initial runs were carried out to compare the performance of the vehicle running on unused
vegetable oil with that on mineral diesel. In these tests, the engine was switched to
biofuel when its temperature reached 30oC, and the coolant supply to the heat exchanger
was switched off when the fuel temperature reached 40oC. Three performance aspects
were measured: fuel economy, power and exhaust emissions.
Fuel economy was measured by driving the unladen vehicle around an 85-km circuit and
measuring fuel consumption either by topping up or draining the fuel tank. The average
speed for each circuit was 71 km/h. The results of this test showed a significant 12%
increase in fuel consumption with the vegetable oil (Table 11). In more recent tests with a
second vehicle (Peugeot 306), an increase in fuel consumption of 9% was recorded. If
these results are repeated with other conversions, a price difference of about 10% in
favour of the biofuel would be needed if its use were to be economically justified.
16
Table 11: Fuel economy of Toyota Dyna 100 with vegetable oil and mineral diesel
Run
Fuel
Diesel fuel
Rape-seed oil
1
2
3
Fuel economy (km/litre)
13.91 13.74 14.14
12.50 13.30 12.15
4
5
Mean
SED (sign.)
14.23
12.61
14.11
12.31
14.03
12.57
0.216 (***)
The power performance of the Toyota was measured on a rolling road dynamometer. The
tests showed a slight increase in power when vegetable oil was used as a fuel (Fig. 3).
The most likely explanation for this result is a higher injection pressure and fuel
throughput due to a lower leakage loss with the more viscous fuel. A similar result was
obtained in a trial in Germany (Soyk, 1999). In more recent tests with the Peugeot 306,
the power with vegetable oil was almost identical to that with diesel.
Dyna 100 power with diesel and veg. oil
50.0
Power (kW)
40.0
30.0
Veg.oil
20.0
Diesel
10.0
0.0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Engine Speed (RPM)
Fig. 3: Power performance of Dyna engine with vegetable oil and mineral diesel
Smoke density was considerably less with the vegetable oil than with mineral diesel (Fig.
4). Of the other emissions measured, CO was higher with the vegetable oil and NO levels
were similar for both fuels.
The vehicle competed 5,000 km (i.e. one oil change interval) without problems.
Lubricating oil samples removed during this period have yet to be analysed.
These results indicate the potential to run indirect-injection engines on unprocessed
vegetable oil without excessive loss of power or fuel economy and with acceptable
17
exhaust emissions. More modern engines present different problems, but the expertise
accumulated by the conversion companies is likely to ensure that any problems that arise
will be quickly overcome.
Smoke opacity (HSU)
80
70
diesel (no load)
60
diesel (full load)
50
Veg oil (no load)
40
Veg oil (full load)
30
20
10
0
1500
2500
3500
4500
5500
6500
Engine speed (RPM)
Fig. 4: Smoke density in exhaust emissions with vegetable oil and mineral diesel
In spite the success of the on-going experience in Germany and other countries with the
exploitation of vegetable oils as fuel in specific modified engine conversion kits, in
Portugal this situation is not yet clear and needs to be carefully assessed.
Nevertheless, the main constraint to the development of a project of this type would not
be of technical nature. Sunflower seed production practises are well known by the
Portuguese farmers, as well as the manufacturing technologies of vegetable oils
extraction, are readily accessible in the country. Therefore main difficulties are likely to
be associated to the high values of the sunflower production costs.
Finally, it is necessary to take into consideration that in face of the actual status of the
Portuguese economy only a reduction in the actual price of engine conversion kits, will
allow the effectiveness of any product in Portugal. On the other hand, as this kind of
project operate efficiently on a small scale, its suitable for Portuguese reality in terms of
agriculture productivity.
18
2.6
Oil-seed cake
There is a long-established market for oil-seed cake as a high-protein component of the
diet of ruminants, pigs and poultry. The current quoted price of oil-free cake is about
€180/t. Two factors would enhance the value of the cake from a local cold-pressing plant
above this value: the oil would increase its energy content and it could be guaranteed free
of any genetically modified material. The current price of conventional rape cake is 160170 per tonne. An ex-plant price of €180/t would be a realistic target for the cake from a
mechanical extraction plant.
2.7
Total costs
The total cost per litre of oil produced from rape-seed oil in a small extraction plant,
assuming seed prices to the grower of €150/t and €180/t, are estimated in Table 12. This
suggests that the ex-plant cost would be 47-56 cent/litre of oil. The cost of sun-flower oil
would be considerably higher unless yields well above 1 t/ha could be achieved.
Table 12: Total cost of rape-seed oil produced in a small decentralised plant
Cost of rape-seed oil production and extraction
Option 1
Option 2
Price to grower
Transport
Dry/store
Dryer loss
Cost at mill
Seed pressing cost
Pressed seed cost
Oil yield
Gross oil cost
Cake yield (@ 5% loss)
Cake transport
Cake price
Cake return
€/t seed
€/t seed
€/t seed
%
€/t seed
€/t seed
€/t seed
%
€/t oil
%
€/t cake
€/t cake
€/t oil
150.00
5.00
10.00
6.00
175.53
36.00
211.53
32
661.04
63
4.00
130.00
214.54
180.00
5.00
10.00
6.00
207.45
36.00
243.45
32
760.77
63
4.00
160.00
Net oil cost
€/tonne
446.50
495.15
cent/litre
37.95
42.09
265.62
The price of mineral diesel before distribution or taxation has fluctuated between 30 and
40 cent/litre in recent months. Some subsidy would be needed, at least for an initial
period, to allow vegetable oil to compete with mineral fuel in diesel engines. The
mechanism in countries with liquid biofuel industries has been to reduce or completely
remit the road excise on biofuels used in road vehicles.
19
2.8
Conclusions
1.
It is technically feasible to produce vegetable oil on set-aside land, extract the oil in
a local small-scale crushing facility, feed the cake to local animals and use the oil
as a fuel in local vehicles with modified diesel engines. The machinery and
expertise to grow the crop are available on most arable farms. Engine conversion
kits are readily available, though their price needs to fall further. Small-scale
crushing plant is also readily available. There would be a ready market for oil-seed
cake containing some oil and guaranteed GMO-free.
2.
It is unlikely that the approval of engine manufacturers for this use will be
forthcoming in the foreseeable future. Therefore it is most likely to be used in
small, self-contained projects involving local production and use in vehicles whose
warranty has already expired.
3.
The cost of the oil produced in this way from rape-seed is likely to be about 40
cent/litre. To recover the cost of the conversion, the fuel would need to be about 10
cent/litre cheaper than mineral diesel. An allowance for a reduction in fuel
economy would add up to a further 5 cent/litre. The equivalent price of mineral
diesel would therefore need to be at least 55 cent/litre for the biofuel to be
competitive.
4.
In most countries of northern Europe, a full or partial removal of excise on the
biofuel would be sufficient to make it competitive. In Portugal, it would appear that
an increase in the yield of the sunflower crop needs to be achieved before a viable
biofuel industry could be established.
3 Extracted olive pomace in CHP and heating systems
3.1
Background
The olive sector has a great importance within the Mediterranean countries agriculture. In
fact, olive oil producers in the European Union (Spain, Italy, Greece, Portugal and
France), are responsible for 73 % of the world olive oil production.
Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of olive tree (Olea Europae) by mechanical
procedures, either by discontinuous pressing methods (traditional systems) or by
continuos centrifugation methods (modern systems), more specifically through:
Press oil mill
Three-stage oil mill (continuous)
20
Two-stage oil mill (continuous)
Olive pomace and vegetation water are the by-products generated. Olive pomace is
almost exclusively acquired by the extractors units for the production of olive pomace oil
that, after a refination process, is used in food for human consumption. The left–over
fibrous material is primary lignin and cellulose and has a high energy content. This
biomass that remains after extraction (solvent extraction) is known as extracted olive
pomace. Its composition is variable, although the typical values usually remain within the
following ranges:
Table 13: Extracted olive pomace composition
Residual oil
Stone
Skin
Powder
Moisture content
Lower heating value
0,1-2,5%
45-60%
8-12%
20-30%
7-14%
15-21 kJ/kg
Similarly to other Mediterranean countries, extracted olive pomace is mainly used as fuel
in extractor units or in other industries, such as brick, cement and pulp paper production
units, essentially for thermal energy production.
3.2
Volumes available
There are no official figures about the extracted pomace quantities, generated in Portugal.
However it can be roughly estimated from the amounts of olive pomace generated.
Nevertheless, it must be taken in consideration that depending on the type of extraction
technology source used different quantities of extracted pomace are obtained.
Table 14: Extracted pomace yield obtained from different types of olive pomace 4
1000 kg of olive pomace yields:
Extracting technology
Press mill
Two-phase extraction Three-phase extraction
Pomace oil (kg)
60
30
40
Extracted pomace (kg)
650
300
450
4
Information provided by the owner /manager of an extracting plant(2000 ton extraction oil capacity)
21
Assuming that 56% of the total olive pomace results from pressing mills, 19% results
from the two-phase extraction systems and 25% from the three-phase extraction systems
and based on the available olive pomace production official data5, the national quantities
of extracted olive pomace can be estimated, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
134.627
117.989
Tonnes
101.030
62.947
96/97
Olive pomace
71.824
53.899
97/98
98/99
Extracted olive pomace
Fig. 5: Evolution of national olive pomace and extracted olive pomace generation.
The volumes of extracted olive pomace available depend also on the yielding crop year.
Specifically, for olive grove production, after a good harvesting year there is always a
lower yielding year.
3.3
Current use
The extracted olive pomace generated in Portuguese extracting units are mostly used as
fuel to supply part or all of the thermal load. Most of the heat is used as vapour for drying
operations.
Nowadays, this material is valued between 30 to 35 € per tonne. It has an important
influence in the olive sub-sector economics. Its reutilization as fuel contributes to the
reduction of the production costs and allow the sale of any surplus, thus providing an
additional income to the industry.
Other possibility is to initially separate the pit from the pulp, and using the last as
fertiliser, after a composting process. The pits are used as fuel.
5
Panorama Agricultura 1999, Ministério da Agricultura, do Desenvolvimento Rural e das Pescas.
22
3.4
Potential for CHP use
Co-generation (combined heat and power generation) is one of the most relevant
techniques for energy production in the olive oil industry. The production process, mainly
in the extracting units, demands a very important amount of energy, and therefore
substantial savings may be achieved if the generated by-product, extracted olive pomace,
is used as biomass fuel.
In Portugal the existing cogeneration units in the olive oil sector are still of low power
capacity (<2 MW). An example is the FEXOL Extraction Plant in Alentejo. The plant
has an installed capacity of 1 MWe, incorporating a system consisting of a superheated
steam boiler, fuelled with extracted olive pomace, and an axial steam turbine.
The overall energy efficiency of this combined cycle process results in savings of nearly
143.000 EUR per year, expressed by the avoided electricity costs, plus the income
provided by the electricity surplus sold to the public grid.
Dedicated power production from extracted olive pomace is not yet an attractive business
in Portugal. Unless the availability (in terms of local concentration and quantity) of olive
mark allows the implementation of a CHP with an installed capacity above 5MW, the
economics of such power production are still not attractive for investors.
3.5
Conclusions
Extracted olive pomace is a significant biomass fuel resource. If the Portuguese data is
applicable in other olive-producing countries, 1.5-2Mt of the material is produced in the
EU. Its calorific value is at least as high as that of wood. Its most appropriate use (e.g. for
process heat or CHP) will vary from one country to the next depending mainly on the
prices available for renewable electricity and the cost of alternative heating fuels.
4 Recovered vegetable oil
The availability and suitability of recovered vegetable oil as a biodiesel feedstock was
reviewed in Phase IV of the NTB-Net programme. It was estimated that about 0.4 Mt of
this material was being collected, and that this could increase to between 0.7 and 1 Mt
with an improved collection system.
In the interim period, the use of RVO in animal feed is now prohibited within the EU.
Two countries (UK and Ireland) have been given short-term temporary derogations from
this prohibition, to allow time for alternative uses for the material to be found.
Much of the RVO displaced from animal feed is likely to be used for biodiesel
production. However, in some situations this may not be the most appropriate use: e.g.
23
where the quality of the RVO is not suitable, the volumes available are not sufficient to
achieve the scale needed for a cost-efficient biodiesel plant, or where there are serious
market concerns that the image of biodiesel would be damaged if it were produced from
this feedstock.
Some attempts have been made in Germany and Ireland to use RVO as a fuel in
converted engines. While some trials have reported power and fuel consumption similar
to virgin oil, very many problems remain to be resolved before this use could be
recommended. Use of RVO in heating and CHP plants needs urgently needs to be
examined if the energetic use of this resource is to be maximised.
5 Trap grease
5.1
Definition
This includes the fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in waste-water.
Fats and oils contribute to domestic waste-water through butter, lard, margarine and
vegetable oils. Unfortunately, the largest proportion of this type of waste that is generated
in catering units, restaurants, hotels and domestic households, is dumped into the sewer
system. And, although classified as a non dangerous waste, it pollutes the environment
and sometimes obstructs the existing grease traps in waste-water treatment plants.
5.2
Volumes
In Portugal, assuming the 1992 situation (9,9 million inhabitants, very similar to the year
of 2002,10,36 million inhabitants), estimates are that the generated overall organic load
in the public sewage system was equivalent to 16.271.000 population equivalents. Taking
into consideration the fact that the proportion of the population in Portugal served by
public sewerage system is about 55% and, from that, only about 80% of the sewage is
submitted to grease removal, in medium to large wastewater plants, it may be estimated
that, per year, between 26.131- 52.262 tons of grease may be potentially available for
collection6 .
6
Assuming that typical grease content of untreated domestic waste water is about 50-100 mg/l
and one inhabitant equivalent produces 200 litres of effluent.
24
In Portugal, this kind of material is removed from the effluent stream and is sent to
landfill. For each tonne of waste delivered 35 EUR is paid. Therefore, using this waste as
fuel would represent a positive alternative option, allowing the conversion of an actual
cost into an income. In some wastewater plants there exists a incineration plant
specifically for grease burning, but usually never work or work, but with problems.
Agro-food industries are responsible for a large volume of effluent, with different
characteristics in accordance with the type of industry, the applied manufacturing
technologies, etc. According to legislation, industries are obliged to guarantee a suitable
and safe disposal/end use of their waste, taking in consideration the environmental and
health issues. Within this sector there are some industries with particular relevance in
terms of their potential for grease recovery, such as: Manufacture of dairy products;
Slaughterhouses; Meat processing; Margarine and related products manufacture; and
Vegetable oils and fats refining processing.
In accordance with the effluent streams volumes generated per each of the above
industries and taking in consideration their typical fat /oil content, a first approach can be
made on the potential recoverable quantities of fat/oils.
The wide ranges presented result from the fact that, in each sub-sector, different types of
products and processes are involved. The data currently available does not allow for a
more accurate estimate.
25
Table 15: Agro-food industries effluent generation and potential fat/oil content
recoverable
Type of industry
Annual production7
Effluent generation
(tons)
Milk processing
875 563 (2000)
1-3 m3 per ton of milk 9
Effluent fat /oil
content8 (g/m3)
Overall fat/oil
potential (ton)
100-150
88 -394
3
Slaughterhouses
456 207 (1999)
Meat processing
132 685 (1998)
2-60 m3 by each ton of 1.300
product processed11
345 – 10 349
Vegetable oils
and fats refining
processing
122 249 (1998)
2,5 m3 by each of ton of 200-2000
oil 8
61- 611
Margarine
manufacture
39 584 (1998)
20-25 m3 by ton of 200-2000
product 8
158 -19 792
5-8 m by each ton of 150-500
10
(includes pigs, cattle, carcass
ovine and caprines)
Total
34 – 1 824
686 – 32 970
In Ireland, it has been estimated by grease trap installers that about 5000t/year of grease
is collected by installed traps. Most of this is currently dumped in land-fills, which are
striving to reduce their intake of organic matter to comply with the EU Land-fill
Directive. However, the assembly of this material for energy use is seen as a difficult
problem, due to the large number and dispersion of mainly small traps.
In France, contact was made with one company (Ecopur BP) which collects and
processes almost 60,000t/year of trap grease. From their information, the total collection
of trap grease in France is well in excess of 100,000t/year.
7
8
9
Agricultural statistics 1999
CESL- Estudo das condições de utilização da água na indústria,1984
http:// www.unido.org (United Nations Industrial Development Organisation)
10
typical water usage. Assumption that it gives rise to more or less the same amount of wastewater.
Reference: Determinação das Cargas Poluidoras produzidas pelos Sectores de Actividade Industrial em
Portugal Continental, Direcção dos Recursos e Aproveitamentos Hidraulicos e Direcção dos Serviços de
contrle da Poluição, Abril 1985.
11
Meat Processing and Rendering, Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, World Bank Group,
July 1998.
26
5.3
Quality
There is very little information on trap grease properties, and they might be expected to
vary widely depending on the site and the trap design. One analysis of trap grease
collected in France is in Table 16.
Table 16: Composition of trap grease samples
Dry matter
Organic matter
Glycerol
Saturated fatty acids
Monounsaturates
Polyunsaturates
Minerals 850OC)
C content
H content
5.4
Mean
94%
96.5%
4%
43%
40.5
9%
1.5
71%
12%
Range
+4
+0.4
+1
+3
+0.4
+1
+1
Energetic use
Information on the use/disposal of trap grease is difficult to find. Of the material that is
not dumped into land-fills, the most common energetic use would appear to be in large
waste-to-energy plants or industrial boilers.
5.5
Conclusions
A substantial volume of trap grease, probably similar to that of RVO, is generated in the
EU. Pressures to collect more of this material, and to refrain from dumping into land-fills,
are likely to increase. Its properties are likely to make it suitable for large-scale heating
applications. It is another substantial biomass resource that could help member states to
achieve their targets for renewable energy production. Better information on available
volumes, current uses and grease properties would be valuable.
6 References
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28