Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological Science
APPLICATIONS:
8. The scientific attitude in psychology refers to the fact that
a. psychologists study only observable behaviors.
b. psychologists study thoughts and actions with an
attitude of skepticism and derive their conclusions from
direct observations.
c. psychological research should be free of value
judgments.
d. all of these statements are true.
9. The scientific attitude of humility is based on the idea that
a. researchers must evaluate new ideas and theories
objectively rather than accept them blindly
b. scientific theories must be testable.
c. simple explanations of behavior make better theories
than do complex explanations.
d. researchers must be prepared to reject their own ideas
in the face of conflicting evidence.
Objective 1-1: Explain how hindsight bias, overconfidence,
and the tendency to perceive order in random events
illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than
those based on intuition and common sense.
1. The tendency to perceive an outcome that has occurred
as being obvious and predictable is called the ____________________ ____________________. This
phenomenon is
(rare/common) in (children/ adults/both children and
adults).
2. Our everyday thinking is also limited by
How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer
____________________ in what we think we know.
3. Most people are (better /worse/equally wrong) in
Questions?
predicting their social behavior.
Objective 1-3: Describe how theories advance
4. Another common tendency is to perceive order in
psychological science.
____________________ ____________________.
10. Psychological science uses the ____________________
5. Patterns and streaks in random sequences occur
____________________ to evaluate competing ideas. They
(more/less) often than people expect, and they (do /do not)
make careful and form ____________________, which are
appear random.
____________________ based on new
Objective 1-2: Explain how the
____________________.
three main components of the
11. An explanation using an integrated set of principles that
scientific attitude relate to critical
organizes and predicts behaviors or events is a
thinking.
____________________ . Testable predictions that allow a
6. The scientific approach is
scientist to evaluate a theory are called
characterized by the attitudes of
____________________. These predictions
____________________ ,
give direction to ____________________.
____________________ , and
12. To prevent theoretical biases from influencing scientific
____________________.
observations, research must be reported precisely—using
7. Scientific inquiry thus encourages reasoning that
clear ___________________ ___________________ of all
examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates
concepts-so that others can the findings.
evidence, and assesses conclusions, which is called
13. The test of a useful theory is the extent to which it
____________________.
effectively a range of self-reports and observations and
implies clear ___________________.
14. Psychologists conduct research using
STUDY TIP: Try applying a scientific attitude toward how you
evaluate your knowledge of psychology in preparation for an
upcoming quiz or exam. As is true of researchers, many
students develop a false sense of overconfidence in their
mastery of course material. Be skeptical! Remain humble!
You'll likely do better.
___________________, ___________________, and
___________________ methods.
1
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Objective 1-4: Describe how psychologists use case
APPLICATIONS:
24. Your roommate is conducting a survey to learn how many
hours the typical student studies each day. She plans to pass
out her questionnaire to the members of her sorority. You
point out that her findings will be flawed because
a. she has not specified an independent variable.
b. she has not specified a dependent variable.
c. the sample will probably not be representative of the
population of interest.
d. of all of these reasons.
25. A professor constructs a questionnaire to determine how
students at the university feel about nuclear disarmament.
Which of the following techniques should be used to survey a
random sample of the student body?
a. Every student should be sent the questionnaire.
b. Only students majoring in psychology should be asked
to complete the questionnaire.
c. Only students living on campus should be
asked to complete the questionnaire.
d. From an alphabetical listing of all students every tenth
(or fifteenth, e.g.) student should be asked to
complete the questionnaire.
studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation to observe and
describe behavior, and explain the importance of random
sampling.
15. The research strategy in which one or more individuals
is studied in depth in order to reveal universal principles of
behavior is the ___________________.
16. Although case studies can suggest
___________________ for further study, a potential
problem with this method is that any given individual may
be __________________.
17. The research method in which people or animals are
directly observed in their natural environments is called
___________________ ___________________.
18. Using naturalistic observation, researchers have found
that people are more likely to laugh in
Objective 1-5: Describe positive and negative correlations,
___________________ situations than in
and explain how correlational measures can aid the process
___________________ situations. Also, using observations
of prediction but not provide evidence of cause-effect
of walking speed and the accuracy of public clocks,
relationships.
researchers have concluded that the pace of life (varies/does
26. When changes in one factor are accompanied by
not vary) from one culture to another.
changes in another, the two factors are said to be
19. The method in which a group of people is questioned
___________________, and one is thus able to
about their attitudes or behavior is the
___________________ the other. The statistical expression
___________________. An important factor in the validity
of this relationship is called a ___________________. A
of survey research is the ___________________ of
graphical representation of this relationship is called a
questions.
___________________.
20. We are more likely to overgeneralize from samples we
27. If two factors increase or decrease together, they are
observe, especially ___________________ ones.
___________________ ___________________. If,
21. Surveys try to obtain a ___________________ sample,
however, one decreases as the other increases, they are
one that will be representative of the ___________________
___________________ ___________________.
being studied. In such a sample, every person (does/ does
Another way to state the latter is that the two variables
not) have a chance of being included.
relate ___________________. Using the space below, draw
22. Large, representative samples (are/ are not) better than
scatterplots showing patterns of correlation.
small ones.
23. Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation do
not explain behavior; they simply ___________________ it.
2
they are
_
Another way to state the latter is that the two
variables relate
. Using the
space below, draw scatterplots
showing patterns
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
of correlation.
29. A correlation between two events or behaviors means
only that one event can be
___________________ from the other.
30. Because two events may both be caused by some other
___________________, a correlation does not mean that
one ___________________ the other. For this reason,
Perfect positive correlation
No relationship
correlation thus does not enable ___________________.
(+1.00)
STUDY TIP: Many students find the concept of correlation
confusing. A common mistake is the belief that a negative
correlation indicates a weak or absent relationship between
two variables. Remember that correlation does not prove
causation; rather, it indicates the degree to which you can
predict changes in one variable from another. The strength of
a correlation, indicated by a numerical value, is independent
of the direction (positive [+] or negative [-]) of the relationship.
A negative correlation simply means that two variables
change in opposite directions, such as when sales of hot
chocolate decrease as the average daily temperature
increases.
(0.00)
Perfect negative correlation
APPLICATIONS:
31. A researcher was interested in determining whether her
students' test performance could be predicted from their
proximity to the front of the classroom. So she matched her
students' scores on a math test with their seating position.
This study is an example of
a. experimentation.
b. correlational research.
c. a survey.
d. naturalistic observation.
32. If eating saturated fat and the likelihood of contracting
cancer are positively correlated, which of the following is true?
a. Saturated fat causes cancer.
b. People who are prone to develop cancer prefer foods
containing saturated fat.
c. A separate factor links the consumption of
saturated fat to cancer.
d. None of these statements are necessarily true.
33. If height and body weight are positively correlated, which
of the following is true?
a. There is a cause-effect relationship between height
and weight.
b. As height increases, weight decreases.
c. Knowing a person's height, one can predict his or her
weight.
d. All of these statements are true.
(-1.00)
28. A negative correlation between two variables does not
indicate the ___________________ or
__________________ of the relationship. Nor
does correlation prove ___________________ rather, it
merely indicates the possibility of a relationship.
If your level of test anxiety goes down as your time spent
studying for the exam goes up, would you say these events
are positively or negatively correlated?
Explain your reasoning.
Objective 1-6: Describe the characteristics of
experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and
effect.
34. To isolate and ___________________, researchers
control for other ___________________.
3
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
35. Research studies have found that breast-fed infants (do
response to a signal light. Which variable is the independent
variable, and which is the dependent variable? If the answer is
not obvious, try the test question, "Which variable can affect
the other?" Clearly, reaction time cannot affect caffeine. So, in
this example, the dose of caffeine is the independent variable
and reaction time is the dependent variable.
/ do not) grow up with higher intelligence scores than those
of infants who are bottle-fed with cow's milk. To study
cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct
___________________. Using this method and assigning
participants to groups, a researcher ___________________
41. Researchers sometimes give certain participants a
the factor of interest while ___________________
pseudotreatment, called a ___________________, and
___________________ (controlling) other factors.
compare their behavior with that of participants who
36. If a ___________________ changes when an
receive the actual treatment. When merely thinking that
___________________ factor is varied, the researcher
one is receiving a treatment produces results, a
knows the factor is having an ___________________.
___________________ ___________________ is said to
37. An experiment must involve at least two conditions: the
occur.
___________________ condition, in which the
42. The aim of an experiment is to ___________________
experimental treatment is present, and the
a(n) ___________________ variable, measure the
___________________ condition, in which it is absent.
___________________ variable, and
38. To ensure that the two groups are identical,
___________________ all other variables.
experimenters rely on the ___________________
Explain at least one advantage of the experiment as a
___________________ of individuals to the experimental
research method.
conditions.
39. The factor that is being manipulated in an experiment is
STUDY TIP/APPLICATIONS: The concepts of control and
operational definition are important in experimental research.
In an experiment, researchers strive to hold constant (control)
the possible effects of all variables on the dependent variable,
except the one that is being manipulated (independent
variable) Operational definitions, which were explained earlier,
are like recipes for measuring a variable so that other
researchers can replicate your results. They are much more
precise than dictionary definitions. For example, the dictionary
might define intelligence as "the capacity to reason." Because
this definition is too vague for research purposes, a
psychologist might create the operational definition of
intelligence as "a person's answers to a specific set of IQ test
questions." Test your understanding of these important
concepts by completing the following exercises.
43. You decide to test your belief that men drink more soft
drinks than women by finding out whether more soft drinks are
consumed per day in the men's dorm than in the women's
dorm. Your belief is a(n) ___________________, and your
research prediction is a(n) ___________________ .
a. hypothesis; theory
b. theory; hypothesis
c. independent variable; dependent variable
d. dependent variable; independent variable
44. The concept of control is important in psychological
research because
a. without control over independent and dependent
variables, researchers cannot describe, predict, or
explain behavior.
b. experimental control allows researchers to study the
influence of one or two independent variables on a
called the ___________________ variable.
The measurable factor that may change as a result of these
manipulations is called the ___________________ variable.
Other factors that can potentially influence the results of an
experiment are called ___________________
___________________.
40. When neither the participants nor the person collecting
the data knows which condition a participant is in, the
researcher is making use of the ___________________ ___________________ procedure.
STUDY TIP: Students often confuse independent variables
and dependent variables. Remember that independent
variables are manipulated (controlled) directly by the
researcher to determine how they affect dependent variables.
Dependent variables are the behaviors and mental processes
that psychologists are trying to understand. In a sense,
dependent variables depend on the actions of independent
variables. When you are struggling to distinguish two
variables, ask yourself, "Which of these two variables can
affect the other?" Consider, for example, a researcher
investigating caffeine and reaction time. After randomly
assigning different students to groups that drink a highly
caffeinated drink and a weakly caffeinated drink, she
measures each student's speed in pushing a button in
4
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
dependent variable while holding other potential
influences constant.
c. without experimental control, results cannot be
generalized from a sample to a population.
of these
reasons.Critically With Psychological Science
20 d. of allChapter
1 Thinking
45. Martina believes that high doses of caffeine slow a
person's reaction time. To test this belief, she has five friends
each
8-ounce
cups ofiscoffee
and then
measures
44. drink
The three
concept
of control
important
in psychotheir reaction
on a learning
logical time
research
becausetask. What is wrong with
Martina's
strategy?
a. research
without control
over independent and depena. Nodent
independent
variable
is specified.
variables,
researchers
cannot describe,
b. Nopredict,
dependent
variable behavior.
is specified.
or explain
c. There
is no controlcontrol
condition.
b. experimental
allows researchers to
d. There
is
no
provision
replication
of the
study the influenceforof
one or two
independent
findings.
variables on a dependent variable while hold46. Rashad,
is participating
in a psychology
experiment
ingwho
other
potential influences
constant.
on the effects
of
alcohol
on
perception,
is
truthfully
told by the
c. without experimental control, results cannot
experimenter
that he has been
thea "high-dose
be generalized
from assigned
a sampletoto
population.
condition."
d. of all of these reasons.
What is wrong with this experiment?
a. There
controlthat
condition.
45.
Martinais no
believes
high doses of caffeine slow
b. Rashad's
concerning
"high
a person'sexpectations
reaction time.
To test the
thiseffects
belief, ofshe
doses"
of alcohol
perception
may influence
has five
friendsoneach
drink three
8-ounce his
cups
performance.
of coffee and then measures their reaction time
on a learning
task.a What
is wrong
with Martina's
c. Rashad
was given
placebo,
so the results
may be
tainted.
research strategy?
d. All
statements
are correct.
a. of
Nothese
independent
variable
is specified.
47. Which
of the
following procedures
is an example of the
b. No
dependent
variable is specified.
use of ac.placebo?
There is no control condition.
a. In
test ofisthe
of a for
drugreplication
on memory,
d. aThere
noeffects
provision
of athe
participant
is
led
to
believe
that
a
harmless
pill
actually
findings.
contains an active drug.
46.
whoinisanparticipating
a psychology
b. ARashad,
participant
experiment isinled
to believe that a
on contains
the effects
of alcohol
perceppill,experiment
which actually
an active
drug, on
is harmless.
tion, is truthfully
told by theare
experimenter
c. Participants
in an experiment
not told whichthat he
has been
assigned
the "high-dose condition."
treatment
condition
is intoeffect.
What isthe
wrong
with this
d. Neither
participants
norexperiment?
the experimenter knows
which treatment condition is in effect.
SUMMARY STUDY TIP: As we will note through this Study
Guide, preparing a table to summarize what you have learned
about a topic is a good way to promote understanding. Table
1.3 in the text compares the three research methods. Without
looking at the text, try to complete that table on your own.
We've partially filled in a couple of column entries for you.
a. There is no control condition.
b. Rashad's expectations concerning the effects
of "high
doses"
alcohol Life
on perception may
Statistical
Reasoning
in of
Everyday
influence his performance.
Objective
1-7: Describe
measures
central
c. Rashad
was giventhe
a three
placebo,
so the ofresults
may
bediscuss
tainted.the relative usefulness of the two
tendency,
and
d. All of these statements are correct.
measures of variation.
47. Which of the following
procedures is an example
48. Researchers
usea ___________________
to help them
of the use of
placebo?
a. In
a test of
the observations.
effects of a drug
see and
interpret
their
on memory, a
participant is led to believe that a harmless pill
49. Once
researchers
havean
gathered
their
actually
contains
active drug.
b.
A
participant
in
an
experiment
is led to believe
___________________, they must ___________________
that a pill, which actually contains an active
them. One
simple
way of
drug,
is harmless.
c. Participants in an experiment are not told
visually representing data is to use a
which treatment condition is in effect.
d. Neither the participants
nor thetoexperimenter
___________________.
It is important
read the
knows which treatment condition is in effect.
___________________ ___________________ and note
the
___________________
avoid
SUMMARY
STUDY TIP: Astowe
will being
note misled
throughbythis
Study Guide, preparing
misrepresented
data.
a table to summarize what
you have learned about a topic is a good way to promote
1.3 intendency
the text are
compares
50.
Theunderstanding.
three measures Table
of central
the
the three research methods. Without looking at the
___________________,the
and the
text, try to complete that ___________________,
table on your own. We've
partially filled in a couple of column entries for you.
___________________.
51. The most frequently occurring score in a distribution is
called the ___________________.
COMPARING RESEARCH METHODS
Research Method
Basic Purpose
Descriptive
Correlational
To detect naturally
Experimental
To explore
How Conducted
What Is Manipulated
Do case studies,
surveys, or naturalistic
observations
Nothing
,
5
Weaknesses
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
52. The mean is computed as the ___________________
make sure that they are not simply the result of
___________________ of all the scores divided by the
___________________ variation. The differences are
_________________ of scores.
probably real if the sample averages are
53. The median is the score at the _____________
___________________ and the difference between them is
percentile.
(relatively small/relatively large).
54. When a distribution is lopsided, or
65. Statistical significance does not necessarily indicate the
___________________, the (mean/median/mode) can be
importance or ___________________ significance of a
biased by a few extreme scores.
difference or result.
55. Averages derived from scores with (high/low)
variability are more reliable than those with (high/low)
APPLICATIONS:
variability.
66. The football team's punter wants to determine how
consistent his punting distances have been during the past
season. He should compute the
a. mean.
c. mode.
b. median. d. standard deviation.
67. Esteban refuses to be persuaded by an advertiser's claim
that people using their brand of gasoline average 50 miles per
gallon. His decision probably is based on
a. the possibility that the average is the mean, which
could be artificially inflated by a few extreme scores.
b. the absence of information about the size of the
sample studied.
c. the absence of information about the variation in
sample scores.
d. all of these statements.
68. Bob scored 43 out of 70 points on his psychology exam.
He was worried until he discovered that most of the class
earned the same score. Bob's score was equal to the
a. mean.
b. median.
c. mode.
d. range.
69. The four families on your block all have annual household
incomes of $25,000. If a new family with an annual income of
$75,000 moved in, which measure of central tendency would
be most affected?
a. mean
b. median
c. mode
d. standard deviation
70. Dr. Salazar recently completed an experiment in which
she compared reasoning ability in a sample of women and a
sample of men. The means of the female and male samples
equaled 21and 19, respectively, on a 25-point scale. A
statistical test revealed that her results were not statistically
significant. What can Dr. Salazar conclude?
a. Women have superior reasoning ability.
b. The difference in the means of the two
samples is probably due to chance variation.
c. The difference in the means of the two
samples is reliable.
d. She cannot reach any of these conclusions.
56. The measures of variation include the
___________________ and the ___________________
___________________.
57. The range is computed as the _____________
______________________________________ .
58. The range provides a(n)(crude/ accurate) estimate of
variation because it (is/is not) influenced by extreme scores.
59. The standard deviation is a (more accurate/less
accurate) measure of variation than the range. Unlike the
range, the standard deviation(does/does not) use
information from each score in the distribution. (Appendix
B) The formula for the standard deviation is
______________________________________.
60. The symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in
which most scores fall near the ___________________ with
fewer and fewer near the extremes is called the
___________________ ___________________ .
Objective 1-8: Explain how we know whether an observed
difference can be generalized to other populations.
61. It is safer to generalize from a ___________________
sample than from a ___________________ sample.
62. Averages are more reliable when they are based on
scores with (high/low) variability.
63. Small samples provide a _
(more/less) reliable basis for generalizing than
large samples.
64. Tests of statistical ___________________ are used to
estimate whether observed differences are real—that is, to
6
Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Frequently Asked Questions About
77. Opposition to animal experimentation also raises the
Psychology
question of what ___________________ should protect the
Objective 1-9: Explain the value of simplified laboratory
well-being of animals.
conditions in illuminating everyday life.
78. The ethics code of the ___________________
71. In laboratory experiments, psychologists' concern is not
___________________ ___________________ urges
with specific behaviors but with the underlying theoretical
researchers to obtain participants' ___________________
___________________.
___________________ and fully ___________________
72. Psychologists conduct experiments on simplified
people after the research.
behaviors in a laboratory environment to gain
Describe two other ethical guidelines for psychological
___________________ over the many variables present in
research.
the "real world." In doing so, they are able to test
Objective 1-12: Discuss whether psychology is free of
___________________ ___________________ of behavior
value judgments.
that also operate in the real world.
79. Psychologists' values (do/do not) influence their
Objective 1-10:Discuss whether psychological research can
theories, observations, and professional advice.
be generalized across cultures and genders.
80. Although psychology (can/cannot) be used to
73. Culture refers to the enduring ___________________,
manipulate people, its purpose is to ___________________.
___________________, ___________________, and
___________________ shared by a large group of people
APPLICATIONS:
81. Your best friend criticizes psychological research for being
artificial and having no relevance to behavior in real life. In
defense of psychology's use of laboratory experiments you
point out that
a. psychologists make every attempt to avoid
artificiality by setting up experiments that closely simulate
real-world environments.
b. psychologists who conduct basic research are not
concerned with the applicability of their findings to the real
world.
c. most psychological research is not conducted in a
laboratory environment.
d. psychologists intentionally study behavior in
simplified environments in order to gain greater control
over variables and to test general principles that help to
explain many behaviors.
82. A friend majoring in anthropology is critical of
psychological research because it often ignores the influence
of culture on thoughts and actions.
You point out that
a. there is very little evidence that cultural
diversity has a significant effect on specific
behaviors and attitudes.
b. most researchers assign participants to
experimental and control conditions in such a way as to
fairly represent the cultural diversity of the population
under study.
c. it is impossible for psychologists to control for every
possible variable that might influence research
participants.
d. even when specific thoughts and actions vary across
cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are
much the same.
and passed on from one generation to the next.
74. Although specific attitudes and behaviors vary across
cultures, the underlying ___________________ are the
same. For instance, throughout the world people diagnosed
with ___________________ (a reading problem) exhibit the
same ___________________ malfunction. Likewise,
similarities between the ___________________ far
outweigh differences.
Objective 1-11: Explain why psychologists study animals,
and describe the ethical guidelines that safeguard human
and animal research participants.
75. Many psychologists study animals because they are
fascinating. More important, they study animals because of
the (similarities/ differences) between humans and other
animals. These studies have led to treatments for human
___________________ and to a better understanding of
human functioning.
76. Some people question whether experiments with
animals are ___________________. They wonder whether
it is right to place the ___________________ of humans
over those of animals.
7