OTU, OTU AKANU
PG/Ph.D./02/32749
PG/M. Sc/09/51723
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICER TO
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA
BETWEEN 2002 – 2007
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND
LOCAL GOVERNMENT, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ENUGU CAMPUS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
2011
Digitally Signed by Webmaster’s Name
Webmaster
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
i
CERTIFICATION
OTU, OTU AKANU – a postgraduate student in the Department of Public
Administration
and
Local
Government,
with
registration
number
PG/Ph.D./02/32749, has satisfactorily completed the requirements for research
work for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Public
Administration.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part
or full for any Diploma or Degree of this or any other University.
…………………………
PROF. FAB O. ONAH
SUPERVISOR
………………………….
PROF. FAB O. ONAH
H.O.D.
ii
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Public Administration and
Local Government, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
…………………………
PROF. FAB O. ONAH
SUPERVISOR
………………………….
PROF. FAB O. ONAH
H.O.D.
……………………………………..
DEAN
FACULITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
………………………………
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
iii
DEDICATION
To God Almighty, my darling angel - Mrs. Otu Chinenye Emilia, my beloved
daughter - Miss Precious Amarachi Otu and her unborn siblings.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Numerous individuals and groups played leading role, some without realizing it
at all, in influencing the development of the ideas which are accumulated in this
thesis.
Saddled with onerous tasks, academic adventure is such that not all who engage
in it, pursue it to a logical conclusion stage. Undoubtedly, I would have been a
victim of this circumstance if not the mercy of the ALMIGHTY GOD. His
guide, vision, protection, and provision saw me through to this academic battle.
The Almighty God is the Architect, Founder and Provider of all wisdom and
knowledge. It is from this everlasting reservoir, I drew my inspiration. He
(God) will never share His Glory with any man, as all Honour, Adoration be
unto His Holy Name.
Numerous institutions facilitated the coherent integration of the scattered
empirical data assembled here in a presentable format. I am grateful to all
concerned – individuals and institutions.
When remarkable things have come the way of a person, it is not proper to
explain them away as mere happenstance or luck. My contact with Professor
Fab. O. Onah since 1999 should be excused from sheer chance or fate. The
reason is not far fetched.
ivv
Divinely and uninfluenced, he supervised both my M.Sc. Project, and Ph.D
Thesis. He is an intellectual auditorium. I am undeniably indebted and grateful
to both him and his entire family.
The discussant of this work at the proposal stage and the former Dean, Faculty
of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Professor F. C. Okoli is
simply an intellectual wonder.
I also acknowledge the contributions of Professor Chikelue Ofuebe, his
criticisms ensured the academic equilibrium of this work. I am also thankful to
Professor B. C. Nwankwo for the role he played in seeing me through in this
arduous task. I will forever not be unmindful of this gigantic assistance.
The following: Professor (Mrs.) Rose Onah, Professor C. Oguonu, Dr. Tony
Onyishi, Dr. C. U. Agalamanyi, Dr. (Mrs.) A. O. Uzuegbunam, Dr. B. A.
Amujiri, Dr. Ikeanyibe Okey, Dr. (Mrs.) Agu Sylvia, Mr. Chuka Ugwu, Mr.
Eddy Izueke, Mr. Sam Ugwu, Mrs. Nzekwe, Ifeoma F. are academic “Rocks of
Gibratas” in the Department of Public Administration and Local Government,
UNN. They are duly remembered for finding out time to assist me in a bid to
ensure that success is achieved in this quest for an academic excellence.
Also, I am not ungrateful to staff and management of Ebonyi State Library
Board, Ebonyi State Planning Office, Universal Basic Education (UBEB)
Ebonyi State, Ebonyi State Action Committee on Aid (EBOSACA). Staff of
vi
Health Departments and WASH Department of Ikwo, Ivo and Ohaukwu L.G.As
are not forgotten. They played immense role in the realization of this work.
Particular mention should be made of Felix U. Okocha – the Ebonyi State
Immunization Officer, Abalife Thomas, O. – HOD UNICEF Assisted WASH
Programme Ohaukwu L.G.A., Mrs. Grace Aula of the UNICEF Zone “A‟ Field
Office, Enugu; Heads of Ministries, Extra Ministerial Department and
Parastatals in Ebonyi State and others too numerous to mention.
To my in-laws, Mr. & Mrs. Thomas Aniagu for their encouragement and
prayers throughout this struggle, most especially their unequivocal agreement to
give the hand of their amiable daughter in marriage to me. I owe them a lot.
It is also appropriate to register my unalloyed gratitude to my uncles, Mr.
Jonathan Owora Amadi and Mr. Stanley U. Ama. My warm embrace goes to
my sweet mother Mrs. C. Orji. Morality to me is better than silver and gold.
My mother provides me with moral support and motherly advice that saw me
through to this level of academic attainment.
I am immensely indebted to my beloved Angel, Mrs. Otu Chinenye Emilia and
my daughter, little Miss Precious Amarachi Otu for their tremendous support,
encouragement and prayers in the course of this study. Actually, they were
denied financially and emotionally before attaining this lofty height.
vii
Unequivocally, my wife served as a stabilizing factor in stressful periods. I say
a big kudos to her.
I express my sincere gratitude to my antagonists, who unrepentantly strove in
diverse ways with multiplicity of strategies to constitute cogs in the wheel of
my progress. As aptly summed up in the immortal words of the late Sage, Chief
Obafemi Awolowo, “………….. By their actions and omission, they have
toughened me, made me utterly fearless, defiant and supremely self confident,
indifferent to obloquy and sometimes suspicious of praise”. Biblically, they are
all my friends and not foes.
Finally, I thank and glorify Him, the Author and the Finisher of our Destiny
„THE ALMIGHTY GOD‟ for His care, abundant love, protection, and
provision beyond words or imagination in this struggle.
OTU, OTU AKANU
July, 2012
viii
ABSTRACT
This thesis was designed to study the contributions of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field
Officer to Social Development Programmes in Ebonyi State, Nigeria between
2002 – 2007. This period of time referred to as “One Programme Cycle”
happens to be the foundation of all UNICEF programme interventions in
Ebonyi State.
Years back, Ebonyi State was branded “Educationally
Disadvantaged” because of her practical inability to compete favourably among
the South East States and beyond. Mortality and maternal morbidity figures
increases due to vaccine preventable diseases like, Tuberculosis,
Onchocerciasis, Malaria, Diarrhea, Acute Respiratory Tract Infections (ARI),
Polio, and of course non attendance to women during child delivery. Lack of
potable water and poor knowledge of personal hygiene were among the several
reasons for the high incidence of the Guinea worm scourge and related water
borne diseases in the State. With the above as a spring board, this research went
on to unravel the contributions of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office to social
conditions in Ebonyi State. To execute this task, data were primarily collected
from direct observation (field trips), oral interviews, and questionnaires, while
the secondary sources were books, journals, government publications/gazettes,
reports, magazines and unpublished materials. Presentation and analysis of
these collected data were qualitative and deductive. To achieve this, the content
of the qualitative materials were classified into appropriate categories using
statistical tables, pictorial presentation, bar-charts. We used “Chi-Square Test”,
and “Simple percentage”, as statistical tools to analyse the data we derived from
the questionnaires administered to our respondents. It was found that the
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office established Survival And Early Childcare
programme was responsible for the reduction of the rate of mortality and
maternal morbility in rural communities of Ebonyi State. It was also found out
that the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office assisted Universal Basic Education
programme has made it possible for children to commence learning from their
early age. Another discovery made was that guinea worm and related waterborne diseases in Ebonyi State have reduced to the barest mininum as a result of
the implementation of the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene programme, just as the level of personal hygiene among Ebonyi people
incressed. This study therefore recommends among other things that UNICEF
Zone „A‟ Field Office should always make wide consultation before drawing
their Annual Work Plan (AWP). The government, the host communities and
other donor agencies should be carried along for an integrated and synergic
approach to programme implementation. This means that UNICEF Zone „A‟
Field Office should give the programmes a “bottom-up” approach both in the
Annual Work Plan (AWP) and actual operations. This will provide for a
formidable baseline study in so far as other partners and the beneficiaries of
ix
these programmes are invited. Government should muster every political will to
own these programmes and service their Counterpart Cash Contribution
effectively and efficiently. UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programmes are
carried out in three (3) LGAs in Ebonyi State. Government should replicate
these programmes to other LGAs to make these programmes state-wide and for
more Eboyians to benefit.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION -
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APPROVAL PAGE -
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DEDICATION
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT -
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ABSTRACT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS -
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LIST OF TABLES -
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XIII
LIST OF FIGURES
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XV
LIST OF PICTURES
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XVII
ACRONYMS
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1.0
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
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1.2
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM -
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1.3
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
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1.4
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
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1.5
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
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1.5.1 SCOPE
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1.5.2 LIMITATIONS
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2.0
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
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2.2
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT -
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xi
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2.3
HEALTH CARE SERVICES
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2.4
THE SITUATION OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN
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2.5
MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY
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2.6
WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE (WASH)-
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2.7
SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW
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2.8
GAPS IN LITERATURE-
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2.9
HYPOTHESES
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2.11 EBONYI STATE: HISTORY AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
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2.10 OPERATIONLIZATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
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2.12 UNICEF: ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, PROGRAMMES AND
SOURCES OF FUND
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2.13 EBONYI STATE: SOCIAL SITUATIONS -
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2.14 EBONYI STATE AND UNICEF COUNTRY COOPERATION
PROGRAMME
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2.16 SOURCES AND APPLICATION OF PROGRAMME FUNDS -
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2.15 MECHANISMS FOR PROGRAMME COORDINATION,
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
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3.0
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
TYPE OF RESEARCH -
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101
3.2
SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION -
101
3.3
POPULATION OF THE STUDY
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3.4
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE -
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3.5
METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
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3.6
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENTS
107
3.7
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
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3.8
APPLICATION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.0
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
FINDINGS
4.1
INTRODUCTION -
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4.2
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
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4.3
DATA ANALYSIS
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4.4
TEST OF HYPOTHESES
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4.5
FINDINGS -
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5.0
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND
DISCUSSION
5.1
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
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5.2
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS -
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6.0
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, RECOMMEDATIONS, AND
CONCLUSION
6.1
SUMMARY
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6.2
RECOMMENDATIONS -
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6.3
CONCLUSION
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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APPENDIX
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE FOCAL LGAs AND
COMMUNITIES
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TABLE 2: ACCESS TO SANITARY MEANS OF EXCRETA
DISPOSAL- -
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TABLE 3: NATIONAL PROGRAMME ON IMMUNIZATION
COMPARATIVE ACHIEVEMENTS FROM 1997 TO
DECEMBER 2001 IN EBONYI STATE
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TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF ANTICIPATED UNICEF UNICEF ZONE “A”
FIELD OFFICE AND EBSG CONTRIBUTION
TABLE 5: QUALIFICATIONS OF RESPONDENTS
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TABLE 6: SURVIVAL AND EARLY CHILDCARE PROGRAMME
TABLE 7: BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAMME -
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TABLE 8: WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE PROGRAMME-
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TABLE 9: OPERATION SCHEDULES
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TABLE 10: LGA HEALTH PROFILE 2002 – OCTOBER 2007
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TABLE 11: LGA HIV SERO-PREVALENT RATE (ANC ATTENDEES)
IN % -
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xiv
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TABLE 12: UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE ALLOCATION OF
INSTRUCTIONA MATEIALS TO CHILD FRIENDLY
SCHOOLS IN EBONYI STATE BETWEEN 2002 – 2007
130
TABLE 13: FOCAL LGAs SCHOOL PROFILE 2002 – OCTOBER
2007 -
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TABLE 14: STATISTICS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS ENROLLMENT
BY FOCAL LGAs 2001-2007 -
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TABLE 15: UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE WATER, SANITATION &
HYGIENE PROGRAMME OHAUKWU LGA
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TABLE 16: UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE WATER, SANITATION &
HYGIENE PROGRAMME IVO LGA
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TABLE 17: UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE WATER, SANITATION &
HYGIEN PROGRAMME IKWO LGA
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TABLE 18: MATERNAL MORTALITY & MORBIDITY MONITORING
FROM THE FOCAL LGAs (2001, 2002, 2007)
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TABLE 19: GUINEA WORM CASES IN 2001, 2002, 2007 IN THE FOCAL
LGAs
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xv
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154
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: U5 MR. BY ZONES AND URBAN AND RURAL AREA
(PER 1,000 LIVES BIRTH)
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FIGURE 2: PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN OF UNDER-5 MORTALITY
AND MORBIDITY BY REPORTED CAUSES, 1999 IN
NIGERIA -
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FIGURE 3: MAJOR PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED BY RURAL
HOUSEHOLDS (% OF HOUSEHOLD CITING AS
PROBLEMS)
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FIGURE 4: THE POLITICAL MAP OF EBONYI STATE SHOWING THE
UNICEF ZONE „A‟ FIELD OFFICE FOCAL LGSs
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FIGURE 5: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS OBTAINING WATER
FROM SOURCES DEFFINED AS „SAFE‟ -
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FIGURE 6: THE SURVIVAL AND EARLY CHILD CARE PROGRAMME
STRUCTURE
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FIGURE 7: THE INTEGRATED GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
(BASIC EDUCATION) PROGRAMME STRUCTURE -
86
FIGURE 8: WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE PROGRAMME
STRUCTURE
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FIGURE 9: THE PROTECTION AND PARTICIPATION PROGRAMME
STRUCTURE
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FIGURE 10: THE PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME
STRUCTURE
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QUALIFICATIONS OF THE RESPONDENTS -
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115
FIGURE 11: BAR CHART REPRESENTATION OF THE
xvii
LIST OF PICTURES
PICTURE 1: IKWO WOMEN AND CHILDREN ON ROUTINE
IMMUNIZATION AND POST-NATAL CARE (2004) PICTURE 2: SCHOOL PUPIL OF CPS OKUE (2004)
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137
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142
PICTURE 3: PUPIL OF CPS NDUFU IGBUDU ON VOCATIONAL
WORKSHOP (2005)
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PICTURE 4: INSTALLATION OF BOREHOLE AT EJILEWE
COMMUNITY (2006) -
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PICTURE 5: SAN PLAT SPECIAL TOILET CONSTRUCTION (2006) 145
PICTURE 6: VIP TOILET AT UGWUDU ANO COMMUNITY (2003) 146
xviii
ACRONYMS
NBS
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National Bureau of Statistics
UNDG
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United Nations Development Goals
UNICEF
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United Nations Children‟s Fund
ARI
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Acute Respiratory Tract Inflections
CPC
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Country Programme Cooperation
PIA
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Programme Implementation Agreement
SECC
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Survival & Early Childcare
UBE
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Universal Basic Education
WASH
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Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
P&P
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Protection and Participation
CD
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Community Development
P&C
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Planning and Communication
HPT
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Harmful Traditional Practices
FGM
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Female Genital Mutilation
SMR
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Standardized Mortality Ratio
xix
VPD
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Vaccine Preventable Diseases
CWIQ
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Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire
EOC
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Essential Obstetric Care
NIGEP
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Nigerian Guinea Worm Eradication Programme
RVF
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Recto-Vaginal Fistula
VVF
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Vesico-Vaginal Fistula
IBRD
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International Bank for Reconciliation & Development
xx
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
It is a common knowledge that the living conditions of Nigerians since
independence in 1960 has been battered by some 30 years of military misrule,
during which time corruption was institutionalized. This in turn led to a total
collapse of most of social infrastructure and of the productive sector. The
effect has been that unemployment rate has heightened to 40m (28.57%)
people (World Bank Report, 2007). Poverty statistics showed that poverty level
declined from 46.3% in 1985 to 42.7% in 1992. It rose sharply to 65.8% of the
population in 1996. In 2006, it became 70% of the population (FOS, 2007) and
the level has continued to rise.
A good example to underscore the scope of this misfortune is to compare
Nigeria with Indonesia or even Malaysia. By 1972, before Nigeria and Indonesia
had the first oil boom, contends Soludo (2009:20), both countries were
comparable in almost all spheres: agrarian societies, multi-ethnic and religious
societies, with comparable size of GDP. etc. Both experienced oil boom in 1973
and thereafter, but took different policy choices. The outcomes of the
xxi
differences in policy regimes are such that today, while manufactures as
percentage of total exports is about 40% in Indonesia, it is less than 1% in
Nigeria – where we were in 1970s. It would be recalled that even Malaysia that
have overtaken Nigeria got her first palm seedlings from Nigeria in the early
1960s, when oil palm produce was already a major export of Nigeria. In the
1990s, it was said that Malaysia’s export of palm oil produce earned it more
than Nigeria earned from oil exports (Soludo, 2009:20).
Since independence, Nigeria has consistently fallen into the group of countries
with a low level of human development as characterized by an (HDI) coefficient of less than 0.5 (on a scale of 0 to 1). Although the country’s HDI has
risen progressively since 1960, serious slumps were recorded in 1998 and 2000
(UNDP, 2000). The Human Development Index (HDI) was 0.391 in 1998 ranking
the country as 142 out of the 174 countries surveyed. In the year 2000, the HDI
score for Nigeria was 0.439 which ranked Nigeria in the 151st position among
174 countries surveyed (UNDP, 2000). In 2002, the HDI score was 0.466 which
categorized Nigeria in the low human development countries in the 151st
ranking among 177 countries (UNDP, 2004).This low HDI score reflects to a
great degree the situation with regard to basic social services in the country, as
xxii
HDI combines a measure of purchasing power with measures of political
freedom, physical health and educational attainment. The development
indicators, which comprises a country’s performance with expectancy, GNP per
capita, gross primary school enrollment and access to safe water with its
income group average, also shows Nigeria’s achievements to be generally
below expectations.
Available data have shown that the availability and accessibility to quality
health care services in Nigeria are poor. In 1990, for example, Nigeria had a
total of 13,958 health establishments with 69 percent of them being
dispensaries that are usually staffed by non-professional health auxiliaries and
were able to offer a very limited scope of health services (CBN, 2000a).
Maternity centre/primary health care (PHC) clinics constituted 23 percent of
these, while secondary and tertiary health care facilities constituted 6 and 2
percent respectively (CBN, 2000a). Recent statistics show that infant mortality
rate is now 86/1000 and under -5 mortality is 138/1000, in 2008 (NDHS, 2008).
This is far below the projections of the Millennium Development Goal. The
drastic decrease observed in the child immunization rate from over 90 percent
xxiii
in the late 1980s and early 1990s to about 36.3 percent in 2006 (NPI, 2006),
further reflect the poor state of children’s health in Nigeria.
In terms of maternal health, Nigeria remains one of the worst countries in the
world, with maternal mortality ratio of 700 per 100,000 live births (NDHS,
2008). Access to, and utilization of reproductive health (RH) and other primary
health care services remains extremely low. Skilled personnel attended to only
41.6 percent of deliveries nationally in 2008, while the rate is as low as 6.4
percent in the North West region. The contraceptive prevalence rate for
modern family planning methods is only 8.6 percent (NPC, 2000). Adolescent
reproductive health (ARH) issues remain great challenges in the health sector
given the low level of RH knowledge, early sexual initiation, unsafe sexual
practices, high fertility and the high incidence of unsafe abortion. Increasing
rates of drug abuse and HIV/Aids further compound the life and development
prospects of young people in Nigeria. Healthcare services in the country are
generally not adolescent-friendly and few health staff have skills to provide
quality counseling and clinical RH services. The national ARH strategic
framework, a product of the landmark national ARH conference held in 1999,
has remained largely unimplemented.
xxiv
The HIV Sero-prevalence rate among Nigerians has been reported to have
increased from 4.5 percent in 1995 (FMOH, 1995) to 4.6 percent in 2008 (Seroprevalence survey 2008, ANC Attendees). The prevalence rate among pregnant
youths (age 20-24 years) is approximately 6.3 percent. The rate in high-risk
groups such as commercial sex workers, inter state truck drivers and
tuberculosis patients is also high. Approximately 2.7 million Nigerians were
estimated to be living with HIV/AIDS in 1999 (UNAIDS, 2000), while the 4.6
percent according to the above ANC Sero-prevalence survey, 2008 represents
6.4 million Nigerians living with HIV/AIDS presently. The denial and social
stigma of AIDS, lack of care support, and the cost of anti-retroviral drugs are
problems that still confront Nigerians living with HIV/AIDS today.
While life expectancy in Nigeria has increased slightly in the last decade to
reach 53 years in 1998 (UNFPA, 1999) the material conditions and the overall
quality of life of most Nigerians are considerably worse now than ten years
ago. The proportion of the Nigerian population with access to safe drinking
water and adequate sanitation in 1999 was 54.1 percent and 52.8 percent
respectively (FOS, 2000). The housing situation has worsened and the number
xxv
of homeless people has increased, while urban slums have increased
progressively in number and size. Physical infrastructures have degenerated
considerably due to lack of adequate maintenance, coupled with a rapidly
growing population. The situation is generally worse in the urban areas.
The crime rate is another issue that affects the social environment and quality
of life in Nigeria. Drug abuse and trafficking in drugs and human beings are
growing problems that are of local and international interest (NDLEA, 1999).
Nigeria has been noted to be a major hub for the trafficking of some controlled
substances within the West African sub-region and throughout the world.
Nigerians constituted the majority of Africans arrested by Interpol world wide
for heroin and cocaine offences. Drug abuse has been documented to be
widespread in the country with an estimated lifetime use of 10.8 percent and
10.6 percent for cannabis and benzodiazepines respectively, which are the
commonest drugs of abuse. Drug-related arrests have increased by 235.8
percent between 1994 and 1999. In the area of human trafficking in Nigeria,
both intra-country and trans-national cases have been recorded (NDLEA,
1999).
xxvi
Government has not placed high priority on social services. Inadequate funding
is one of the underlying factors for poor performance of relevant social service
sectors in Nigeria. The percentage of total Federal Government expenditure in
four key sectors like health, education, agricultures and housing have been
very low. Consistently, the health sector received the lowest share of these
four sectors and its share of the total expenditure is always less than 3 percent,
except for 1998 when it reached a peak of about 3.7 percent. Even at that,
health expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 1998 was only 0.48 percent,
compared to the minimum of 5 percent recommended by WHO. Education
received a meager N295 billion while Health received N179 billion in 2010
budget, which are far bellow the MDG spending.
Strikingly, the combined share of the Health and Education sectors in the
Federal Government’s expenditure was less than that of defence in 1991 and
1992. The period from 1991 to 1993 which was part of the SAP era, marked the
moment when health and education, individually and combined, received their
lowest share of the Federal Government’s expenditure. Within the entire
period of 1990 to 1998, the combined allocation to education and health in the
Federal Government’s expenditure never reached 30 percent. Obviously, the
Government’s priority regarding health, education and gender disparity has
xxvii
not been high enough, especially at the sub-national level. The quantum of
resources made available by the successive Governments of Nigeria has been
grossly inadequate. This has great implication for aggravating poverty and
limiting poverty alleviating efforts; just as the social conditions of Nigerians are
also disturbing.
By social development, we refer to development that not only delivers social
amenities by the government but conscious effort to bring about a continuing
improvement in the living conditions of the society at large. It also undertakes
a concerted programme
of action to create jobs, attack poverty, and
promotes solidarity as well as fight against crime, drugs, diseases, disaffection,
urban decay and declining standard of education (UNDAF, 2002). International
bodies such as the UNDP, UNPPA, UNICEF, WFP, and FAO, have shown great
commitment to the eradication of poverty, preservation of the environment,
population control, health of women and children, increased food production,
to which enormous resources are being consigned in the desire to bring about
a just, more equitable, stable and peaceful world. These Agencies pool
resources from affluent countries which they channel to less privileged
countries in form of donor assistance and other forms of co-operation.
xxviii
For the UNICEF, children and women are the centre of integrated growth and
development programmes. UNICEF improves the right and quality of life of
children and women through:

Reducing geographical, sectoral and gender disparity.

Reducing infant, under-five and maternal mortality,

HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention

Malaria control

Micronutrient deficiency control

Basic education

Access to safe water supply and sanitation.
Objectively, the UNICEF recognizes that:
1.
Children should be brought up in the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance,
freedom, equality and solidarity.
2.
Children should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of
love, happiness and understanding.
3.
Children, by reason of their physical and mental immaturity, need
special safeguards and care, including appropriate legal protection.
xxix
UNICEF hopes that, the day will come when nations will be judged neither by
their military or economic strength nor by the splendor of their capital cities or
public buildings, but by the well-being of their people. As overall objective, the
Agency is committed to changing the world for children. It strives to protect
their rights, improve their health, and nurture their development through
sound planning and global monitoring of the child-related millennium
Development Goals (MDGS). In this study therefore, concerted effort will be
made to study, understand and evaluate the contributions of UNICEF Zone “A”
Field Office, Enugu in enhancing social development in Nigeria, with Ebonyi
State as a case study.
1.2
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Young people, to a larger extent remain dependent on adults for information
and skills and for access to services. They need the positive reinforcement of
families, friends and social values, and the wider supportive environment
created by sound policies and legislation. What many encounter, however, are
unstructured and unregulated environment that encourages high risk
behaviours. These threaten their health and development. The risk includes
xxx
unsafe and unwanted sex, abuse of tobacco, alcohol and other substances, and
violence and accidents. These are problems that often have common roots in
poverty, gender discrimination, exploitation, abuse, war and other
emergencies, (UNICEF, 1996:38).
Nigeria’s infant mortality rate is among the highest in Africa. About one million
children under the age of five died in 2004. Nigeria is one of the only three
countries in the world with a continuing reservoir of the wild polio virus. The
high maternal mortality ratio is one of Nigeria’s biggest challenges with an
estimated MMR of 700 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. About 7.3
million school-age children do not attend primary school and of those who do,
the quality of education is insufficient to provide them with basic life skills and
knowledge. Less than half of Nigerian households have access to safe drinking
water. Estimates suggest that some 35,000 children, under five each year die
due to lack of good water and sanitation. Nigeria has the third largest
population of people in the world living with HIV/AIDS after South Africa and
India. An estimated 2.9 million people are living with HIV (Kacou, 2006:1).
xxxi
High level of mortality in young children is mainly due to illness that can easily
be prevented or can be treated with known remedies. These illnesses include
malaria, diarrhea diseases, acute respiratory tract infections (ARI) and various
vaccine preventable diseases. The most important factor associated with
maternal mortality and morbidity is inadequate assistance at delivery. Indeed,
only 37 percent of deliveries in Nigeria take place in health facilities, (NDHS,
1999) while over 58 percent of deliveries take place at home (NDHS, 1999).
Most recent reports reveal that infant mortality rate is 86/1000, under five
mortality rate is 138/1000 and maternal mortality rate is 700/1000 (NDHS,
2008). In Nigeria, HIV prevalent rate is 4.6%, while Ebonyi State accounts for
2.8%. An estimate of people living with HIV in Nigeria is 6,000404, whereas
Ebonyi State has 64,400 (ANC Sero-Prevalence survey, 2008, ANC
Attendances).
Despite great achievements made by the past and present administrations
towards improving the living conditions of the Nigerian people, so much still
need to be done in that regard. Multiple indicator cluster survey (MICS) and
the National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) carried out in 2008 reveal
xxxii
that infant, under-five and maternal mortality rates have remained
unacceptably high at 86/1000, 138/1000 and 700/100,000 respectively.
The above health situations are particularly the case in rural communities in
Ebonyi State, coupled with the backwardness of the state in the education
sector in which the state, on creation, became educationally disadvantaged
when compared with other states in the south-east geopolitical zone. The state
at the time had the least number of educated people, the least enrollment
figure both in primary and secondary schools and the least number of
undergraduates Igidi J. et al, (2006:7). The state was created out of Enugu
State and Abia State on 1st October, 1996. It has a population of about
21.735.10 people in 13 Local Government Areas, (NPC, 2006).
It was, perhaps, to improve the rights of children to survival, development,
protection and participation as well as the empowerment of women that
motivated the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to embark on the master plan of
operations for the 2002 – 2007 programme cycle in Ebonyi State which is
annually activated with programme implementation Agreement (PIA). Within
xxxiii
the period specified (2002-2007), UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office supported the
following programme areas of cooperation:

Survival and Early Child Care (S & ECC) Programme

Integrated Growth and Development (IGD) Programme

Basic Education (BE) Programme

Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Programme

Protection and Participation (P&P) Programme

Community Development (CD) Programme

Planning and Communication (P & C) Programme
UNICEF was created in December, 1946 with the belief that nurturing and
caring for children is the cornerstone for human progress. UNICEF was created
with this picture in mind-to work with others to overcome the obstacles that
poverty, violence, disease and discrimination place in a child’s path.
It is based on the foregoing that four issues emerge as primary research
questions for this study. These are:
xxxiv
1.
How have the survival and early child care programme, established by
the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office addressed the high maternal, under-five
and infant mortality rates in the rural communities in Ebonyi State?
2.
To what extent has the Basic Education Programme assisted by the
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office improved net primary school enrolment?
3.
To what extent has the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted projects
been sustainable in Ebonyi State?
4.
What contribution has water, sanitation and hygiene programme
established by the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office made to improve
children’s right to survival and improved hygiene?
1.3
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of the study is to examine the contributions of UNICEF
Zone ‘A’ Field Office to the improvement of the living conditions of Ebonyi
people in rural communities. Basically, the work seeks to review the activities
of the UNICEF country programme of cooperation (CPC) in areas of survival
and Early Child care scheme to rural dwellers, basic Education programme,
water, sanitation and hygiene programmes in rural areas of Ebonyi State.
xxxv
The specific objectives of this work are to:
1.
examine the contributions of the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to health
and life expectancy of Ebonyians in rural communities of Ebonyi State.
2.
to find out the effects of Universal Basic Education programme and
assess its contributions to the problems in primary school enrolment in
Ebonyi State.
3.
to assess the level of sustainability of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
assisted projects in Ebonyi State.
4.
to evaluate the contributions of water, sanitation and hygiene
programmes by the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to the realization of
children’s rights to survival and development, and improved hygiene in
Ebonyi State.
5.
Proffer recommendations/solutions that can address existing challenges
to the implementation of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programmes in
Ebonyi State.
1.4
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Theoretically, this study is significant as it will contribute to the body of
literature in the area of social and human resources development. By dwelling
xxxvi
on Survival and Early Childcare (SECC), Universal Basic Education (UBE), and
Water Sanitation & Hygene (WASH) programmes, the study shall provide a
new horizon in the assessment of the contributions of international donor
agencies to social development programmes in developing countries like
Nigeria.
Empirically, the study will enable the Government of Ebonyi State and any
other concerned Government to strategize further in the area of social
development and healthcare service delivery. It will also be of major interest to
international development organizations like UNICEF, UNDP USAID, etc for
planning and implementation of their programmes to be result oriented.
1.5
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1.5.1 SCOPE
The focus of this study is UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Country Programme of
Cooperation (CPC) that takes place in one (1) Local Government in each of the
three (3) Senatorial zones that make up Ebonyi State viz Ebonyi Central, Ebonyi
South and Ebonyi North. The programmes take place in two communities in
each of these Local Governments Areas and they were all studied. These LGAs
referred to as “Focal LGAs” are Ikwo, Ivo and Ohaukwu Local Government
xxxvii
Areas. The Senatorial Zones, Local Governments areas and Communities are
represented in the table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1
UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office Focal LGAs
& Communities in Ebonyi State
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS
Ebonyi Central
COMMUNITIES
Ikwo L.G.A
a. Ndiegu Igbudu Community
b. Noyo Alike Community
Ebonyi South
Ivo L.G.A
a. Iniogu Community
b. Okue Community
Ebonyi North
Ohaukwu L.G.A
a. Ejilewe Community
b. Ogwudu Ano Community
Source: PIA, EBSG/UNICEF ZONE ‘A’ FIELD OFFICE
It is therefore, basically a survey research, designed to assess the Contributions
of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to social development programmes in Ebonyi
State. However, the programmes to be thoroughly examined are as follows:
xxxviii
 Survival And Early Childcare Programme
 Basic Education Programme
 Water, Sanitation And Hygiene Programme
The study covers a period of five (5) years between 2002 - 2007. This is
one complete UNICEF programme cycle.
1.5.2 LIMITATIONS
This study admits its limitations. The first limitation is the fact that access to
information relevant to the study was hard to come by. It took time and effort
for documents, like the Programme Implementation Agreement (PIA), which is
carried out on yearly basis between UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office at Enugu and
Ebonyi State to reach the researcher. Each day, the researcher is asked to
come the following day including interviewees. At the long last, the materials
were released and the interviewees were finally interviewed.
Secondly, management of time to conduct the research was a constraint of its
own. The location of UNICEF Field ‘A’ Field Office at Enugu State, the distances
between Ikwo, Ivo and Ohaukwu LGA’s which are in different senatorial zones,
xxxix
as well as miscellaneous factors like topography, hash weather conditions,
traditional belief systems were also limiting factors.
Lastly, many researchers posit finance as a major constraint in the realization
of their end result. This analogy is drawn on the fact that finance actually
affected the successful field work realization of this project, especially as there
was no external financial assistance. However, with more prudent
management of the available time and financial resources, we were able to
complete the research.
All in all, amidst all these limitations, the research was informative. Notable
among them was the cross fertilizations of ideas on obnoxious issues affecting
the survival of children, women and other dwellers in rural communities of
Ebonyi State. The intellectual discourses and interviews, together with the
reactions of those who were sentimental about our discussions and interviews
were all interesting. Our belief therefore, is that this study will be relevant for
future prospective researchers.
xl
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The literature in this study will be reviewed under the following sub-headings:
The Concept of Development
Social Development and Rural Development
HealthCare Services
The Situation of Women and Children
Mortality and Morbidity
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Summary of the Review
2.1. THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is one of the concepts in social science that defies a single
definition and understanding. Scholars from different theoretical orientations
xli
disagree on its definitions and interpretations. Even, scholars from the same
extraction tend to part ways on the embodiment of the subject mater.
Elkan (1973) defined development as “a process which makes people in
general better off by increasing their command over goods and services and by
increasing the choices open to them”. Development therefore refers to both
the process of widening people’s choices and the level of their achieved wellbeing particularly in terms of being able to lead a long and healthy life and to
enjoy a decent standard of living. It involves a drive towards economic, social,
political and cultural progress.
Ake, (1996) cited in Ezeh (2005:85) stated that development is a multifarious
and multi-factorial process through which a given society moves towards the
achievement of what people living in it consider as being the conditions for
their happiness, their freedom and their self actualization as human beings. It
undoubtedly requires a minimum of physical and human resources, as well as
setting up of machineries (economic, social, political, etc) for harnessing of and
more efficient management of these resources as well as the equitable
distribution of the benefits among the members of the society.
xlii
Mobogunje (1981), stated that development is essentially a human issue, a
concern with the capacity of individuals to realize their inherent potential and
effectively cope with the changing circumstances of their lives. He also
observed that development involves the total mobilization of a society towards
a self-centered and self-reliant position with regard not only to the process of
decision–making, but more importantly the pattern and style of production
and consumption.
In agreement with Mabogunje, Adinna (1999) perceives development as
gradual but complete reorganization and mobilization of the entire social
system. Adinna (1999) went further to consider development as a human
issue, distributive justice and as a living spatial dimension.
As a human issue, he emphasized the importance of mental disposition for
realizing that a change is taking place for better and that the individual should
positively participate in effecting the change, while at the same time feel
satisfied with the possibilities at his disposal. Adinna also looked at
development as distributive justice where every place should receive the
xliii
maximum level of growth and change based on the potentials of its physical
environment.
Emezi, (1979) cited in Okoli and Onah (2002) stated that development involves
progression, movement, and advancement towards something better. It is
improvement on the material and non-material aspects of life. It involves
action, reaction, and motion. A developing community is thus a community in
motion, a people in search of self improvement and a group concerned with
and committed to, its advancement through its own effort. They believed that
development goes beyond economic and social indicators to include the
improvement of human resources and position change in their behaviour.
Todaro (1992) contended that development is a multidimensional process
involving the re-organization and reorientation of the entire economic and
social system. This involves, in addition, to improvement of income and output,
radical changes in institutional, social and administrative structure as well as in
popular attitudes, customs and beliefs. Development in his view has both
physical and psychological dimension.
One thing is obvious in Todaro’s
opinion. It is that economy is not the only index of development. Hence, the
xliv
recognition of the transformation of institutions, particularly administrative
institutions as an aspect of development.
In agreement with Todaro, Uju, stated in Iffil (1997) that in studying
development in Nigeria, one would consider development from not the
economic point of view but from both political and social point as well, for it is
over all development that matters more than lopsided development, she went
further to explain that development in economic spheres of life is meaningless
since economic development could be dragged down to a crashing point by a
poor and undeveloped political system. Likewise, the social life of the people if
not well catered for may lead to a serious revolutionary reaction from the
people. A good economic system may be pulled down by a poorly managed
political system. All efforts for development should be geared towards
developing all sphere of life of the people.
Okoli and Onah (2002) also maintained that development goes beyond
economic and social indicators to include the improvement of human
resources and positive changes in their behaviour. For them, development
includes increase in the citizens’ access to:

Food, water and shelter
xlv

Information and means of communication

Health care delivery

Good education, and

Justice.
In their own words, “when these are obtainable, there will be increase in the
individual’s dignity, happiness and patriotic values and quality of life”. This is
probably why Egwu (2003) stated that a country can be considered
technologically developed when technology increases the life chances of
citizens using agriculture to eradicate hunger and lastly, using education to
eradicate ignorance and primitive values. Egwu stated further that, a nation is
developed when only it can:

Control its economy, food and land, human and natural resources

Military hard ware and deploy its military and defence arsenal.
Robinson (1990) perceives development as “the creation of a capacity to
initiate and sustain purposeful actions geared towards building a more just and
human world”.
xlvi
United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2001) stated that for
development to be feasible, societies must be committed to the pursuance of
the three core values of life, namely life-sustenance, self esteem and freedom.
a.
Life sustenance entails the provision of such basic needs as food, housing,
clothing and basic education. Until a country is able to provide its citizens
with these basic needs, it is regarded as underdeveloped, because they
form the major objectives of development.
b.
Self-esteem implies accordance of self-respect and independence. This
means that when a country and its people cannot stand on their own,
they have no self esteem.
c.
Freedom: To promote freedom the three evils of want (hunger), ignorance
(illiteracy) and squalor (filth) must be overcome. These three “cores”
relate to one another because the absence of any one of them affects the
others negatively. Only then that people can have a decent life.
After a critical and exhaustive examination of the above, we aligned
development in line with Onah’s (2001) submission: that development is the
product of investment and manpower planning at the macro level, which
xlvii
manifests in the quality of governance, especially the extent to which it was
transparent, accountable and democratic.
In my own view, development is a gradual transformation of socio-economic,
political and cultural institutions towards individuals’ fulfillment and
harmonious co-existence of the people. It is the proper harnessing of natural
resources and provisions of infrastructural facilities that will ensure the
improvement of the material conditions of the people. It is therefore absurd to
believe that there will be a happy and just society when our intuitions are
weak, moribund and most importantly corrupt. Transformation of institutions
actually connotes attitudinal change of our leaders, without which
development remains a mirage.
2.2 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
For a nation to develop it should always think about its people and their
welfare and what benefits its citizens. The Federal Government of Nigeria
Constitution (1999, chapter 2 section 17) states that:
Every citizen has equality of right, obligation and
opportunity before the law. Governmental action shall be
xlviii
humane and natural resources should not be exploited
other than for the good of the community. All citizens
should have opportunity for securing adequate means of
livelihood as well as suitable employment. The citizens’
health, safety and welfare safeguarded, not endangered.
Children, young persons and aged are protected from any
moral and material neglect. (FGN: 1999).
In relation to the above constitutional provision, Joy (2004) held that social
development is founded on the ideas of freedom, equity and justice. All the
social amenities as portable water, roads, railways and availability of
transportation, houses, and hospitals are for the good interest of citizens. She
went further to state that, these in effect raise the standard of living and that if
a nation lacks in providing all these amenities to its citizens, the implication of
it all is social crises which entails breaking of law and order, workers’ strikes,
armed robbery etc.
In line with the above conception, Ozoemenam (2001) opined that many
development practitioners have begun to elaborate a new paradigm which has
redefined development in terms of people’s needs rather than economic
forces. Such new definitions promote good governance as an important
xlix
component of people-centered approach to economic, political and social
organization. In his words, an efficient and modern infrastructure is
fundamental to social development. The absence of modern infrastructure in
Nigeria not only hinders economic production and contributes to a malaise,
but also clouds the advantages of democracy and open free market. The next
result of this has been inconsistent services, which frustrate business, the
populace, and strangle economic growth. In his own word, Okore (2005) noted
that the welfare and quality of life of a population in any country is inextricably
tied to the rate of growth of the economy and the degree of equity in the
distribution of national income. Thus, according to him, “an unprogressive
economy is characterized by poor access to basic social services by the
citizenry”. Yet as UN (2001) aptly noted, “access to basic services form the core
of development, by enabling the world’s poorest to lead healthier and more
productive lives, such services are key to reducing the worst manifestations of
poverty and to breaking its vicious cycle”.
Effective economic reform can facilitate social development through creating
the conditions for poverty reduction and greater investment in human
resources development, such as in education and health programme. Tackling
l
environmental problems can involve helping local people manage the natural
resources they use on a more sustainable basis and thereby improve their
quality of life. This can be said to contribute to aspects of social development.
Onah (2006), in more direct terms segregated the objectives of social
development into four viz.

To help countries define and carry out poverty reduction strategies.

To promote the social, economic, legal and political status of women in
developing countries.

To promote human development, including better education and health
and children by choice.

To promote good government.
The concept of good governance includes the notion of legitimacy and the
existence of participatory processes both within and outside state structures
contributes to social development goals. Continuing, he (Onah) advised that in
helping people meet their social development objectives, we need to look at
what is happening within the society – to understand social reality so that, for
example, planned provision of services and infrastructure actually corresponds
to people’s own needs and situation. UNICEF (2001) relate social development
as an assessment of the care received by young children both within the family
li
home, the basic unit of society, and within the wider community including day
care centres and pre-primary institutions, and an analysis of the casual factors
at play. One of the main features of early childhood is the development of the
brain. Begley (1996) noted that, the brain is thus vulnerable during this initial
spurt of growth. Inadequate nutrition before birth and in the first few years of
life can seriously interfere with brain development and lead to such
neurological and behavioural disorders as learning disabilities. In particular,
stunting, which is widespread in Nigeria (affecting 34 percent of children
under-five according to the 1999 MICS is known to be associated with
diminished cognitive development. Nolan (2006) argued that one important
aspect of social development is the development of children’s moral and prosocial behaviour. The family’s role is vitally important in this development.
Penny (2005) opines that children need some opportunities to socialize and
play with other children. This is important, because they will develop their
social skills through being with other children. There are now plenty of
opportunities for children of all ages to socialize for example, parents and
toddler groups, playgrounds and activity clubs, such as Rainbows, Beavers and
Woodcraft. Early years practitioners have an important role in providing
activities that help children socialize together and learn skills of co-operation
lii
and negotiation. Penny also outlined chart of stages and sequences of
emotional and social development as follows:
1 Month
-
Watches primary career’s face.
3 Months
-
Smiles and coos
Enjoys being handled and cuddled
6 Months
-
Laughs and enjoys being played with.
8 Months
-
Fears strangers
9 Months
-
Plays peck–a-boo.
Discriminates between strangers and
familiar adults.
12 Months
-
Is affectionate towards family and
primary careers. Plays simple games such
as pat-a-cake.
15 Months
-
Begins to explore environment if familiar
liii
adults is close by. Begins to use words to
communicate with. Has a stronger feeling of being an
individuals.
18 Months
-
Language is increasing. Points to objects
to show familiar adults. Explores environment and
shows some independence but still needs familiar
adults. Exhibits strong emotions- e.g. anger, fear and
joy-are shown.
2 years
-plays near other children – parallel play.
Begins to talk when playing – pretend play. Imitates
adults’ actions. Strong emotions – e.g. anger, fear and
joy - are shown.
6-8 years
-
Shows love and affection
Security and stability
Explores opportunity to socialize.
liv
As stated earlier, Penny noted that early years practitioners have an important
role in providing activities that help children socialize together and learn skills
of co-operation and negotiation. Given the above scenario, we shall proceed to
assess the contribution of UNICEF to the development of the children in rural
communities in Ebonyi State. Social development in its totality converses
development at both urban and rural areas of the society.
Rural development can be defined as a strategy designed to improve the
economic and social condition of a specific group of people-the rural poor. It
involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those
who seek a livelihood in the rural area, Nwuzor (2003). Abah (2005) stated that
the term rural is used with the antonym urban either explicit or implied,
basically it is used in reference to backward and relatively developed
communities. It is indeed the opposite of the term urban. He stated further
that the dividing line between rural and urban communities varies from
country to country. Hence, a society or community may be classified as rural
rather than urban by the following criteria which denote areas of continuum lower population density, less social differentiation, less social and spatial
mobility, slower rate of social change, agriculture, as a major occupation, and
lv
the centering of the politico-economic system in the holding of land. Aniemeka
(1999) conceptualized rural development in a broader perspective when she
said that rural development could be said to represent a set of policies or goals
with appropriate targeting. Instantly, it must concern the enhancement of the
well-being of the rural populace. Secondly, it must strive to lead to the
production of a surplus of a size and nature that will enable the fulfillment of
general national development. Thus in implementing the rural development
policy, effort is geared towards sustaining the interest of both rural people and
national government; she also noted that this however, requires a dynamic
government that can make a serious attack on rural poverty based on a
genuine desire to assist the rural community. This is because the most
dominant and common features of Nigeria’s rural economics are poverty,
inequality, squalor and consequently malnutrition. The transformation of these
incapacitating handicaps at the rural level represents a panacea to any note
worthy programmes to achieve social justice.
Nnadozie (2002) concentrated on the process of rural development in Nigeria.
According to him, “it is a known fact that our past and current leaders have
based their so-called development strategies whether rural or urban on the
lvi
Western liberal concept of development”. Further more, he stated that Nigeria
and similar third world countries are condemned, as it were to be hewers of
wood and drawers of water, so to state, in the world economic system. And
within the country itself the rural communities are reduced to mere producers
of raw materials. This is bound to be the case since agriculture constitutes over
ninety percent of the rural economy. Nnadozie (1985) earlier pointed out that
agricultural activities are synonymous with rural life and vice versa. And that
when this fact is borne in mind, it becomes easier to understand why over
eighty percent of fund that goes into the rural projects either by the Nigeria
government or between the government and western capitalist aid agencies
goes into the financing of agricultural projects, especially the production of
cash corps.
According to Mabogunje (1980:300) as cited in Okoli and Onah (2002:160).
Rural
development
is
concerned
with
the
improvement of living standards of the low-income
people living in the rural area on a self-sustaining
basis
through
transforming
the
socio-spatial
structures of their productive activities. It implies a
broad based reorganization and mobilization of the
rural masses and resources, so as to enhance the
lvii
capacity of the rural populace to cope effectively with
the daily tasks of their live and with the changes
consequent upon this.
lviii
An analysis of the definition exposes three features.
a.
An improvement of the subsistence population’s living standards.
-
Here, there is the mobilization and allocation of resources as to reach a
desirable balance over time between the welfare and productive
services available to the rural subsistence populations.
b.
Mass participation
-
It connotes the allocation of resources to low income regions and classes
and that the productive services actually reach them.
c.
Self-sustaining process
-
The process should be made self-sustaining to develop appropriate skills
and implementing capacity and the presence of institutions at the local,
regional and national levels to ensure effective use of existing resources
and to ensure effective use of the subsistence sector.
In more direct terms Okoli and Onah, (2002) defined rural development
objectives as being concerned with the improvement as well as the
transformation of social, mental, economic, institutional, and environmental
conditions of the low income rural dwellers through the mobilization and
rational utilization of their capacities to cope with their daily tasks of life and
lix
the demand of modern time. They (Okoli and Onah) went further to note that
it involves a lot of multi-sectoral activities such as the improvement in
agriculture, the promotion of rural industrial activities, as well as the
establishment of appropriate decentralized structure in order to allow for mass
participation in the development process.
In the same parlance with Nnadozie, Okoli (1995) stated that most government
policies geared toward rural development have always been to the advantage
of the few individuals who constitute the privileged class. More over, the
administrative systems surrounding the implementation of rural development
programmes do not usually function in the interest of other rural majority for
whom such programmes are designed. The same thing applies to the existing
institutions, be they commercial, private or traditional. All these institutions
which are intended to function in the interest of the rural population,
invariably promote the interest of few individuals who control and manipulate
them.
2.3 HEALTHCARE SERVICES
lx
Morbidity and mortality patterns are determined not only by factors intrinsic
to the individual but above all by external factors including the extent to which
adequate healthcare services are available and accessible, (UNICEF, 2001).
Access to healthcare services is determined by a variety of factors, including
their availability within a reasonable distance and their affordability. The
extent to which available services are utilized may also depend on the
percentage of their quality, the availability of alternative options for the
purchase of drugs from the informal market, and cultural factors. The latter,
which include the level of education and attitudes regarding gender, are often
important determinants of utilization (Oluwafunmilola, 2001).
According to Stephen (1993) health is not a fixed, objective thing but in a
similar way to poverty, it varies depending on the expectations of the
population of a society. Therefore, illness and diseases that would have been
accepted as normal or at least bearable for one generation come to be
regarded as insupportable by another. Once free healthcare became available,
people wanted to use it, and expectations of health rose. The healthier people
become, the more aware they were of symptoms that previously they had
accepted as natural or unchangeable. He went further to state that, linked to
lxi
the changing views on health standards was the introduction of new
technology. Previously, people had accepted that there was nothing to be
done about certain diseases, but the rapid increases in technology both in
machines and in drugs – have revolutionized the capabilities of medicine. The
problem is that these new developments are highly expensive, and add to the
costs of healthcare.
The public health system is poorly regarded by a significant part of the
population. The core welfare indicator questionnaire (CWIQ) survey,
conducted by the Federal Office of statistics in Lagos state in 1999, as part of
the National Integrated survey of Households, reported that 26 percent of
those surveyed were not satisfied with healthcare services. The main reasons
for non-satisfaction were cost (56 percent), non-availability of drugs (33
percent) and long waiting periods (33 percents) (FOS, 1999). In more succinct
manner, Adeyemi (2000), observed that in view of the high rate of maternal
mortality and low levels of antenatal care and delivery in health facilities, it is
pertinent to note that essential obstetric care (EOC) is available in only 994
facilities nationwide. There are also major disparities in their geographical
distribution. Thus, a large and relatively deprived state such as Sokoto has only
lxii
five EOC facilities, all located in the state capital, whereas at the opposite
extreme, Abuja with a small and concentrated population has 24 facilities.
Furthermore, the EOC services available in most of these facilities are of
extremely poor quality.
In agreement with Adeyemi, Odunlami, (2000) observed that in some facilities
equipment such as sphygmomanometers, thermometers, weighing scales,
delivery kits, waste bins, and mucus extractors were unavailable. Many had
irregular power supply because they could not maintain a standby generator.
Some did not even have regular water supply and require their patients to
provide their own water: Staff were demoralized by inadequate and irregular
remuneration. UNICEF (2001) noted that in the data provided by the National
Health Management Information System, there were 29,219 registered
medical doctors, of which 25,950 were Nigerians and 3,269 non-Nigerians in
1999. However, many of the registered Nigerian doctors appear to be working
abroad. The Nigerian medical association is reported to have estimated that
there are only 14,000 Nigerian doctors practicing within the country and that
there are over 28,000 Nigerian doctors abroad, mainly in the United States,
Europe, the Gulf States and Southern Africa.
lxiii
Rural health centres are mainly staffed by community health workers. Referral
linkages to secondary care facilities are weak and in poor rural locations. These
secondary facilities are also often staffed only with health workers with
primary level training and qualifications. In agreement with the above, IDS
(1998) stated that standards in health facilities vary significantly, with higher
standards of equipment, personnel and infrastructure in federal hospitals and
the private sector. However, the system as a whole has been plagued by
problems of service quality, including unfriendly staff attitudes to clients,
inadequate skills, decaying infrastructure and chronic shortage of essential
drugs, the well known “out-of-stock’ syndrome.
2.4 THE SITUATION OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Millions of Nigerian children and women face special problems of
discrimination, abuse and exploitation, sometimes in appalling circumstances.
These problems not only compound the risks of survival and create formidable
obstacles for the development of children and women, but are major
challenges in their own right, requiring special protection measures if they are
to be addressed effectively (UNICEF, 2001). According to UNICEF, these
categories of protection problems are numerous and varied. These include:
lxiv

Children and women with disabilities

Abuse and violence against children and women

Harmful traditional practices

Exploitation of children and women

Children living outside a family setting

Children and women in conflicts and humanitarian emergencies

Children, crime and drug

Juvenile justice and children in custody

The legal framework, policies, programmes and resources for the
protection of children’s and women’s rights.
Okogbe, (1994) noted that disabled children and women in Nigeria face
numerous problems. Besides suffering associated with disabilities, they are
often victims of social stigma, exploitation and discrimination, and even
regarded as a source of shame to their own families, sometimes they are
isolated from public view, being hidden away in back rooms. Disabled children
who cannot contribute to the family economy are seen as liability and in the
worst of cases may be severely neglected, starved, abandoned or even killed.
The beating of women is generally less frequent than in the case of children,
but is still practiced in many Nigerian homes, especially when women are
lxv
economically dependent on their husbands. A nationwide survey on positive
and harmful traditional practices (UNDS, 1998) reported that 19 percent of
household heads admitted that they had beaten their wives. The proportion
was higher than 30 percent in 7 of the 30 states, and as high as 50 percent in
Rivers State. Wife beating was found to be negatively correlated with
education. In his own view, Ebigbo, (2000) noted that various barbaric
practices have come to light in different parts of the country, indicating that
this is a nationwide problem. In 1996, the “Otokoto” scandal in Owerri, which
was sparked off by the discovery, at a police checkpoint, of a man carrying the
head of an eleven-year child, led to the uncovering of a flourishing business of
child killing and sales of body parts for ritual purpose. Another scandal in
Maiduguri in 1999 exposed the trafficking of children’s heads. In support of
Ebigbo, Elesho (2000) stated that, there has also been sustained report of eye
plucking and child stealing for ritual purposes in Lagos.
By the 1990s, the challenges of combating harmful traditional practices (HTP)
were increasingly prominent on the international development and human
rights agenda. WHO, (1994) noted that, the practice of female circumcision,
which is now widely regarded as female genital mutilation (FGM), is one of the
most serious forms of violence against women. WHO defined it as “all
lxvi
procedures which involve partial or total removal of the external female
genitalia and/or injury to the female genital organs, whether for cultural or any
other non-therapeutic reasons”.
Further, WHO believes that FGM have
dangerous health implications, including the risk of infection or even death,
because of the unsanitary conditions in which it is generally practice, but it
symbolizes the subjugation of women and the control of females’ sexuality. In
the vast majority of cases, it is also carried out at very young ages when there
is no possibility of the individuals consent. In this sense, it is a fundamental
violation of human rights.
The plight of widows is made worse by various humiliating widowhood rites.
Akumadu, (1998) opined that, the concept of “trail by ordeal”, by which the
widow has to prove that she was not responsible in some way for her
husband’s death through witchcraft, poisoning or some other means, seems to
lie behind the practice, used especially in the South East, of requiring the
widow to drink the water used to bathe the corpse. In agreement with
Akumadu, Owasanoye and Ahonsi (1998) reasoned that in various parts of the
country, widows are required to go into confinement and suffer various
deprivations during the period of mourning, which may last for several weeks
lxvii
or months. According to the HTP study (UNDS, 1998), 45 percent of widows
were confined indoors for varying lengths of time (62 percent in the SouthSouth, 60 percent in the North-East and 27 percent in the South-East).
Most child labour occurs in agriculture and in the informal sector of the
economy, where these and other provisions of the labour Act are neither
monitored nor enforced. Child labour in the agricultural sector is mainly within
the household economy and involves helping the family in farming, fishing and
cattle herding. Contrary to the assumption that such agricultural work is
completely benign, various studies (Ezewu and Tahir, 1997, Falauyajo, et. al,
1997) have shown that, it has some negative ramifications. It tends to disrupt
school attendance, especially during periods of intense agricultural activity,
such as planting and harvesting. A recent worrisome trend is the involvement
of Nigerian children in work in commercial plantations, especially in
neighboring countries such as Cameroon, to which they are trafficked (Odigie,
1998).
Information provided by the immigration authorities indicates that children
between the ages of 7 and 16 have been transported to Gabon and Cameroon,
from various points in the east of Nigeria, in the states of Abia, Akwa Ibom,
lxviii
Cross River, Rivers and Imo. Between March 1994 and January 1997, at least
400 children were rescued in Akwa Ibom State, which is one of the main
departure points for Gabon (Nwafor, 1998). In agreement with Nwafor, the
former Executive Secretary NAPTIP, (2005), stated that 46% of repatriated
victims of international trafficking in Nigeria are children, with a female and
male ratio of 7:3. They are engaged mainly in prostitution (46%), domestic
labour (21%), forced labour (15%) and entertainment (8%). Internal trafficking
of children in Nigeria was also reported to be for forced labour (32%), domestic
labour (31%) and prostitution (30%).
There is the need to develop more formal social safety nets, as well as child or
family welfare services that can detect and respond in a timely and effective
manner to protection problems resulting from abuse, exploitation or the
simple inability of families to provide adequate care, or from situations of
extreme disadvantage or vulnerability.
lxix
2.5
MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY
According to (UNICEF, 2001), Nigeria, like many other countries, particularly in
Africa, is still far from reducing mortality among children, despite the
advances in child survival strategies highlighted, most notably by the drive for
universal immunization against life-threatening, vaccine-preventable diseases.
Equally striking are the huge differences in IMR and U5MR between different
parts of the country, notably between the urban and the rural areas and
between the north and the south.
U5 MR by Zones and Urban and Rural Areas (Per 1, 000 live births)
Figure 2.1
199
North East
North West
217
131
South East
119
South West
lxx
Rural
129
192
50
100
150
200
250
300
Source: MICS 1999 (FOS/UNICEF 2000).
Figure 2.1 above which presents the MICS data, shows that U5MR was almost
one and a half times higher in the rural areas than in the urban areas. Almost
twice as many children were found to die before their fifth birthday in the
North-West than in the South-West. If the North-West and North-East were
separate countries, their U5MR (217 and 199 per thousand live births
respectively) would be the 7th and 13th worst in the world.
Highlighting the main causes of mortality and morbidity among children and
women, UNICEF(2001) stated that, the high levels of mortality in young
children is mainly due to illness that can easily be prevented or can be treated
with known remedies. These illnesses include malaria, diarrhea diseases, acute
respiratory tract infections (ARI) and various vaccine preventable diseases. The
picture is represented in figure 2.2 below:
lxxi
Figure 2.2
Percentage breakdown of under-5 mortality, morbidity and
their causes, 1999 in Nigeria
Mortality
Morbidity
Others 8%
Others 5%
Malnutrition
20%
VPP 15%
Malaria
Malaria 30%
Typhoid 2%
41%
ARI 15%
VPD 22%
ARI 16%
Diarrhea 19%
Note: Others include food poisoning,
Diarrhea
24% pox,
Note: Others include chicken
hepatitis, cholera, tetanus and chicken
pox, VPD = vaccine preventable diseases
(pertusis 6%, CS meningitis 6%, measles
5% neonatal tetanus 5%)
Source: National Health management Information system
lxxii 1999.
2%,
malnutrition
(2%),
and
schistosomiasis (1%) VPD includes
measles (12%), CSM (2%) and pertusis
1%)
Figure 2.2 above shows, over 90 percent of morbidity and 80 percent of
mortality in children under-five years of age comes from four causes: malaria,
vaccine preventable diseases (VPD), diarrhea diseases and ARI, all of which can
be prevented or treated. These accounted respectively for 30 percent, 22
percent, 19 percent and 16 percent of under-five deaths. Among the vaccine
preventable diseases, those that contributed most to under-five mortality in
1999, according to the NHMIS figures, were pertussis, also known as whopping
cough (6 percent), cerebrospinal meningitis (6 percent), neonatal tetanus (5
percent) and measles (5 percent).
Efforts to improve the lives of children are inseparable from actions to improve
the lives of women. As long as 500,000 women continue to die each year from
complications during pregnancy and child-birth, and many millions more suffer
lxxiii
the direct effects of violence and discrimination, children will be in jeopardy
(UNICEF, 2002).
Women who have been to school are less likely to die during childbirth. The
effect of schooling in reducing the number of births means that for every 1,000
women every additional year of education will prevent 2 maternal deaths,
(UNICEF, 2004). Research has shown that maternal mortality is also reduced by
better knowledge about healthcare practices, use of health service during
pregnancy and birth, improved nutrition and increasing the spacing between
births; all factors that are fostered by being an educated woman, (UNICEF,
2004).
According to Stephen (1993), by taking an average across the whole country,
we know the number of people who are likely to die before they reach
retirement age. This is known as the standardized mortality ratio (SMR).
Stephen went further to state that, when it comes to illness (or morbidity), we
know that working-class manual workers are far more likely to suffer from
long-standing chronic illness than non-manual, professional people. He also
lxxiv
stated that, the conditions in which people work and live, and the difference in
income and wealth, are the real causes of ill health and premature death.
Early pregnancy is likely to be one of the main reasons for the much higher
maternal mortality and greater prevalence of conditions such as Vesico-Vaginal
Fistula and Recto-Vaginal Fistula (VVF/RVF) in northern Nigeria. Research in
Zaria has found that maternal mortality among women younger than 16 years
is six times higher than for women aged 20-24 years (Zabin and Kiragu, 1998).
VVF arises from obstructed and prolonged labour. When an under-aged girl
goes into labour, her pelvic bones are not yet sufficiently developed to allow
the passage of the baby’s head. As a result, the foetal head presses on the
surrounding tissue and organs. If this continues for long, the pressure can lead
to fistula, in the form of holes between the bladder and the vagina (VVF) and in
extreme cases between the vagina and the rectum (RVF). The continued
leakage of urine and/or feces by VVF/RVF victims results usually in their being
rejected by their husbands and socially ostracized.
WHO, 1988 maintain that malaria is especially dangerous to the pregnant
women, the foetus and the newborn. Although women in malaria endemic
lxxv
countries such as Nigeria acquire significant protective immunity by the time
they reach childbearing age, there is a significant depression of immunity
during pregnancy, particularly in the first pregnancy and to a lesser extent in
the second pregnancy. Malaria infection of the placenta has been associated
with adverse effects on the foetus and newborn and there is evidence that the
mean birth weights of infants born of infected placenta are depressed and
includes premature labour. On their own part, (UNAIDS, 2000) commented
that HIV is now deadlier than war itself. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic
will be especially pronounced in the paediatric age group, threatening to
reverse the modest gains made in reducing infact and under-five mortality
through immunization and other survival strategies.
2.6 WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE (WASH)
Water is needed for two main reasons viz to drink and to wash. Many diseases
such as diarrhea and cholera are caused through drinking unclean water or
eating food contaminated by dirty water, others such as scabies and trachoma
are caused by having insufficient water for washing cloths, bodies and faces.
This means that each community will need a small supply of very clean water
for drinking and a much larger supply of adequately clean water for washing
lxxvi
(Ted, 2002). He believes that the number of water points per 1000 population
is a better guide to the level of healthcare than the number of hospital beds.
Ted identified six water sources viz:
 Spring water
 Wells and boreholes
 Ponds and watering holes
 Rivers
 Tap water
 Rainwater tanks
He was quick to point out that apart from pond water which should not be
used for drinking, unless there is no other supply available and it is boiled,
water from other sources is usually clean when it emerges but may quickly
become contaminated in transit or storage. He also maintained that even if
water is clean at the time of storage, it can become contaminated at the actual
point of use, usually by dirty hands or implements being put into the container.
According to him, water usage can be made safer if we can teach the
community to:
1.
Cover the container
lxxvii
2.
Use a container with a tap or
3.
Tip into a cup or glass or
4.
Dip with a long-handled dipper which is touched only above the level
of the container. This should be used for pouring, not for drinking
from direct.
Health condition of city dwellers deteriorated as a result of poor sanitary
conditions of the cities. Reports (UNO 1992, and UNB. No. 6 quoted in
Uzuegbu 2001) indicate that cities of the developing nations (which include
Nigeria) do not have good sanitation. The International Bank for Reconciliation
and Development (IBRD) and World Bank (1997) stated that about 43% of the
urban population in Africa lives without proper sanitation. The poor sanitation
results from non-availability of toilets and improper waste management.
Wastes (consisting of household refuse, animal and human wastes) are
dumped into nearby bushes and streams; and the city dwellers have direct or
indirect contact (through eating improperly washed food) with these wastes,
and consequently contact such diseases as hookworm, tapeworm and typhoid.
According to Uzuegbu (2001), poor sanitation also leads to poor drainage and
existence of stagnant waters which become breeding grounds for insects such
lxxviii
as mosquitoes and Tse-Tse fly. This consequently lead to increase in the
spread of various vector born diseases among the city dwellers. Typical
diseases caused by poor sanitation are malaria and cholera.
According to UNICEF (2001), most under-five mortality in Nigeria result form
diseases that in one way or another are related to poor housing conditions,
unsafe water supply, inadequate sanitary facilities and/or unhygienic
behaviour. Poor and overcrowded housing exposes people to health risks by
facilitating the spread of infectious diseases such as acute respiratory
infections (one of the main causes of child mortality and morbidity), measles,
diphtheria and tuberculosis. Contaminated drinking water and unsanitary
means of excreta disposal are closely associated with diarrhea diseases, which
account for almost 20 percent of under-five mortality, as well as with diseases
such as cholera and typhoid.
Sanitary means of excreta disposal include flush toilets connected to sewage
systems or septic tanks, improved pit latrines with cover. More than half or
58.11 percent of Nigerian households use pit toilets. The number of
households that use pail, bush, river/stream, and toilet on water or any other
lxxix
type of unconventional methods accounted for 27.17 percent. Excreta
disposal, like the disposal of refuse, is a big problem that needs urgent
attention as it has health implications, (NBS, 2005).
See table 2.1 below:
Access to Sanitary Means of Excreta Disposal
Table 2.1
Quintile
Total
1
2
3
lxxx
4
5
6
None
8.33
6.36
8.23
7.6
5.56
7.13
Toilet on Water
1.49
3.43
3.64
6.68
6.79
4.64
Flush to Sewer
3.53
2.58
3.56
6.14
9.52
5.38
Flush to Septic
6.01
3.39
3.05
6.72
12.07
6.6
Pail or Bucket
3.65
4.76
5.48
4.38
4.25
4.5
Covered Pit Latrine
47.96
50.92
51.34
46.32
41.96
47.32
Uncovered Pit Latrine
11.89
15.15
12.85
10.55
9.56
11.79
VIP Latrine
2.37
1.47
1.35
1.5
1.98
1.73
Other
14.78
11.94
10.51
10.12
8.32
10.9
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2005.
The quantity of water obtained by most rural household is small, only about 10
litres per capita per day. Indeed, rural communities tend to regard water
supply as their single most important problem, as has been confirmed in a
survey of rural knowledge, attitude and practices commissioned by UNICEF in
1999. Water was cited as a problem by 77 percent of rural households, ahead
lxxxi
of healthcare, education or any other matter of concern, as figure 2.3 below
shows.
Figure 2.3
Major Problem Identified by Rural Households (% of Household citing as
problems)
77
Water
53
Electricity
Poverty
46
Healthcare
40
Roads
26
Fertilizer
0
20
40
22
Education
22
Latrines
19
Source: UNICEF, 1999
lxxxii
60
80
100
Adelina (1987) quoted in Uzuegbu (2001), reported a research that he carried
out on the outbreak of cholera in Ibadan between 1971-1974, and attributed
the cause of the epidemic to poor sanitation. The research showed that a total
of 10031 cases were recorded between 1971-74 in which cases of loss of lives
were recorded. Ibadan is one of the cities that is characterized by unsanitary
conditions, poor sewage, and about 10% of the population defecates in
streams, streets, drains and open places. The dwellers also use water from the
streams for domestic and agricultural purposes. This condition is not peculiar
to Ibadan as statistics from FOS (1996) indicate that 11% of the city dwellers in
Nigeria do not have access to latrines. This proportion, defecate in bushes and
streams. Unfortunately, due to insufficient supply of safe water, other city
dwellers use the contaminated water and therefore are exposed to various
diseases.
According to the Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR 2000), the
improvement in rural water supply should not be a cause of complacency.
However, as well over one third of rural households still depend on surface
sources.
lxxxiii
2.7 SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW
Our literature review focused on identifying contributions already made in the
area of current concern or that are closely related to development, social
development and rural development, healthcare services, the situation of
women and children, mortality and morbidity, water, sanitation and hygiene.
We noted, among others, that development process has paid limited attention
to bringing women and children into the mainstream of national development
effort. Social development must be seen to make man, most importantly,
children the beginning and the end of its efforts. The social needs of the
present and future generation must be guaranteed. We also noted that there
is near to total neglect of government to rural areas and rural dwellers to the
extent that they are beaten, battered, degraded and devastated. Hence, the
interventions of UNICEF.
According to UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office (2000), the situation of women and
children in Ebonyi State is threatened by poverty and limited access to social
services. Ebonyi State specific data is limited but infant and under five
mortality remained at 118 and 325 per 1000 live births respectively. Maternal
mortality Ratio from hospital sources stood at about 1,700 per 100,000 live
lxxxiv
births. Only 10% of mothers were breastfeeding exclusively for six months and
HIV sero-prevalence stood at 4.5%. Primary school enrolment is 50.1% with a
10% gender gap in favour of males. Routine immunization is low with 10% of
the children receiving all the immunizations.
Access to improved water
sources is 40% while that of sanitary means of excreta disposal is 40% and 10%
for urban and rural communities respectively. The infrastructures in primary
schools are generally poor (UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office 2001).
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office went further to state that rural Ebonyi is also
disaster prone. Communities on the banks of the Cross River are susceptible to
periodic floods. With little economic reserves, these floods, which destroy
homes and farms, and interfere with transportation and economic activities,
exact a heavy toll on the rights of women and children to growth,
development, protection and participation.
2.8 GAPS IN LITERATURE
Undoubtedly, the literature reviewed in this study discussed numerous
development and social development indices.
lxxxv
Most scholars conceptualized development and social development holistically
to represent the improvement on the standard of living of people and
provision of adequate social infrastructure in the society. Discoveries were
made that irrespective of the enormous interpretations and analyses, no
scholar was able to fashion development and social development plan and
process that is particularly operational in Ebonyi State. This conspicuously
depicts lack of appropriate development variables in the state. Most of their
perceptions were global and western, neglecting possible existence of enclave
like Ebonyi state. Again, scholars did not bring children and women into
mainstream development process.
On healthcare services and education, the views of the scholars appear
interesting in relation to prevailing conditions in Ebonyi State. However, an
observed dominant feature of most of the literature reviewed is a thin line
between poverty and lack of access to healthcare services. They, however,
were silent on the panacea for availability and affordability of healthcare
services, and even where noted, were not concrete enough to attract special
attention. This exposed the scholars’ inability to shift paradigm from concept
clarification to practical application of the concept in Ebonyi State. This
lxxxvi
became source of concern and motivated the study. It is the above noticed
lacuna in the literature that this study is poised to bridge.
2.9 HYPOTHESES
In view of the problem of this research and the stated objectives, the following
hypotheses are put forward for investigation.
1.
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office established Survival and Early Childcare
programme has militated against high mortality and morbidity rates in
the programme areas in Ebonyi state.
2.
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted Universal Basic Education
programme has stimulated early-year learning for children in the
programme areas in Ebonyi state.
3.
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
programme has increased the level of hygiene and reduced water-borne
diseases among the people in the programme areas in Ebonyi State.
lxxxvii
2.10
OPERATIONALIZATION OF THE KEY CONCEPTS
To enhance understanding and to clearly measure variables in this study, the
following concepts are defined as:
A.
Living condition here refers to the state of health of rural dwellers in
relation to provisions of basic facilities and infrastructures such as pipeborne water, improved healthcare facilities, good sanitation systems and
basic education programme.
B.
Early years learning as used in hypothesis two refers to education of
children in the 3-5 years age bracket.
C.
Water-borne diseases basically mean diseases that attack people like
guinea worm and related diseases as a result of the use of unsafe water.
2.11
EBONYI STATE: HISTORY AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Ebonyi State was created in October 1996 with Abakaliki as capital, through
the amalgamation of the old Abakaliki division in former Enugu State with the
old Afikpo division in former Abia State. Its creation redressed the effects of
years of neglect, which had left the area as one of the most backward parts of
Nigeria. The state was welcome as the culmination of a forty-year struggle by
the closely related peoples of the two colonial administrative divisions of
Abakaliki and Afikpo, for a geographical space of their own. The state has
lxxxviii
thirteen (13) Local Government Areas (LGAs) at inception, namely: Abakaliki,
Afikpo North, Afikpo South, Ebonyi, Ezza North, Ezza South, Ikwo, Ishielu, Ivo,
Izzi, Ohaozara, and Onicha as represented in the state map, figure 2.4 below:
The Political Map of Ebonyi State Showing
the 3 UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office Focal LGA’s
Figure 2.4
The Three (3) UNICEF Focal L.G.As
lxxxix
Source: EBSG, 2006.
Ebonyi State occupies a land area of 5,935 square kilometers. Situated
between latitudes 50 40” and 60 54” and longitudes 70 30” and 80 30”, it is
bounded to the North by Benue State, to the West by Enugu State to the East
by Cross River State. Geo-politically, it belongs to the South East moderate
Zone but lies entirely in the Cross River plains. It occupies an area of relief
(between 125 and 245 meters above sea level), consisting mainly of broad clay
and shady basins fringed by narrow outcrops of sandstone, limestone and
other rock formations. Towards the South East border, the landscape touches
the hilly country of the Okigwe Arochukwu axis EBSG (2006:3).
Geologically, the area is underlain by two main formations, the Asu river group
of Albian age and the Eze Aku Shales of Turonian age, with outcrops of other
rock. Ecologically, Ebonyi State lies in the less wet humid tropics with a marked
rainy season from April to October and a dry season from October to March.
xc
The vegetation is mostly derived savannah with forested stretches in the
wetter South.
Ebonyi State derived its name form Ebonyi River that cuts across the State. The
state has both tableland and hilly/valley terrains found in Afikpo North and
South. The major rivers found in the state are Ebonyi, Etuyi Esu and Akpoha
Etuyi. The people are essentially farmers and the state is mainly agrarian.
Ebonyi State has a total population of 21.735.10 people. Females constitute
11.325.17 of the population, while male constitutes 10.409.93 population
(NPC, 2006). Greater number of the population is estimated to be living in the
rural areas. The sheer number of persons under 18 years of age and women in
the reproductive age, i.e. 15-49 years, requires that children and women be
put at the forefront of development concerns in the state.
The people of the state are Igbo. The predominant language spoken is Igbo
with minor dialectical differences and the people all share common history of
neglect, characterized by the absence of basic infrastructures. The
predominant religion in Ebonyi State is Christianity where more than 70% of
the people are professing Christianity. In especially the traditional society, the
xci
extended family system is a major characteristic. The extended family system
still provides a mechanism for mutual support, underpinned by a moral code
that encourages individuals to see themselves as extensions of a social unit. All
parts of the state are endowed with rich cultural heritage. Various types of
festivals remain the traditional means of entertainment and recreation. The
family system in the state is both patrilineal and matrilineal, and there is strong
preference for male children in order to continue and sustain the family name.
Children are perceived as belonging to the extended family, which has
collective responsibility for their socialization, even though the immediate
domestic units of the nuclear family into which children are born have specific
child rearing tasks. Being largely rural, the sense of mutual obligation among
extended family members is still strong but to a lesser extent within the urban
area. Social values and beliefs sometimes make effective participation of
women in economic activities difficult. These tend to limit women contribution
to socio-economic development.
Ebonyi State represents a simple unsophisticated economy characterized by
primary production activities in agriculture, mining and solid minerals and
commercial retail services. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy and
xcii
constitutes about 90% of the state’s gross domestic product (GDP). About 75%
of the population is engaged in farming and related activities like fishing and
hunting. EBSG (2006:5). The major private sector led capital investment in
agriculture is in the area of rice milling. The rice milling industry in Abakaliki is
acclaimed to be the largest in West Africa with about 800 milling machines all
in private ownership.
The state is endowed with numerous natural resources and solid mineral
deposits which are at present, largely unexploited. The minerals, which are
found in commercial quantities across the state include: lead, zinc, cooper,
aluminum, coal, lignite, gypsum, salt, which is locally produced in Ikwo, Uburu
and Okposi, 30% unionized, granites, limestone, Kaolin, bauxite and clay. The
quarry industry in the state is very vibrant with about 400 private operators
producing over 100,000 metric tones of stone products per annum. Major
industries in the solid mineral sector include the following;

Nigeria Cement Company Limited (NIGERCEM) Nkalagu (Moribund
as at the time of this research).

Enyigba Mines Industry, Enyigba, Abakaliki

Uburu Salt Industry, Uburu, Ohaozara
xciii

Ameri Salt industry, Ikwo.

Ebonyi State building materials Industry,

Concrete fabrication and moulding industry.
There is a strong tradition of commerce, with two great historic markets, Eke
Imoha and Uburu, famous in pre-colonial times as major entrepots for interregional trade. Modern industrial establishments are few in the state.
Distributors and petty traders of consumer goods abound. The major markets
are located at Abakaliki and Afikpo. There are so many other periodic markets
in the state, which serves as outlets for agricultural produce and other
consumer goods. Additionally, fishing is carried out by people who live along
the riverine areas of Esu, Akpoha, Ebonyi, with Enohia, Afikpo and Unwana
people being the major fish farmers as a result of their natural location to the
bank of Cross River to which Cross River State got her name. Carving and
decorative work are commonly found in Ezza South of the State. Pottery is
widely practiced in Ozziza and Ishiagu. Tourism is a developing area in the state
with the Green Lake, Juju hill, Uburu and Enyigba Salt Lake as major
attractions.
xciv
2.12
UNICEF: ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, PROGRAMMES AND
SOURCES OF FUNDS.
UNICEF was founded in December 1946. The Second World War was over, but
the devastating effects of the war years continued to be felt by people across
Europe. The United Nations was itself founded in October 1945, and it had
begun operating a relief organization called the United Nations Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to combat famine and disease in
liberated Europe. UNRRA’s initial mission was to bring relief to civilians all
across Europe. The war had left millions without shelter, farming had been
severely disrupted, and the population was extremely vulnerable to
communicable diseases such as tuberculosis. UNRRA had existed in some form
since 1943, and over the next three years it fed millions of European children
and adults. By 1946, however, the former Allies began to regroup, and as the
cold war began, Europe fell into distinct Eastern and Western zones. UNRRA
was to be wound down, though its budget has not all been spent, on the tacit
understanding that is was not equally welcome in all parts of Europe. However,
there was still a huge need for a relief group, especially as the winter of 194647 threatened to become one of the worst on record. (http:// www.unicef
.org).
xcv
As UNRRA disbanded, the United Nations agreed to charter a new group with a
focus on the emergency needs of children in particular. Though UNICEF rose in
response to World War II, the concept of children’s aid had its roots in World
War I. The British social reformer Eglantyne Jebb had documented the effect of
that war on children, and had founded the Save the Children International
Union (SCIU). SCIU believed there was no such thing as an “enemy” child, and
wished to minister to children no matter what side their parents had fought
on. SCIU’s principles were adopted by the League of Nations in 1924 as the
World Child Welfare Charter. The SCIU merged into the International Union of
Child Welfare by 1946, and this group pressed the United Nations to continue
to work for war-scarred children. U.S Army film makers had also put together a
19 minutes documentary, “Seeds of Destiny,” which captured the wretched
plight of postwar children. The film which contained images of children
begging, foraging in garbage dumps, and barely surviving in hospitals and
orphanages, eventually raised $200 million for children’s welfare work. It was
shown at the last meeting of UNRRA’s government council, voted to propose
to the Untied Nations that its leftover budget be used to continue relief work
of children. Thus, UNICEF came into being.
xcvi
As an operating agency of the United Nations, UNICEF is headed by an
executive director, who is appointed by the Secretary General of the UN in
consultation of its thirty-six-member executive board. Board members are in
turn elected by the Economic and Social Council of the UN. There have only
been four executive directors, all U.S citizens since its inception. Maurice Pate,
a banker with experience in humanitarian relief, was the first. Pate steered the
organization in its formative years and built its foundation. Henry R. Labouisse,
a lawyer and the first foreign-aid chief for President John F. Kennedy,
succeeded Pate. James P. Grant, another lawyer and president of the Overseas
Development Council, followed Labouisse. Grant launched CSDR/GOBI and
orchestrated the UN Summit for Children. Carol Bellamy, a lawyer and a former
Director of the Peace Corps, succeeded Grant as executive director in 1995.
With a global staff of nearly 5,600, UNICEF operates from its headquarters at
the United Nations in New York and works with children in 158 countries. The
group works through local offices in these countries. It also operates a
European Regional Office in Geneva, Switzerland, a special Office in Brussels,
Belgium, and an Office for Japan in Tokyo. UNICEF’s supply Division, which
handles most of its vaccine packing and distribution, is located in Copenhagen,
xcvii
Denmark. UNICEF also maintains the Innocenti Research Centre, in Florence,
Italy. The Innocenti is the group’s main Social Science Research arm, helping to
compile data on issues relating to children and exploring policy options relating
to the financing of social programmes. Beginning in 1946 with a modest
residue of funds from the defunct UN Relief and Rehabilitation Agency, UNICEF
has grown to be a sizable development and humanitarian organization with an
annual budget of around $1 billion.
UNICEF derived its funding principally from U.N. member governments. It
began fundraising on its own in 1951, with the sale of greeting cards. UNICEF
Director Maurice Pate was at first afraid that selling greeting cards might be
too commercial for a non-profit group, and he put up his personal funds for
the first run of UNICEF greeting cards, which featured a painting by a sevenyear-old Czech girl. However, the group made $16,000 on its first printing of
the cards, and this became a very popular fundraiser. In 1952 UNICEF asked
the French painter Raoul Dufy to create a design for a UNICEF card. Dufy was
the first of a series of world-renowned artists to donate designs to UNICEF.
Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Salvador Dali and many other notable artists
xcviii
contributed artwork to UNICEF to be made into greeting cards.
(http://www.unicef.org).
It operates entirely on voluntary contributions from both governmental and
private sources. In addition to regular contributions, many governments also
make special
contributions
for specific purposes,
especially
during
emergencies. A network of thirty-seven national committees, registered as
nonprofit entities in the industrialized countries, inform the public about the
needs and rights of the child and raise funds to support UNICEF. As a result, the
U.S fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the National committees, founded in 1947.
Recently, UNICEF has begun partnerships with world-class athletes and teams
to promote the organization’s work and to raise funds. On 7 September 2006,
an agreement between UNICEF and the Catalan association football club- FC
Barcelona was reached whereby the club would donate 0.7% of its total yearly
revenue to the organization for five years. As part of the agreement, FC
Barcelona will wear UNICEF logo on the front of their shirts, which will be the
first time a football club sponsored an organization rather than the other way
around. Other athletes in the same status with FC Barcelona include:

Canada’s National Tent Pegging team
xcix

Swedish Club Hammarby IF

Danish Soccer Club Brondby IF

Race Driver Jacques Villenueve

Scotland’s Rangers F.C.
With its focus on the needs and rights of the child, the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) devotes as much as 80 percent of its funds to
programmes that can be classified under the broad umbrella of public health.
Working in partnership with governments as well as health-related
organizations, notably the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF is active
in programmes ranging from immunization and oral rehydration campaigns to
water and sanitation projects, and from the fights against acute respiratory
infections to the elimination of polio and micronutrient deficiencies. Its
contribution to international public health, particularly for children and
mothers, has been significant and extensive. Indeed, in the last two decades of
the twentieth century, UNICEF, with its activist leadership, helped shape the
agenda of international health.
On its own, UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, Enugu was established in 1987 but
prior to that date, UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office operated as liaison office,
located at Owerri. Presently, the operations of UNICEF zone ‘A’ field office
c
under the leadership of Mr. Charles Nzuki as the Chief of Field Office covers
ten (10) states in Nigeria via:
 Abia State
 Akwa Ibom State
 Anambra State
 Bayelsa State
 Benue State
 Cross River State
 Ebonyi State
 Enugu State
 Imo State
 Rivers State
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, Enugu sources operational fund mainly from her
international headquarters at the United Nations in New York, donor agencies
and non governmental organizations.
2.13 EBONYI STATE: SOCIAL SITUATIONS.
The march towards the creation of Ebonyi State was largely hinged on decades
of marginalization, bastardization, servitude and deprivation which Ebonyians
ci
suffered, and the humiliating experience spanned social, economic and
political spheres. It was indeed tantamount to an impoverishment of the
people’s potentials, ranging from lack of access to education, lack of federal
appointments, non-provision of social amenities, lack of infrastructural
development, to outright relegation of Ebonyians who though were qualified
to be meaningfully engaged to source their livelihood in various sectors of the
economy, were denied the opportunity, perhaps because of where they come
from. (Edeze, quoted in Igidi J. et. al, 2006:x).
At the early part of 1999, Ebonyi State was branded educationally
disadvantaged along with some other states, especially in the northern part of
the country. Among the Igbo states within the period, Ebonyi certainly had the
least number of educated people. It had also the least enrolment figure both in
primary and secondary schools, and the least number of undergraduates and
graduates in the South East (Igidi J. et al, 2006:7). The penury and neglect,
which enveloped the people for decades were so over whelming that in the
Blueprint of the Development of Ebonyi State (by Ebonyi State Development
Forum), it was noted that the young state was the most educationally
backward in the old eastern region. Facts and figures abound in the Blue print
cii
to authenticate their claims. For instance, by 1997 the state had only 539
primary schools that were poorly equipped, poorly maintained and poorly
staffed and by the same token, there were only 85 secondary schools in the
state that were also poorly equipped and staffed with the teacher to student
ratio at each of the two levels “quite below the national approved ratio of
1:35”, (ESDF, 1997). Out of the total national population of 3.5 million living
with HIV/AIDS, Ebonyi is among the state in the South East and in the whole
country where its prevalence is high.
The mortality figures in Ebonyi are high despite the fact that there are two
tertiary health institutions (Ebonyi State University Teaching Hospital and
Federal Medical Centre) and General Hospitals in almost all the local
governments in the state. Para-medical staff in the General Hospitals in the
state is grossly inadequate. Some hospitals have as few as 4 nurses only while
the majority has no pharmacists, functional laboratories or x-ray facilities.
Indeed, in 2004, Ebonyi State was far from the World Health Organization
(WHO) ideal doctor-patient ratio of about 1:700.
ciii
There was a tuberculosis (TB) cases detected rate of 44.4% in 2003 and this is
projected at 70% by the year 2007. Guinea worm is still endemic in about 53
villages in the state and in 2003 about 520,777 persons were treated with
ivermectin, under the Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) control programme.
However, the endemicity rate has reduced from 38 – 65% in 1996 to 12% in
August 2003 (EBSG, 2006:27).
Water is one of the basic necessities of life as it constitutes a prime factor for
social, health and industrial development in any society. The availability of
water makes life to become meaningful and comfortable. With good source of
water, the health of man is assured and industrial development becomes
guaranteed both at the urban and rural levels.
Rural dwellers in Ebonyi State depend on natural spring
water, rainwater, ponds, rivers, and creeks. The scenario
cannot enhance social or economic development. There is,
therefore, an obvious need for private sector involvement
in the water supply for domestic and industrial
uses……………Generally, users treek distances in search of
water and often, the sourced water may be of substandard quality (EBSG, 2006:35).
civ
Before Ebonyi State was created in 1996, both the Sanitation and water supply
was very poor in the entire state. The Evaluation Report of Nigeria Guinea
worm eradication programme (NIGEP) showed that the zone was the highest
in Guinea worm cases in Nigeria, accounting for over 60% of all reported cases.
Lack of potable water and poor knowledge of personal hygiene were among
the several reasons for the high incidence of the guinea worm scourge and
related water borne diseases in the state (EBSG, 2006:34). Figure 2.5 below
buttresses the water situation in Ebonyi State.
cv
Percentage of Households Obtaining Water From Sources Defined as “Safe”.
Figure 2.5
69
South West
59
South East
34
39
North West
56
67
North East
40
49
Urban
80
Rural
1999
39
Nigeria
48
50
Sub-Saharan
Africa
54
cvi
1995
71
Sources: MICS 1995 [FOS/UNICEF, 1995]
MICS 1999[FOS/UNICEF, 2000]
The two MICS surveys in 1995 and 1999 above present nationwide data based
on the source-derived definition of safe water presented above, irrespective of
the distance of the water source from the household. In spite of the
deficiencies of the definition, it is still helpful to analyze the zonal breakdown
and trends in the proportion of households obtaining water from sources that
in ‘normal” conditions would be considered safe. The South East of which
Ebonyi State is among is worse off than other zones, accounting for 34% and
39% in 1995 and 1999 respectively.
The creation of Ebonyi State resulted in the influx of a large number of civil
servants and other persons who have flocked into the area to take advantage
cvii
of opportunities available within. Considering that Ebonyi is a young state with
no meaningful infrastructure, one can safely surmise that the urbanization rate
will be higher than the national average.
Like in most other parts of the country, women are principal victims of the
economic, social and infrastructural underdevelopment in the state. Reports
indicate that even though efforts have been made to improve the general
condition of women since the creation of the state, there are no indications
that infant mortality and under five mortality have improved appreciably from
the 1999 situation. Women in Ebonyi still face high risks of death during
pregnancy or delivery. The 1999 maternal mortality rate of 1,600 is about 100
times higher than the average in industrialized nations and still higher than the
national average in Nigeria. (EBSG, 2006:44).
It is not until 2008 and in an effort to address the maternal mortality and
morbidity issue in Ebonyi State that the Ebonyi State House of Assembly
passed the Mother and Child Care Initiative (MCCI) and Related Matters into
law in June, 2008 as amended in September, 2009. The law makes it
mandatory to report maternal death and disability, promotes free obstetric
cviii
care services, and encourages early referral of clients in labour and delivery at
health facility assisted by skilled personnel. The law also promotes community
involvement in data collection to aid policy formulation and decision making
on appropriate intervention. The implication of these aspects of the law is
through the Ebonyi State Maternal Mortality and Morbidity Monitoring
Committee (EBSMMMMC) which is also extended to the local governments
and wards. Section 21(2-4) of the law states that:
Any person either by trust in his profession or
otherwise who handles the treatment and delivery of
a pregnant woman either at ante-natal, intra-partum
or post-natal stage that ended into maternal
mortality and fails to report such death within two
months to the appropriate authority, commits an
offence.
Any person being the husband or guardian of such
woman or otherwise so closely connected with her,
having knowledge of her death and fails to report
such death within two months to the appropriate
authority, commits an offence.
Any hospital, maternity, clinic or caregiver where
such maternal mortality took place and fail to report
cix
such death within two months to the appropriate
authority, commits an offence.
Source: EBSG MCCIRM Law No.002 of 2008
(Amendment) Law No.005 OF 2009.
According to table 2.1 below, prior to 2002 – 2007 (the scope of this study),
the immunization rate which is expected to contribute to the reduction of
infant and under five mortality rate was no better in Ebonyi State.
cx
NATIONAL PROGRAMME ON IMMUNIZATION
COMPARATIVE ACHIEVEMENTS FROM 1997 TO DECEMBER 2001 IN EBONYI
STATE.
TABLE 2.2a
ANTIGENS
JANUARY - DECEMBER 1997
Target
POP
No
Immunized
% COVERAGE
JANUARY - DECEMBER 1998
Target
POP
No.
Immunized
% COVERAGE
JANUARY -DECEMBER 1999
Target
POP
No.
Immunized
% COVERAGE
BCG
67,471
55,569
82.40%
69,493
55,456
79.80%
71,580
11,676
16.30%
OPV3
67,471
42,386
62.80%
69,493
37,814
54.40%
71,580
22,604
31.60%
DPT3
67,471
39,096
57.90%
69,493
36,013
51.80%
71,580
19,715
27.50%
MEASLES
67,471
36,877
54.70%
69,493
35,153
50.60%
71,580
23,230
32.50%
TT2
84,339
29,352
34.80%
86,870
21,291
24.50%
89,476
13,893
15.50%
TOTAL
TABLE 2.2b
ANTIGENS
BCG
JANUARY - DECEMBER 2000
JANUARY - DECEMBER 2001
Target POP
No.
Immunized
% COVERAGE
Target
POP
No. Immunized
% COVERAGE
73,727
48.062
65.10%
75,939
24,193
32%
cxi
OPV3
73,727
26,505
36%
75,939
25,607
34%
DPT3
73,727
26,545
36%
75,939
27,662
36%
MEASLES
73,727
24,073
32.60%
75,939
25,856
34%
TT2
92,167
92,167
19.30%
94,932
15,697
16%
TOTAL
Source: NPI office, Ebonyi State.
Table 2.2a and b above shows that from 1997–2001; immunization rate drops
on yearly basis. There is always decrease on the population immunized from
number of targeted population resulting in a correspondent decrease in the
percentage immunization coverage. Example in 1997 percentage immunization
coverage was BCG-82.40%, OPV3-62.80%, DPT3-57.90%, Measles-54.70%, TT234.80%. In 2001 it became 32%, 34%, 36%, 34% and 16% respectively.
The condition of Ebonyi children is among the worst in the world. There is high
rate of wastage of the child population and grave impairment of their chance
of productive life through inadequate education, training and development.
cxii
The absence of a national social security makes the lots of elderly and retired
persons very insecure.
In the context of generalized poverty, they are the first to be affected by any
additional pressure on family resources. Far from the glare of the news media
and outside the immediate concerns of officialdom, the handicapped in Ebonyi
suffer in silence, surviving on what little help they can obtain from relatives
and friends. Most of the beggars and destitutes in Ebonyi cities have innate
abilities and talent, which if usefully tapped and profitably applied, can
contribute significantly to their self actualization, self fulfillment and indeed
overall national growth and development .
The disturbing social situation of Ebonyi state probably mid-wifed the Ebonyi
State and UNICEF Country cooperation to mitigate the social anomaly of the
state.
2.14 EBONYI STATE AND UNICEF ZONE ‘A’ COUNTRY COOPERATION
PROGRAMMES
cxiii
Despite great achievement made by past and present administration toward
improving the living conditions of the Nigerian people, available social statistics
indicate that so much still needs to be done in that regard. Multiple indicator
cluster survey (MICS) and the National Demographic and Health survey (NDHS)
both of which were conducted by the Federal Government of Nigeria in 1999,
reveal that infant, under-five, and maternal mortality rates have remained
unacceptably high. Consequently, a new Country Programme (CP), 2002-2007,
between the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) and the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) came into effect in January 2002.
Within the
framework of the Basic Cooperation Agreement (BCA) between FGN and
UNICEF, the rights based country programme aims to improve the rights of
children to survival, development protection and participation as well as
promote the economic, political and social empowerment of women in
Nigeria. Ebonyi State/UNICEF (PIA, 2002:1).
This Country Cooperation is
expected to be activated annually with Programme Implementation
Agreement (PIA). The purpose of the PIA is to clearly define the areas of
cooperation between Ebonyi State and UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, the role of
cooperating partners, sources of resources (financial, human and material),
acceptable modes of utilization of these resources and mechanisms for
monitoring and tracking the programme performance. From 2002–2007, the
cxiv
broad programme areas of cooperation between Ebonyi State and UNICEF
were as follows:
A. Survival and Early Child Care (SECC) Programme
The overall goal of the SECC programme is to contribute to a 10% reduction of
infant, child and maternal mortality and a 20% reduction in the communities
within the selected focus LGAs. The programme consists of 4 projects namely:
i.
ii
Maternal, Under Five And Infant Mortality Reduction Project:
Sub-Project 1:
Maternal, Neonatal and under 5 mortality reduction
Sub-Project 2:
Roll back malaria/insecticide treated nets.
Sub-Project 3:
Primary health care policy and system.
Sub-Project 4:
Research, Monitoring and Evaluation Project (IRMEP)
Immunization ‘plus’ project:
Sub-Project 1:
Support improvement of quality of NIDS and
Immunization activities
Sub-Project 2:
Improvement of routine immunization.
Sub-project 3:
Integrated Research Monitoring and Evaluation Project
(IRMEP)
cxv
iii
HIV/AIDS Project:
Sub-project 1:
Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV
Sub-project 2:
Care for infected children
Sub-project 3:
Integrated Research Monitoring, and
Evaluation, Project IRMEP
iv
Nutrition And Early Child Care Project:
Sub-project 1:
Micronutrient deficient control
Sub-project 2:
Improvement of key household practices for children under
5 years.
Sub-project 3:
Community-based childcare.
Sub-project 4:
Integrated
monitoring,
project IRMEP
cxvi
evaluation,
and
research
Figure 2.6
The Survival And Early Childcare Programme Structure
Survival & Early Child
Care Programme
Programme support
Maternal, Infant & U-5
Diseases Project
Vaccine P
preventable
Nutrition & Early
HIV/AIDS Project
Child Care Project
Mortality reduction
Project
Safe Motherhood and
Neonatal Mortality
Reeducation
Management of
childhood illness
Prevention of
MTCT
Polio Eradication
Routine
Immunization
Care for Infected
Micronutrient
Deficiency Control
Household and Community
health care, Nutrition and
Early stimulation
Children
and RBM
Source: FGN/ UNICEF 2002 – 2007 master plan of operations (Amendment)
Survival and early child care SECC in Ebonyi State is expected to address the
problems affecting children from conception to 5 years of age. As it is a rightsbased approach, it will address the threats to the survival rights of children
(the most basic right) but also the rights to development and protection. This
cxvii
approach is integrated because it will incorporate interventions in the area of
health, nutrition and cognitive development. It is rights-based, because it puts
the child at the centre by addressing issues of survival, development and
protection (and participation of the caregivers).
B.
Integrated Growth and Development (IGD)-Basic Education
The goal of the programme is to contribute to at least 20% improvement in net
primary school enrolment, retention and educational attainment status in
selected areas. The situation assessment and analysis report gave a poor
picture of the basic education status of the majority of children within the age
of 6 to 12 years in Nigeria. Net primary school enrolment ratio in 1999 was
only 55%. Moreover, a 1996 survey on minimum learning achievement
confirmed low levels of numeracy (18%) and literacy (39%) among pupils
completing primary grade four. The programme is implemented through
learning and Girls education and expected to contribute to the improvement of
the net primary school environment, retention and education attainment by
promoting the Child Friendly Schools Initiative (especially girl friendly) within
improved facilities for quality teaching/learning.
cxviii
cxix
Figure 2.7
The Integrated Growth And Development (Basic Education)
Programme Structure
INTEGRATED GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT (BASIC EDCUATION )
Learning & Girls
Education Project
Formal
Basic
Education
NonFormal
Education
Programme
Management Support
Health
Hygiene and
Sanitation
Early
Childhood
Education
Education
Source: FGN/ UNICEF 2002 – 2007 master plan of operations (Amendment)
The IGD programme will support specific interventions in Ebonyi State during
the year. The learning and Girls’ Education project will target selected schools
and communities in the state and will continue to address identified weakness
cxx
in primary school system though the children friendly schools initiative (CFSI),
support to the UBE, as well as sanitation in schools. On-going efforts at
improving the enrolment, retention and completion rates will be sustained,
while attention will be focused on the reduction of girls and boys drop out
rates and improving Early Child Care survival, Growth and Development
activities at Early Child Care Centres. Ebonyi State/UNICEF (PIA, 2004:5).
C.
Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Programme
The overall goal of the programme is to contribute to at least 20%
improvement in access to and use of improved water and sanitation facilities in
selected areas. The programme was implemented with the objective of
ensuring the realization of children’s rights to survival, basic sanitation facilities
and promotion of improved hygiene.
Figure 2.8
Water, Sanitation And Hygiene Programme Structure
INTEGRATED GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT (WASH)
Water and
environmental
Sanitation Project
Water
Supply
Programme
Management Support
Environmental
Sanitation
cxxi
Source: FGN/ UNICEF 2002 – 2007 master plan of operations (Amendment)
The programme activities is targeted at strengthening partnerships and
increasing overall effectiveness in service delivery; supporting government to
implement programmes that would ensure equitable and sustainable access to
safe water and sanitation facilities, and empowering communities for effective
operation and maintenance.
D.
Protection And Participation (P&P) Programme
The protection and participation programme consists of two projects.
i.
Rights, Legislation and Special Protection Measure
ii.
Adolescent Health, Participation and Gender Empowerment
The convention on the rights of the child (CRC) and Convention On Elimination
of all Forms Of Discrimination Against Women’s (CEDAW) continues to provide
cxxii
the legal foundation for programming action for the protection of the rights of
children and women and specific interventions are developed to address
situations that rob children of their chances to realize their full human
potentials.
Figure 2.9
The Protection And Participation Programme Structure
PROTECTION AND PARTICIPATION PROGRAMME
Programme Support
Rights, Legislation & Special
protection
Adolescent Health, Participation &
Gender Empowerment Project
Project
Policy, Legal Reform and CRC/CEDAW
Implementation
Adolescent Health, HIV/AIDS
Prevention, Care & Support
Gender Empowerment and
Youth
Child Protection Services
Participation
Source: FGN/ UNICEF 2002 – 2007 master plan of operations (Amendment)
The overall goal of the PnP programme is to improve the level of Nigeria’s
commitment to her international human rights obligations through the full
domestication of CRC and CEDAW into national laws, thereby raising the level
of awareness, understanding and programming on women and children’s
cxxiii
rights to protection and participation. Special attention is directed to the
promotion of legal reforms, policies and programmes for the protection of
children and women from all forms of violations of rights, facilitation of
monitoring mechanism for the timely reporting on CRC and CEDAW
implementation in compliance with the observations of international
committees, and empowerment of youths and women with life skills and
opportunities for active participation in decision making that affects them.
Specific intervention targeted the reduction of the prevailing rate of HIV/AIDS
infection among young people aged 15-24 years.
In Ebonyi State, Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development anchors
the implementation of the programme. The state planning commission in
consultation with the State Ministry of Women Affairs facilitate the regular
procurement, monitor and disbursement of the Government Counterpart Cash
Contribution (GCCC) for the PnP programme in particular, and for all other
UNICEF assisted programmes in the state.
E.
Community Development Programme
cxxiv
There is ever-widening gap between the urban and rural areas of Nigeria in
terms of delivery of social services. The community development programme
is designed to promote the creation of the appropriate enabling environment
at the community level for effective and sustainable programme implantation.
The goal of CD programme is to plan, implement and evaluate, in close
consultation with all programmes partners, but especially at the community
levels, the promotion of children’s and women rights. Major objectives include:
 To promote replicable models of integrated community development that
respond to the particular local character and needs of Nigeria’s diverse
communities, focusing on the delineation of best practices to accelerate the
reduction of disparities in social welfare and development indicators for
children and women.
 To strengthen sub-national capacity and commitment to plan, implementation
and manage integrated and self–sustainable community projects that
promotes and protects the rights of women and children.
 To create an enabling environment for the participatory management of rights
based activities, with a special focus on ensuring the five involvement of all
cxxv
stakeholders and duty bearers, especially promoting women’s and youth
participation in decision making in activities that affects their survival and
welfare.
 To promote increased awareness of responsibilities and accountabilities for
CRC/CEDAW implementation, including enhanced commitment to household
and community level behaviour change for the realization and fulfillment of
children’s and women’s rights.
The state and the focus LGAs ensure that the communities take full ownership
of the programme.
F. Planning and Communication (P&C) Programme
The planning and communication programme consists of three projects,
namely:
i.
Social Statistics, Policy Analysis And Development
(SSPAS)
ii.
Communication and Alliance Building (CAB) and
iii.
Emergency Preparedness And Response (EPR)
cxxvi
Figure 2.10
The Planning And Communication Programme Structure
PLANNING AND
COMMUNICATION
PROGRAMME
Social Statistics,
Policy Analysis &
Development
Policy
Analysis,
Integrated
Planning &
Social
Development
Statistics &
Data
Management
Communication
& Alliance
Building Project
Programme
Research
Monitoring
& Evaluation
Integrated
Programme
Emergency
Preparedness &
Response
Project
Partnership for
a Nigerian
Movement for
Children
Information
Management
& External
Relations
Communication
Programme
Management
Support
Field
Response
Emergency
Data
Management &
Preparedness
Communication
&
Networking
Development
Source: FGN/ UNICEF 2002 – 2007 master plan of operations (Amendment)
The overall goal of the planning and communication (P&C) programme is to
promote the rights of Nigerian children and women by establishing a
comprehensive national database for improved programme performance with
appropriate communication packages that will facilitate changes in individual,
household and community behaviours for the attainment of children’s and
women’s rights. This will be achieved by fostering a stronger alliance between
the relevant agencies for data generation in Ebonyi State and establishment of
cxxvii
an effective coordination framework for management of Ebonyi State data
base.
Implementation is through a broad based involvement of key partners by
supporting the development of a systematic social development structure in
Ebonyi State. Policy analysis in support of appropriate interventions were
promoted by strengthening the dissemination of information on the situation
analysis of children and women. Specific advocacy involves sensitization on
policy and legal reforms for children and women and support to the
development of policies on children. Advocacy also features dialogue to
facilitate integrated communication for behaviour change as well as
information management and alliance building. It also involves partnership
building and NGO networking to achieve substantive impact in a decentralized
manner at the state, LGA and community levels.
2.15 MECHANISMS FOR PROGRAMME COORDINATION,
MONITORING
AND EVALUATION
The State Planning Commission is the coordinating Agency for this programme
of cooperation in line with the Federal Government Policy/Guidelines. The
cxxviii
monitoring Committee which is made up of focal officers of all the
collaborating Ministries and Agencies with its Secretariat at the SPC will
continue to provide programme implementation direction, and ensure
intersectoral collaboration and integrated programme implementation.
Quarterly meetings of Secretaries to state government of the ‘A’ Field Office
States is held and provide additional opportunity for monitoring of programme
progress and exchange of ideas on programme performance among top policy
makers from the states, and the realignment of programme strategies to
achieve better results.
The committee meets quarterly to review progress of programme
implementation, status of Government Counterpart Cash Contribution (GCCC),
retirement of Cash Assistance to Government and other related matters and
make appropriate recommendations to relevant authorities for the smooth
functioning of the programme. The committee shall submit a quarterly report
on the progress of programme implementation to the state Governor, through
the SSG, as well as UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office in Enugu.
cxxix
Day-to-Day programme monitoring is the responsibility of the focal partners,
Local Government Areas, and communities through the various programme
managers. The Director or Head of each agency is responsible for the smooth
implementation of the agreed projects/activities in the Ministry or Agency,
while UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office provide technical and other support as may
be agreed upon jointly. Updated monthly reports, data, project proposals and
other information is sent to UNICEF Zone “A’ Field Office office though the SPC.
To facilitate the coordinating function of the SPC, all correspondents to the
state partners in Ebonyi State is copied to the SPC, including funds spent on
behalf of the state on zonal activities, in which the state is beneficiary and
partner, as well as funds advanced to NGOs for implementation of programme
activities in the state. Evaluation activities may be commissioned as needed by
the SPC, to ensure qualitative, and impact assessment. At Annual Filed Office
Review Meetings convened by UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office, progress reports
collated by the SPC, with inputs from State partners and LGA project
personnel, and communities will help determine future direction of
programme implementation.
Partnerships – Roles of NGOs/CBOs
cxxx
NGOs play an important role in delivery of the technical component of the
programmes, including advocacy for behaviour change at the lower levels
where they have a comparative advantage both technically and in their
nearness and understanding of the grassroots. All the Community Based
Organizations, Community Development Associations and Community Level
Project Management Committees support the implementation of programme
activities, particularly the Community Development Programme.
Supplies, Equipment and other Assistance
 UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office contributions to programmes of cooperation are
made in the form of financial and other assistance. Supplies, equipment and
other assistance intended for the programmes of cooperation under the
Agreement is transferred to the relevant Government agency immediately on
receipt of such supplies or equipment in UNICEF Enugu Field Office. The agency
is responsible for the transportation of such equipment from UNICEF Zone “A”
Field Office to the target beneficiary.
cxxxi
 UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office may place on the supplies, equipment and other
materials intended for programmes of cooperation such markings as are
deemed necessary to identify them as being provided by UNICEF Zone “A”
Field Office.
 The Ministry is expected to make efforts, and take the necessary measures, to
ensure that the supplies, equipment and other materials, as well as financial
and other assistance intended for programmes of cooperation, are utilized in
conformity with the purposes stated in the Master Plan of Operations of
Agreement and are employed in an equitable and efficient manner without
any discrimination based on sex, race, creed, nationality or political opinion.
 The Government, upon request by UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office, returns to
UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office any funds, supplies, equipment and other
materials that have not been used in the agreed programmes of cooperation.
 The Government maintains proper account, records and documentation in
respect of funds, supplies, and the documentation required is agreed upon by
UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office and Government. Authorized officials of UNICEF
Zone “A” Field Office have access to the relevant accounts, records and other
materials and disbursement of funds.
cxxxii
The timely collection of all UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office donated supplies and
equipment is the responsibility of Ebonyi state government. All such supplies
where not collected within two (2) weeks of notification may be reallocated to
other more needy partners. Also, duly completed government receipts are
returned to UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office within two (2) months of receipt of
such supplies.
2.16 SOURCES AND APPLICATION OF PROGRAMME FUNDS
For all UNUCEF supported programmes/projects, the Participating Government
Agency and UNICEF Zone‘A’ Field Office, are each expected to contribute 50%
of the total cost of such projects. Failure or delay in release of GCCC will
normally result in non-realization of agreed targets. Cash assistance to any
ministry or Agency is provided subject to the following conditions.
 Provision of adequate Government Counterpart Cash Contribution (GCCC) for a
particular activity.
 Receipt of a well prepared technical proposal for any agreed activity from the
Ministry or Agency.
cxxxiii
 Satisfactory performance of the ministry or Agency in the implementation of
Govt/UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office programmes.
 Satisfactory retirement of any prior cash assistance to the Ministry or Agency.
Table 2.3 below shows a summary of anticipated UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office
and Government contribution between 2002–2007 on annual basis.
Summary of Anticipated UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office and
Ebonyi State Government Contribution
Table 2.3a
cxxxiv
Programme
2002
UNICEF
Contribute
xN’000
Survival/Early
(SECC)
Childcare 6,930
Integrated
Growth
Development (IGD)
and 9,407
Water Sanitation and Hygiene Built
(WASH)
IGD
Protection and Participation
(P&P)
Community
(CD)
GCCC
xN’000
2003
TOTAL
xN’000
UNICE
xN’000
GOVT
xN’000
TOTAL
xN’000
6,930
13,860
6,383
6,383
12,766
38,850
48,257
3,646
3,646
7,292
Built into Built
into
IGD
IGD
Built
into
IGD
Built
into
IGD
into Built
into
IGD
3,041
3,041
6,082
2,805
2,805
5,610
Development 4,000
4,000
8,000
5,418
5,418
10,836
Planning and Communication
(P&C)
2,646
2,646
5,292
5,531
5,531
11,062
‘A’ Field Total
26,024
55,467
81,491
23,783
23,783
47,566
Table 2.3b
2004
UNICEF
contribute
xN’000
GCCC
xN’000
2005
TOTAL
xN’000
UNICEF
contribute
xN’000
GCCC xN’000
TOTAL xN’000
23,261
23,261
46,522
42,218,743
42,218,743
84,437,486
84,630
84,630
169,260
90,518,596
90,518,596
181,037,192
Built into IGD
Built into Built
Built into IGD
Built into IGD
into Built into IGD
cxxxv
3,417
IGD
IGD
3,417
6,834
7,500,000
7,500,000
15,000,000
Built into SECC, Built into Built into Built into SECC, Built into SECC, Built into SECC,
IGD, PnP & SECC, IGD, SECC, IGD, IGD, PnP & PnC
IGD, PnP & PnC
IGD, PnP & PnC
PnP
& PnP & PnC
PnC
PnC
7,920
7,920
15,840
6,441,119
6,441,119
12,882,238
97,498
97,498
94,996
146,678,458
146,678,458
293,356,916
Table 2.3c
2006
UNICEF
Contribute
xN’000
2007
UNICEF
Contribute
xN’000
GCCC
xN’000
TOTAL
xN’000
Nil
Nil
Nil
Basic Education Basic Education Basic Education
for 2006 Not on for 2006 Not on for 2006 Not on
IGD 5,892,940
IGD 5,892,940
IGD 11,785,880
Nil
Nil
Nil
115,724,100
115,724,100
321,448,200
Nil
Nil
Nil
6,362,250
6,362,250
12,724,500
Nil
Nil
Nil
-
Nil
Nil
Nil
29,484,611
-
GCCC xN’000
29,484,611
-
TOTAL xN’000
58,969,222
3,258,370
3,258,370
6,516,740
Nil
Nil
Nil
160,722,271
160,722,271
321,444,542
Nil
Nil
Nil
cxxxvi
SOURCE: PIA, EBSG/UNICEF ZONE ‘A’ (2002-2007).
Table 2.2 above shows that both UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office and Ebonyi State
Government are expected to contribute equal fund into all the programmes
and project except in 2002 where UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office was expected to
contribute N9,407,000 into Integrated Growth and Development while Ebonyi
State Government was to contribute N38,850,000.
cxxxvii
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
TYPE OF RESEARCH
We made use of “Descriptive Research” method in this study. This helped us
to collect, describe and interpret prevailing conditions in Ebonyi state in order
to unravel the contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programmes in
rural communities of Ebonyi State.
3.2
SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Research of this nature requires different methods of data collection to make
for validity of findings. We adopted four (4) major sources and methods of
data collections. These include:
-
Documentary instruments
-
Observation
-
Oral interview, and
-
Questionnaire
A. Documentary Instruments
cxxxviii
This is the first data collection instrument we employed. We examined various
documents about the establishment of UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office and
development strategies in rural communities, data on social development
projects, statement of evidences of substantive survival, development,
protection and participation rights of children and women in the rural area.
Annual written agreements between EBSG/UNICEF “A” Field Office were used.
As a result, textbooks, journals, articles, magazines and government
documents related to UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office activities/programmes in
Ebonyi State were utilized extensively.
B. Observation
We used direct observation method to examine some of the UNICEF Zone “A”
Field Office assisted projects in the study area. Through this method, we were
able to establish relationship between our recorded data and what we have on
the ground. This placed us in a vantage position to determine the contribution
of such programmes to sustainable social development and by extension,
human development in the study area.
C. Oral Interview
cxxxix
We also engaged in face to face interview with some selected beneficiaries of
UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office programmes and actors directly involved in the
Country Programme of Cooperation (CPC). Through this, we were able to
ascertain the method adopted in choosing specified projects and their effect
on the people. The categories of people interviewed include:
1.
The Permanent Secretary, State Planning Commission in Ebonyi State.
2.
Field Officers of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office in Ebonyi State
3.
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office desk officers of the following Ministries in
Ebonyi State:
i.
Ministry of Health
ii.
Ministry of Information
iii.
Ministry of Education
iv.
Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development
v.
Ministry
of
Public
Utilities
and
other
extra-Ministerial
Departments, like:
4.
The General Manager RUWASA, Ebonyi State.
5.
The General Manager EBOSACA, Ebonyi State.
6.
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office desk officer UBEB, Ebonyi
State.
cxl
7.
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office desk officer of three
Local Government Areas, under study in Ebonyi State
8.
Chairmen of the three Local Government Areas, under study in
Ebonyi State.
9.
The manager UBA plc (the disbursing Bank for UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office), Ebonyi State.
10.
Twelve (12) direct beneficiaries of UNICEF zone ‘A’ Field Office
projects in Ebonyi State.
D.
Questionnaire
We structured and administered our questionnaire to selected beneficiaries of
UNICEF Zone “A” Field Office projects and important players/actors in the
Country Programme of Cooperation (CPC) through random sampling
technique. We also administered the questionnaires to host communities. One
Hundred (100) questionnaires each were administered to beneficiaries in the
three UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office focal LGA’s, totaling three Hundred (300)
questionnaires. Another one hundred (100) questionnaires different from the
cxli
one administered to the direct beneficiaries of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
programmes
were
administered
to
UNICEF
Zone
‘A’
Field
Office
programme/field officers and government officials, making a grand total of
four hundred (400) questionnaires. These two categories of respondents
provided information on how the programmes affected them while the
responses from programme/field officers exposed us to the successes and
otherwise of the programmes. This obviously provided deeper and better
understanding of the contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office in rural
communities in Ebonyi state.
3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Country Programme of Cooperation takes
place in three (3) Local Government Areas in Ebonyi State, called Focal LGAs.
We covered the three (3) Local Government Areas of the state. The total
population of the study is 90,880, made up of the people of Ndiegu and Noyo
Alike communities of Ikwo LGA, people of Iniogu and Okue communities of Ivo
LGA, people of Ejilewe and Ogwudu Ano communities of Ohaukwu LGA;
political office holders, field/desk officers and some staff of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office.
cxlii
3.4
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Our research covered the programmes of UNICEF zone ‘A’ in the three (3) focal
local government areas of Ebonyi State with a total population of 90,880
people. Within the target local governments, two (2) communities from each
local government benefited from the programmes and our study covered all.
From this population, we made use of randomized sampling method to select
three hundred (300) beneficiaries, one hundred (100) from each local
government and administered them with type ‘A’ questionnaires. One
hundred (100) respondents were also selected through stratified random
sampling method, among UNICEF Zone ‘A’ programme/field officers and
Government officials, and administered them with type ‘B’ questionnaire
different from the one administered to direct beneficiaries of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programmes. These officials are directly linked with UNICEF Z Field
Office one ‘A’ activities in these local government areas in Ebonyi State.
3.5 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
Basically, we adopted documentary instrument, oral interview, field trips, and
questionnaires as primary sources of data collection. For the purpose of
cxliii
achieving the objective of this research therefore, analyses of data were
qualitative, quantitative and deductive. Qualitative materials were classified
into appropriate categories and this enabled us to describe them in a more
orderly manner. We used ‘‘Chi-Square Test’’, “Simple Percentages”, Tables,
and Bar Charts” as statistical tools to analyze the data we derived form the
questionnaires administered to our respondents.
Thus, the application of this method made it possible for us to test our
hypotheses qualitatively and we used single case research design to
substantiate the content analysis as presented below:
R
B1
B2
B3
A1
A2
A3
This has series of “before” (UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programme
implementation) observations as one case (subject) and a series of “after”
(UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Programme Implementation) observations as
another case (subject). There is no control or variation group, but the single
group was compared only with itself. The research design enabled us to
critically analyze the substance of the data collected and this made us
cxliv
understand the extent of contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Country
Programme of Cooperation to social development in rural communities in
Ebonyi State. In line with the single case research design, tables, charts, simple
percentages and mathematical representations were all used to analyze the
data so collected. In the light of the above, a critical assessment of material
conditions of recipient rural dwellers before the introduction and
implementation of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programmes were made. The
two distinct periods were compared. Remarkable changes observed in the
living conditions of the people were quickly attributed to the UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programmes.
3.6
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENTS
Prior to our main field work, we carried out a ‘Pilot Survey’ of our population of
study. Forty (40) questionnaires were distributed. Ten (10) to each of the three
(3) focal LGA’s and ten (10) to UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office and government
officials.
This was to validate our measuring instrument (questionnaire), basically to
determine whether it possesses the desired qualities of measurement and
discriminability. Through this ‘pilot study’, errors in questionnaire such as
cxlv
ambiguity, contradictory questions, poor wording of questions, misleading or
poor instructions among others were detected and eliminated. Similarly, we
used ‘test-retest’ reliability approach, based on ‘stability principle’ to test for
reliability. This was so because a test that is not reliable is never valid.
3.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
For the purpose of this study, the framework we have adopted is the Human
Development theory. The most notable proponents of Human Development
Theory are: Amartya Sen (1995) and Mahbub Ul Haq (1998).
Human Development Theory is a theory that merges older ideas from
ecological economics, sustainable development, welfare economics and
feminist economics. It seeks to avoid the overt normative politics of most socalled “green economics” by justifying its thesis strictly in ecology, economics
and sound social science, and by working within the context of globalization
(Wikipedia, 2007).
cxlvi
Like ecological economics, it focuses on measuring well-being and detecting
uneconomic growth that comes at the expense of human health. However, it
goes further in seeking not only to measure but to optimize well-being by
some explicit modeling of how social capital and instructional capital can be
deployed to optimize the over all value of human capital in an economy –
which is itself part of an ecology. The role of individual capital within that
ecology and the adaptation of the individuals to live well within it, is a major
focus of this theory (Wikipedia, 2007).
The thinking behind the human development theory can be described by
considering the four mechanisms which the theorists see as necessary for
human development. These are:1. Quality of Life
2. Social Capital
3. Instructional Capital
4. Individual Capital
5. International Development
cxlvii
Quality of Life is used to evaluate the general well-being of individuals and
society. The term contextually includes the field of international development,
healthcare and politics. Quality of life is distanced from the concept of
standard of living, which is based primarily on income. Instead, standard
indicators of the quality of life include not only wealth and employment, but
also the built environment, physical and mental health, education, recreation
and leisure time, and social belonging. Also frequently related are concepts
such as freedom, human rights and happiness.
Uneconomic Growth in human development theory, welfare economics (the
economics of social welfare), and some form of ecological economics, is
economic growth that reflects or creates a decline in the quality of life and the
cost or decline in well-being associated with extended economic growth is
argued to rise as a result of the “social and environmental” sacrifices made
necessary by that growing encroachment on the eco system.
Social Capital underpins connections within and between social networks. For
the problem of modern society, they tend to share the core ideas “that social
networks have values. Just as a screwdriver (physical capital) or a university
cxlviii
education (human capital) can increase productivity (both individual and
collective of individuals and groups”.
Instructional Capital is explainable in educational administration to reflect
capital resulting from investment in producing learning materials. It can be
used to guide or limit or restrict action by people (individual capital) or
equipment (infrastructural capital). It cannot generally make either individuals
or infrastructures do what they are not trained to do, but it can help prevent
them from doing most stupid, destructive and dangerous things.
International Development allows development to be analyzed on a measure
broader than standard of living. With development theory, however, there are
varying ideas concerning what constitutes desirable change for a particular
society, and the different ways that quality of life defined by institutions
therefore shapes how these organizations work for its improvement as a
whole. Organizations such as the World Bank, for example, declare a goal of
“working for a world free of poverty”, with poverty defined as a lack of basic
human needs, such as food, water, shelter, and freedom, access to education,
healthcare, or employment. In other words, poverty is defined as a low quality
cxlix
of life. Using this definition, the World Bank work towards improving quality of
life through neoliberal means, with the stated goal of lowering poverty and
helping people afford a better quality of life.
Perhaps, the most commonly used international measure of development is
the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of life
expectancy, education, and standard of living, in an attempt to quantify the
options available to individuals within a giving society. This gives the Human
Development theory its strength in measuring socio-economic status of the
people.
3.8 APPLICATION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The analytical utility of the Human Development theory and its relevance in
the explanation of rural life expectancy is amazing. The enormity of social
development challenges are not in doubt, and problems to be tackled by
programmes and projects include, maternal, under-five and infant mortality
cl
rate. Not leaving behind illiteracy and general human misery that characterized
rural areas.
Colonial model of development have left Africa and Nigeria in particular
underdeveloped and the Human Development theory emphasis a paradigm
shift from colonial economic development trusts. As noted by Onah (2006)
since the late 1960s, however, fundamental different approaches to the
processes of development and underdevelopment have emerged. Firstly, the
redefinition of the goals of development has resulted in much greater
emphasis on the non-economic aspects of development, not merely a means
of achieving economic growth but as important objective in themselves. This is
reflected in the much greater attention which individual nations and
international agencies now give to the social, political and environmental
aspects of development and also in recent literatures on development.
Similarly, there is also much more effort to examine the impact of alternative
development policies on social and regional inequalities and to identify specific
polices which reduce such inequalities, particularly those which are directed
towards rural areas and the poorest sectors of the population.
cli
Thus the development model being promoted by UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
in Ebonyi State emphasized human development as it appear to be integrated,
sustainable and directed to the rural areas. This is exactly why UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office is said to focus development efforts on bottom-up approach in
project identification and implementation. We shall therefore focus on UNICEF
Z Field Office one ‘A’ activities in the area of Survival and Early Child Care, Basic
Education and Water, Sanitation & Hygiene.
The expectation is that this development model will be a development
cornerstone at the local level to positively affect the life of the rural populace.
clii
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter dwells on the presentation of data gathered from the field
through our sources of data collection on the contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office to Social Development Programmes in Ebonyi State (2002-2007).
Also it includes analysis in tables, charts, simple percentages and mathematical
representations of data. Finally, it is in this chapter that our hypotheses are
tested and findings from the hypotheses well established.
4.2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
In this sub-section, we concentrated effort on exposing the statistics and other
compositions of our questionnaires. It is further sub-divided into different subsections, viz, A, B(i), B(ii), B(iii) and C.
Table 4.1
Section A: Qualifications of Respondents
No Formal
Education
FSLC
JSSC
WASC/NECCO or
Equivalent
cliii
NCE/OND or
Equivalent
B.SC/HND or
Equivalent
Post
Graduate
Certificate
0
0
0
40
50
230
80
Percentage:
0%
0%
10%
12.5%
57.5%
20%
0%
Source: From Administered Questionnaire, November, 2010.
Figure 4.1
Bar Chart Representation of the Qualifications
of the Respondents.
400
Legend
1
FREQUENCY
300
2
200
3
100
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5
6
7
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
cliv
Figure 4.1 above gives a summary of the bar chart representation of the
qualifications of the respondents where:
Legend 1, which represents 0% of the respondents are without formal
education.
Legend 2, which represents 0% of the respondents are holders of first school
leaving certificate (FSLC).
Legend 3, which also represents 0% of the respondents are holders of junior
secondary school certificate.
Legend 4, which represents 10% of the respondents are holders of
WASC/NECCO or equivalent.
Legend 5, which represents 12.5% of the respondents are holders of NCE/OND
or its equivalent.
Legend 6, which represents 57.5% of the respondents holds B.Sc/HND or
its equivalent.
Legend 7, which represents 20% of the respondents are holders of post
graduate certificates.
From the foregoing analysis, it is clear that the focal concentration of the bar
chart exhibited on figure 4.1 above was to find out the qualifications of the
clv
respondents for the study. It was established that the researcher was dealing
with highly exposed and mature audience that is abreast with UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programmes in Ebonyi State. This is evidenced by the fact that the
researcher was guaranteed dealing with appropriate audience who has
understanding of the subject matter.
clvi
Section B(i) Survival and Early Childcare Programme.
After
Before
Table 4.2
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
268
30
-
-
2
300
2
255
35
6
-
4
300
3
260
30
-
6
4
300
4
264
33
2
1
-
300
5
295
-
2
3
-
300
6
-
2
-
268
30
300
7
-
4
6
255
35
300
8
6
4
-
260
30
300
9
1
-
2
264
33
300
10
3
-
2
295
-
300
1500
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
(A).
The Summary of the responses in table 4.2 Above reveals the following
before the implementation of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Survival and
Early Childcare programme in simple percentages
SA
= 268 + 255 + 260 + 264 + 295 = 1342
X
1500
clvii
1500
100
1
= 89.4%
A
= 30 + 35 + 30 + 33 =
128
X
100
1500
NO
=6+2+2
= 10
X
1500
SD
=6+1+3
= 10
1500
D
=2+4+4
=
10
1500
= 0.7%
100
1
X
= 8.5%
100
1
X
1
= 0.7%
100
1 = 0.7%
The implication of this is that 97.9% of the respondents are of the view that
the implementations of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Survival and Early
Childcare programme have mitigated premature death within the area under
study.
Section B(ii) Basic Education Programme.
Before
Table 4.3
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
261
26
5
4
4
300
2
264
30
2
-
4
300
clviii
1500
After
3
265
29
4
2
-
300
4
265
30
3
1
1
300
5
295
-
1
3
1
300
6
4
4
5
261
26
300
7
-
4
2
264
30
300
8
2
-
4
265
29
300
9
1
1
3
265
30
300
10
3
1
1
295
-
300
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
(B) The summary of the responses in table 4.3 above reveals the following
before the implementation of UBICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Universal Basic
Education programme in simple percentages.
SA
= 261 + 264 + 265 + 265 + 295 = 1350
X
1500
A
= 26 + 30 + 29 + 30 = 115
X
= 5+2+4+3+1 =
15
1 = 90%
100
1500
NO
100
1 = 7.6%
100
X
1500
clix
1
= 1%
SD
=4+2+1+3
=
10
X
100
1500
D
=4+4+1+1
=
10
1500
1
X
= 0.7%
100
1
= 0.7%
This implies that 97.6% of the respondents are of the opinion that the
implementation of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Universal Basic Education
Programme has stimulated early year learning for Children within the study
area.
clx
Table 4.4
Before
Section B(iii): Water, Sanitation And Hygiene programme.
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
257
28
-
5
10
300
2
255
30
10
-
5
300
3
260
30
2
-
8
300
4
255
35
8
-
2
300
5
260
35
-
-
5
300
After
1500
6
5
10
-
257
28
300
7
-
5
10
255
30
300
8
-
8
2
260
30
300
9
-
2
8
255
35
300
10
-
5
-
260
35
300
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
(C) The Summary of the responses in table 4.4 above reveals the following
before the implementation of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene programme in simple percentages.
1500
SA
= 257 + 255 +260 + 255 + 260 = 1287
1500
clxi
X
100
1 = 85.8%
A
NO
= 28 + 30 + 30 + 35 + 35 = 158
= 10 + 2 + 8 =
20
X
=5
=
5
1
= 10 + 5 + 8 + 2 + 5 =
= 10.6%
1
= 1.3%
100
100
X
1500
D
100
1500
1500
SD
X
1
30
= 0.3%
X
100
1500
1
= 2%
This has x-rayed the fact that 96.4% of the respondents are of the view that
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation and Hygiene programme has
reduced water bone diseases and increased the level of hygiene of recipients
within the study area.
Table 4.5
Section C: Operations Schedules
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
-
9
7
53
31
100
2
56
37
7
-
-
100
clxii
3
-
4
6
71
19
100
4
18
78
4
-
-
100
5
79
16
5
-
-
100
6
72
21
7
-
-
100
7
-
9
7
31
53
100
8
71
29
-
-
-
100
9
73
27
-
-
-
100
10
32
56
12
-
-
100
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
(D) The Summary of table 4.5 above show the percentage representation of
responses on operations of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programmes.
In question one, 53 respondents strongly disagreed, 31 respondents disagreed,
9 respondents agreed, 7 respondents had no opinion while no respondent
strongly agree on whether there have been regular and timely release of
government counterpart cash contribution (GCCC). From the above, it is clear
that 84 respondents, representing 84% of the respondents are of the opinion
that government has not been sincere with the release of their own part of the
clxiii
programme cash. The implication of this is that there were some uncompleted
programmes.
In question two, 56 respondents strongly agreed, 37 respondents agreed, 7
respondents had no opinion, no respondent either strongly agree or disagree
on whether government use to return unused programme funds, supplies,
equipment and other materials back to UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office at the end
of each programme cycle. This means that 93 respondents representing 93%
of the respondents agreed that government use to retire unused fund to
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office. By implication, government duly account for fund
received from UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office.
In question three, 71 respondents strongly disagree, 19 respondents disagreed,
4 respondents agreed, 6 respondents had no opinion while no respondent
strongly agree that government sometimes fail to collect all UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office donated supplies and equipment within three (3) weeks of
notification. Further analysis show that 90 respondents representing 90% of
the respondents disagreed that government sometimes fails to collect all
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office donated supplies and equipment within three (3)
clxiv
weeks of notification. For the purposes of clarity, if UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field
Office notifies a state to come and take delivery of their supplies and
equipment and the state fails to take delivery of those supplies and equipment
within three (3) weeks, UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office withdraws such supplies
and donated to another state. The responses here imply that Ebonyi state
government always takes delivery of their supplies and equipment from
UNICEF Zone ’A’ Field Office.
In question Four, 18 respondents strongly agreed, 78 respondents agreed, 4
respondents had no opinion while no respondent either strongly disagree or
disagree that government duly retires cash advances within (2) months of
collection of cheques or the date of transfer of fund from UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office. This means that 96 respondents representing 96% of the
respondents agreed that government use to retire cash advances within two
(2) months of cash advancement or the date of transfer of fund from UNICEF
Zone ‘A’ Field Office. This again buttresses accountability on the part of
government to UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office.
In question five, 79 respondents strongly agreed, 16 respondents agreed, 5
respondents had no opinion while no respondent either strongly disagree or
clxv
disagree that there is always incessant transfer of trained key operation staff.
This means that 95 respondents, representing 95% of the respondents are of
the view that trained key operation staff are always transferred from one
department/office to another incessantly. The implication is that the staff will
not specialize in their work.
In question six, on whether there use to be proper programme performance
monitoring mechanisms, 72 respondents strongly agreed, 21 respondents
agreed, 7 respondents had no opinion while no respondent either strongly
disagree or disagree. This shows that 93 respondents representing 93% of the
respondents agreed that there use to be proper programme monitoring
mechanisms. This implies that programmes are always supervised to meet
expectations.
Responses to question seven reveals that 31 respondents strongly disagreed,
53 respondents disagreed, 9 respondents agreed, 7 respondents had no
opinion, while no respondent strongly agree that programme fund, supplies,
equipment and other materials do not reach target population due to activities
of political office holders. As a result, 84 respondents representing 84% of the
clxvi
respondents disagreed that political office holder use to divert programme
fund, supplies, equipment and other materials from UNICEF Z Field Office one
‘A’ .
Question eight sorts to know whether the rural dwellers use to be happy and
participate when programmes are carried out in their communities. 71
respondents strongly agreed, 29 respondents agreed. No respondent either
had any opinion, strongly disagree or disagree. This signify that the whole 100
respondents, representing 100% of the respondents are of the opinion that
rural dwellers like UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programmes and use to be part
of programme implementation. This makes it clear that Ebonyians appreciate
the contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to social development in
Ebonyi state.
In question Nine, 73 respondents strongly agreed, 27 respondents agreed
while no respondent either strongly agree, disagree or had no opinion on
whether UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office use to carry out baseline survey before
programme implementation. From this, it is clear that 100 respondents
representing 100% of the respondents agreed that UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
clxvii
use to carry out baseline survey to know the actual need of the people before
programme implementation. This shows that the programmes UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office carry out have direct positive bearing to the social needs of the
people.
Lastly, responses to question ten reveal that 32 respondents strongly agreed
56 respondents agreed, 12 respondents had no opinion while no respondent
either strongly disagree or disagree that the goals set out in the programme
implementation agreement (PIA) between Ebonyi State government and
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office was about 80% realized at the end of the
programme cycle. By implication, 88 respondents representing 88% of the
respondents are of the view that, at the end of the 2002-2007 programme
cycle, the goals set out in the programme implementation agreement (PIA)
was realized to about 80%.
In summation, the responses of the respondents to programme operation
schedule questions have x-rayed the fact that operational mechanisms of
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to programme implementations in Ebonyi State is
effective and efficient and improved the social conditions of Ebonyi people.
clxviii
4.3
DATA ANALYSIS
In this sub-section, data gathered through records, observation and personal
interviews with Operators/Field Officers and stakeholders in the programme
will be analyzed along the following indicators:- Health, Education and
Sanitation.
(A) Health Indications:
Table 4.6
LGA HEALTH PROFILE 2002 – OCTOBER 2007
LGA
Ikwo
Names of H or C or
PHC
Services Available
Infant
mortality
rate (per
1,000 live
births)
Under-five
mortality
rate (per
1,000 live
births)
Maternal
mortality
rate (per
1,000 live
births)
Routine immunization
coverage
1. Gen. Hosp. Igboji
2. Agubia Cottage
a. Tuberculosis: 64%
1. Immunization
health centre.
clxix
3. Echara Health
2. MCH
b. DPT: 46%
Centre
3. General
No data
No data
No data
c. Polio: 48%
4. Ebem Health
antenatal
d. Measles 79%
Centre
services
5. Odomowo Health
Centre
6. Noyo Health
Centre
7. Ndufu/Umuota
Hospital
Ohaukwu
1. Ezzamgbo Gen.
Hosp.
1. Immunization
a. Tuberculosis:
2. MCH
b. DPT: 48%
No data
2. PHC Centres (45)
52%
No data
No data
3. General
c. Polio: 53%
antenatal
d. Measles 22%
services
Ivo
1. Ivo General Hosp
1. Immunization
2. PHC Centres (14)
2. MCH
a. Tuberculosis:
b. DPT: 87%
No data
3. General
No data
No data
c. Polio: 89%
antenatal
d. Measles 72%
services
Source: UNICEF Field ‘A’ Office, Enugu.
Table 4.7
clxx
93%
LGA HIV Sero- Prevalence Rate (ANC Attendances) in %
LGA
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007/8
IKWO
9.0
6.1
4.8
4.0
2.6
OHAUKWO
8.0
5.7
4.7
3.8
2.1
IVO
9.3
6.3
5.0
4.4
2.8
Source: Ebonyi State Action Committee on Aids (EBOSACA).
Immunization is one of the programmes for the reduction of infant, under – 5
and material mortality and morbidity rate. According to table 2.2 above,
immunization coverage in 2001 was BCG-32%, POV3-34%, DPT3, 36%, measles34%, TT2-16% but table 4.6 above has shown a significant improvements in
this areas as at October 2007. These improvements are made possible as a
result of the provisions of assistances to these health centres by UNICEF in the
areas of provisions of drugs, water, and sanitation and hygiene facilities. The
picture below gives a vivid illustration of women and children on routine
immunization and post natal care.
clxxi
Picture 4.1
Ikwo Women and Children on Routine Immunization
and
Post-
Natal
Care
(2004)
clxxii
Source: Health Department, Ikwo L.G.A.
Table 4.7 above exposes us to the fact that Hiv sero-prevalent rate which had
an average of 8.7% in the three focal L.G.A in 1999 reduced to an average of
2.5% in 2007/8.
There are two thematic areas of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office intervention as it
concerns HIV prevention. These are Reproductive Programmes where
expectant mothers are educated on ways to prevent mother to child
transfusion, and Peer Education Programme. This is where NYSC members are
selected trained on HIV safety during orientation camping and mandated to
educate the wider society on HIV prevention techniques.
(B) Education Indicators.
clxxiii
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Allocation of Instructional Materials to Child
Friendly Schools and CD Schools in Ebonyi State
Between 2002 – 2007
Table 4.8
S/N
DESCRIPTION OF ITEMS
QUANTITY
1.
Dual Desks
2,017
2.
Verbal Reasoning Book 1
1,000
3.
Verbal Reasoning Book 2
1,000
4.
Verbal Reasoning Book 3
1,000
5.
Verbal Reasoning Book 4
1,000
6.
Verbal Reasoning Book 5
1,000
7.
Quantitative Reasoning Book 1
1,000
8.
Quantitative Reasoning Book 2
1,000
9.
Quantitative Reasoning Book 3
1,000
10.
Quantitative Reasoning Book 4
1,000
clxxiv
11.
Quantitative Reasoning Book 5
12.
Social studies Book 1
950
13.
Social studies Book 2
950
14.
Social studies Book 3
950
15.
Social studies Book 4
950
16.
Foundation Primary School Book 1
855
17.
Foundation Primary School Book 2
855
18.
Foundation Primary School Book 3
855
19.
Foundation Primary Teacher Guide 1
300
20.
Foundation Primary Teacher Guide 2
300
21.
Foundation Primary Teacher Guide 3
300
22.
Aids to Spelling 1
370
23.
Aids to Spelling 2
370
24.
Aids to Spelling 3
370
clxxv
1,000
25.
New Method Dictionary (Michael West)
200
26.
Assorted Colour Cardboard Paper
700
27.
Assorted Colour Chalk (Packs)
862
28.
Puppet Hand
630
29.
Wooden Beads
400
30.
Cubic meas 034 CBM
400
31.
Glue, Classroom Use
4,550
32.
Paint, Posters
4,300
33.
Crayon Wax
36,500
34.
Stainless Scissors
150
35.
60 Designing Butterfly Machine with Stand
100
36.
Weaving Machine with Small Motor with Stand
50
37.
Butterfly Measuring Tape
250
38.
Wheel Barrow 85 litres
150
clxxvi
39.
Rake 13 – 15 Length
250
40.
Hoe
400
41.
Cutlass
500
42.
Kidney dish
100
43.
Chrome Friend Black board
50
44.
Wooden Abacus
30
45.
Child Right Bags
1,000
46.
SAT National Report
50
47.
C.R.K. Teachers Manual
200
48.
Child Protection in Nigeria
100
49.
C.R.K. Workbook for JSS
15,000
50.
ABC of Children’s Right
1,000
51.
CRC Booklets
1,700
52.
OAU Charter on Child Right
1,500
clxxvii
53.
Craw Brochure
1,650
54.
Nigeria the right of the Child
1,500
55.
Child right in Cartoon
15,000
56.
First Aid Kits
50
57.
Dust bin
300
58.
Teachers table
1,000
Source: UBEB. Ebonyi State.
Table 4.8 above shows the UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office allocation of
instructional materials to Child Friendly schools and CD schools in Ebonyi State.
Provisions are also made of Supplementary Readers, instructional materials
like numerous literature books etc. The philosophy behind these provisions is
that “for teachers to teach effectively and efficiently, they need sits, tables and
other manuals”. In the same vein, “for children to learn effectively, they need
instructional materials and sits to sit comfortably as against previous scenario
of sitting on storms and stones”. Also UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office provides
recreational facilities like swings, Janglovers, merry-go-rounds, valley balls
nets, football etc to all these schools.
clxxviii
Besides their programmes to formal education, UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
also carryout basic education programme within the non-formal sector. The
non Formal School Programme is created for out of school children who for
one reason or the other could not finish their schooling rather engaged
themselves in one trade or the other. But this programme affords them the
opportunity to attend evening schools after their daily work.
As documented earlier, according to Igidi et al, 2006:7, Ebonyi State was
backwards educationally, e.g. by 1997 the whole state of 13 L.G.As had only
539 primary school that were poorly equipped poorly maintained and poorly
staffed. There were only 85 secondary schools in the same condition as the
primary school.
FOCAL L.G.As School Profile 2002 - October 2007.
Table 4.9
Indicators
Ikwo
clxxix
Ohaukwu
Ivo
No. of primary schools
No. of secondary schools
81
90
42
18
21
8
Source: UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, Enugu.
Table 4.9 above shows an improvement in this area where only three (3) L.G.A
in the state now have 213 primary schools with enrollments greater than what
they used to be. These are partly due to the Children Friendly Schools Initiative
(CFSI) established by UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office. In this CFSI, children were
sitting on stumps and stones before the contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field
Office in the area of instructional materials that now boast school enrollment
and make children to sit comfortably as picture 4.2 below reveals a befitting
school classroom block.
School pupil of CPS Okue (2004)
Picture 4.2
clxxx
Source: Ebonyi State UBEB.
Our interview sources revealed that the UNICEF programme of Child Friendly
School Initiative came up as an intervention strategy to remedy the 1992 SAPA
and the 1997 MLA reports on the state of basic education in Nigeria. The two
independent reports revealed that basic education was indeed in a sorry state in
Nigeria and needed urgent remedy.
Five (5) Child Friendly Schools were created in the three focal L.G.As in
response to the report to make learning environment conducive. The staff are
trained to be friendly, the children and the health and safety needs of pupils are
clxxxi
adequately met, while instructional materials are provided. This reflected into
progresses recorded in the net primary school enrolment as shown on table 4.10
below.
Statistics of Primary School Pupils Enrollment
by Focal LGA 2001-2007
Table 4.10
Focal
Sex/Total
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Boys
25051
24060
25855
25429
26106
25381
25341
Girls
25245
24413
26796
26717
26960
26105
26751
Total
50296
48473
52651
52146
53066
51486
52092
Boys
7792
9289
7884
8093
7817
7243
8544
Girls
7593
9372
7461
7354
8035
7042
8316
Total
15385
18661
15345
15447
15052
14285
16860
Boys
22913
22913
24777
25489
25327
28167
26444
OHAUK
Girls
23563
23573
25374
27119
26349
32164
27420
WU
Total
46476
46486
50151
52608
51676
60331
53864
LGAs
IKWO
IVO
Source: Ebonyi State UBEB.
In 2003, UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office conducted a study on the cause of girls
drop out from school in Ebonyi state, it was discovered that the reason for
clxxxii
dropout of school is the non-integration of vocational skills development in the
curriculum of the formal school system. These girls prefer to drop out and enroll
in the road side vocational skills centre rather than spending six years in school,
of which at the end, they have nothing to fall back on to earn a living. The Age I
programme was then introduced to take care of the vocational skill development
needs of these girls. They are trained on bakery, sewing, soap making etc see
picture 4.3 below.
Pupil of CPS Ndufu Igbudu on Vocational Workshop (2005)
Picture 4.3
Source: Ebonyi State UBEB.
In implementing the CFS initiative, UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office employed
the following strategies; Service Delivery, Capacity Building, Advocacy, and
clxxxiii
Sensitization. In addition to the already existing administrative structures in
these schools such as P.T.A Head teachers, monitors etc, UNICEF Zone „A‟
Field Office introduced another concept/structure known as Mothers‟ Club. The
Mothers‟ Club eventually turned out to be pillar, the engine or the hub of the
implementation, they assisted in mobilization of resources for the school and
have always embarked on enrolment campaigns in local churches, market
places, during their August general meeting and out lined sanctions for women
who allowed their children to be taken away from the village before the child
completes his/her basic education.
Our interview also revealed that, because of the improved teaching methods in
these Child Friendly Schools, community primary school Ndufu Igbudu in Ikwo
L.G.A which is one of the schools that is Child Friendly represented the south
east zone in a national competition which was held in April 2008, the pupil won
second position. First position in Ebonyi State organized competition and third
position in competition organized by code of conduct Bureau.
These CFSI established by UNICEF have performed creditably in both state and
national examinations.
(c) Sanitation Indicators:
clxxxiv
Tables 4.11, table 4.12 and table 4.13 below shows the contribution of UNICEF
Zone „A‟ Field Office in the area of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in the three
(3) focal LGAs. UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office established environmental
health clubs in these schools, made up of teachers and scholars with the
following responsibilities.
 Educate fellow teachers and scholars on the need and ways of keeping
school premises clean.
 Educate fellow teachers and scholars on sanitation and hygiene especially on
the benefit of hand washing, toilet washing, and keeping school uniform
clean etc.
 Ensure that sanitation and hygiene facilities put in place by UNICEF Zone
“A” Field Office are adequately utilized and maintained. Some people and
interest groups are also trained on hygiene promotion to replicate the
responsibilities of school environmental health clubs in the wider society as
shown in the tables below.
clxxxv
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene Programme
Ohaukwu LGA
Table 4.11
S/N
INDICATOR
1
Sanitation/Hygiene
promotion
No of schools with
environmental
health
clubs
No of schools with
functional environmental
health clubs
No of household with
sanitary latrines
No of schools with
sanitary latrines
No of schools with hand
washing facilities
No of people trained on
hygiene promotion
Water supply
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
No
of
Boreholes
successfully drilled
No of boreholes installed
with hand pump.
No of boreholes
functional
No of Protected hand
dug wells constructed
No of hand dug wells
functional
No of other water
sources developed/
protected
OGWUDU ANO
COMMUNITY
2002-2007
AchieveTarget
ment
5
5
EJILEWE
COMMUNITY
2002-2007
AchieveTarget
ment
1
1
5
2
1
1
1651
130
326
200
5
5
1
1
5
5
1
1
30
30
60
60
Nil
Nil
9
9
Nil
Nil
9
9
Nil
Nil
9
9
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
150
100
Nil
Nil
Source: WASH department Ohaukwwu LGA.
clxxxvi
As shown in table 4.11 above, no boreholes were constructed in Ogwudu Ano
community in Ohaukwu LGA. Interview report revealed that the ugly situation is a
result of the geological problems of these communities. It will be impossible to get
water in these areas even if one drill 500m below sea level in these areas. If at all
water surfaces, it will not be in good quantity and quality. In place of bore-holes,
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office introduced the use of Rain Water Harvester Tanks
as an intervention strategy to all the communities with geological difficulties. Over
5,000 tanks are constructed in different households of these communities to store
water during rainy season and to be used throughout dry season.
Picture 4.4 below shows the process of sinking one of the boreholes at Ejilewe
Community in Ohaukwu L.G.A.
clxxxvii
Installation of Borehole at Ejilewe Community (2006)
Picture 4.4
Source: WASH Department Ohaukwu LGA.
clxxxviii
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene Programme Ivo LGA
Table 4.12
S/N
INDICATOR
1
Sanitation/Hygiene
promotion
No
of
schools
with
environmental health clubs
No of schools with functional
environmental health clubs
No of household with
sanitary latrines
No of schools with sanitary
latrines
No of schools with hand
washing facilities
No of people trained on
hygiene promotion
Water supply
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
INIOGU
COMMUNITY
2002-2007 Achieve
Target
-ment
2
2
OKUE COMMUNITY
2002-2007
Target
1
Achievement
1
2
2
2
2
500
120
500
132
3
3
4
4
3
3
4
4
170
170
170
170
No of Boreholes successfully
drilled
No of boreholes installed
with hand.
No of boreholes functional
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
No of Protected hand dug
wells constructed
No of hand dug wells
functional
No of other water sources
developed/protected
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
150
112
150
120
Source: WASH department Ivo LGA.
Table 4.12 above, revealed that no boreholes were also constructed in the whole of
Ivo LGA comprising the two focal communities of Iniogu and Okwue as a result of
the same geological challenges experienced in Ohaukwu LGA. The same Rain
clxxxix
Water Harvester Tank UNICEF introduced in Ohaukwu was also introduced in Ivo
LGA.
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programme
Ikwo LGA
Table 4.13
S/N
INDICATOR
1
Sanitation/Hygiene
promotion
No of schools with
environmental health
clubs
No of schools with
functional
environmental health
clubs
No of household with
sanitary latrines
No of schools with
sanitary latrines
No of schools with
hand washing facilities
No of people trained on
hygiene promotion
Water supply
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
No
of
Boreholes
successfully drilled
No
of
boreholes
installed with hand.
No
of
boreholes
functional
No of Protected hand
dug wells constructed
No of hand dug wells
functional
No of other water
sources
developed/protected
NDIEGU
COMMUNITY
2002-2007
AchieveTarget
ment
1
1
NOYO COMMUNITY
2002-2007
Target
2
Achievement
2
1
1
2
2
500
43
500
193
2
2
4
4
2
2
4
4
91
91
180
180
1
1
5
5
1
1
5
5
1
1
4
4
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Source: WASH department Ikwo LGA.
cxc
Unlike Ohaukwu and Ivo LGAs, the situation is different in Ikwo LGA as table
4.13 above revealed that the geological condition of the LGA enabled the
introduction of boreholes in the area.
Our interview instrument further revealed that the value system of rural dwellers is
such that they value water more than sanitation facilities. They wouldn‟t want to
give complete support to programmes other than water programmes. As a result,
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office introduced SAN PLAT Special Toilet in which
fabrication of slabs are made for the purposes of constructing special house hold
toilets as shown in the picture below.
Picture 4.5
SAN PLAT Special Toilet Construction (2006)
Source: WASH department, Ohaukwu LGA.
cxci
These toilets have special features like drop holes, vent holes and exporting
pedestals. The advantage is that flies do not survive inside it.
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office also introduced CLTS Programme –
Community Led Total Sanitation programme. In this programme, the
communities are made to take decision on the type of toilet they can afford to
construct using local materials. They mostly choose the up-graded traditional
pit-laterine-where bamboo is used as a vent pipe instead of the normal PVC.
Aside all these, UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office construct VIP toilets in schools
markets, play grounds etc. Picture 4.6 below is one of the toilets constructed by
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office.
VIP Toilet at Ugwudu Ano Community (2003)
Picture 4.6
cxcii
Source: WASH department Ohaukwu LGA.
4.4 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
Our task in this sub-section is to quantitatively test our hypotheses. This will be
made possible using “Chi-Square Test” as a statistical tool to analyze the data
we derived from the questionnaires administered to our respondents, viz,
Chi- Square Test for Hypothesis 1
Section B(i) Survival and Early Childcare Programme
After
Before
Table 4.2
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
268
30
-
-
2
300
2
255
35
6
-
4
300
3
260
30
-
6
4
300
4
264
33
2
1
-
300
5
295
-
2
3
-
300
6
-
2
-
268
30
300
7
-
4
6
255
35
300
8
6
4
-
260
30
9
1
-
2
264
33
300
10
3
-
2
295
-
300
1500
300
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
cxciii
1500
Periods
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
Before
1342
128
10
10
10
1500
After
10
10
10
1342
128
1500
Chi-Square Value ( (  2)
Df
P-Value
2.826.103
4
0.000
(Full calculations on appendix III)
The questionnaire stresses on two distinct periods – the material conditions of
the people before and after the implementation of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Fileld
Office programmes. from the calculation, the  2 value at  = 0.05 is 2.826.10
and (P < 0.05). The test is therefore significant. It also show that the responses
of the respondents are dependent on the periods. It then follow that there is a
significat difference in the life of people living in rural communities of Ebonyi
State after the introduction of this UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programme.
Thus, hypothesis one, that “The UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office estblished
survival and Early Childcare programme in Ebonyi State tends to mitigate high
mortality and morbidity rate in rural communities” is accepted.
cxciv
cxcv
Chi- Square Test for Hypothesis 2
Section B(ii) Basic Education Programme.
After
Before
Table 4.3
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
261
26
5
4
4
300
2
264
30
2
-
4
300
3
265
29
4
2
-
300
4
265
30
3
1
1
300
5
295
-
1
3
1
300
6
4
4
5
261
26
300
7
-
4
2
264
30
300
8
2
-
4
265
29
300
9
1
1
3
265
30
300
10
3
1
1
295
-
300
1500
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
Periods
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
Before
1350
115
15
10
10
1500
After
10
10
15
1350
115
1500
cxcvi
1500
Chi-Square Value ( (  2)
Df
P-Value
2.817.103
4
0.000
(Full calculations on appendix III)
Here the  2 value at α = 0.05 is 2.817.10 and (P < 0.05). It is also concluded
that the responses are dependent on the periods. Since that is so, it then means
that there is a significant differene in the education status of Ebonyi State
children in the rural areas after the introduction of Universal Basic Education
programme. Therfore, hypothesis two, that “The UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field
Office assisted Universal Basic Education programme stimulates early year
learning for children” is accepted.
Chi- Square Test for Hypothesis 3
Table 4.4
Before
Section B(iii): Water, Sanitation And Hygiene programme.
Question
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
1
257
28
-
5
10
300
2
255
30
10
-
5
300
3
260
30
2
-
8
300
4
255
35
8
-
2
300
5
260
35
-
-
5
300
1500
cxcvii
After
6
5
10
-
257
28
300
7
-
5
10
255
30
300
8
-
8
2
260
30
300
9
-
2
8
255
35
300
10
-
5
-
260
35
300
Source: From Administered Questionnaire November, 2010.
Periods
SA
A
NO
SD
D
Total
Before
1287
158
20
5
30
1500
After
5
30
20
1287
158
1500
Chi-Square Value  2
2.718.103
Df P-Value
4
0.000
(Full calculations on appendix III)
Again, the  2 value at α = 0.05 is 2.718.10 and (P < 0.05). Here too, the test is
concluded to be significant and the responses also dependent on the periods.
This become a pointer that there is a significant difference in the disease and
hygiene conditions of rural dwellers in Ebonyi State after the implementation of
the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office Water, Sanitation and Hygiene programme.
Thus, hypothesis three, that “The UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office Water,
cxcviii
Sanitation and Hygiene programme has reduced water–borne diseases and
increased the level of hygiene among the people of Ebonyi State” is accepted.
4.5 FINDINGS
After a careful statistical tests of our hypotheses, the following findings were
made.
1. It was found that the UNICEF zone „A‟ established Survival And Early
Childcare programme is responsible for the reduction of
the rate of
mortality and morbility in rural communities of Ebonyi State. Available
records in the health departments of the three focal LGAs show the
following mortality and morbidity trend:
Maternal Mortality and Morbidity Mornitoring
From The Focal LGAs (2001,2002,2007)
Table 4.14
Focal LGAs
Year
No. of
Deliveries
No. of
deaths
(Maternal)
No. & type of
morbidity
(injuries due
to child
birth)
Total No.
of ANC
Attendance
No. of Infant
& Neo-natal
deaths
2001
244
5
-
612
5
2002
291
3
-
601
3
2007
300
2
-
650
1
2001
232
4
-
511
6
2002
230
3
-
509
4
2007
280
2
-
606
2
2001
199
3
-
321
4
IKWO
OHAUKWU
cxcix
IVO
2002
201
2
-
460
3
2007
215
1
-
490
2
Source: Health Offices of the three Focal LGAs
Table 4.14 above shows that number of infant and neo-natal death in Ikwo,
Ohaukwu and Ivo in 2001 which was a period before the first UNICEF
zone „A‟ programme cycle was 5, 6 and 4, but it became 1, 2 and 2 in
2007 (the end of the first UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programme
cycle), while maternal death in 2001 was 5, 4, and 3 but became 2, 2, and 1
in 2007 respectively. This gives a total of 15 infant and neo-natal death in
2001 and 5 in 2007, while maternal death was 12 in 2001 and 5 in 2007 in
the three (3) focal LGAs combined.
However, interview sources reveal that numerous child deliveries, infant,
under five and maternal mortalities and morbidities occur outside health
facilities within the focal LGAs, as a result, such information was not
reported for accurate data management.
2.
It was also established that the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office assisted
Universal Basic Education programme has made it possible for children to
commence learning from their early age thereby increasing net primary
school enrolment. Table 4.10 reveals that in 2001 prior to the introduction
of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programme, net primary school
cc
enrollment in the three focal LGAs via Ikwo, Ivo, Ohaukwu were 50296,
15385, 46476, while it became 52092, 16860, 53864 in 2007 respectively
at the end of the first UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programme cycle in
Ebonyi state.
3. The finding also reveal that guinea worm and related water born diseases in
Ebonyi State has reduced to the barrest mininum as a result of the
implementation of the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene programme. Also from the hypothesis, the level of personal
hygiene among Ebonyi people has incressed. The guinea worm cases in
Ikwo and Ohaukwu was 34 and 25 in 2001 respectively but became zero in
2007. While Ivo has never recorded any case of guinea worm scourge. See
table 4.15 below:
Guinea Worm Cases in 2001, 2002, 2007 in the Focal LGAs
Table 4.15
LGA
2001
2002
2007
IKWO
34
27
0
IVO
0
0
0
OHAUKWU
25
20
0
Source: NIGEP, Ebonyi state.
cci
ccii
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Undoubtedly, the health situations in rural communities of Ebonyi State prior
to 2002 was such that availability and accessibility to quality healthcare
services was poor and in most cases non-existent.
This made rural communities in Ebonyi State fertile for UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Office
Field
interventions. As a result, Ebonyi state has recorded account of the
contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to social development programmes.
Therefore, the following forms the basis of the findings of this research
endevour. These findings are as follows:
1. Successes recorded in routine immunization coverage, pre-natal, antenatal and post natal services and vigourous HIV awareness programmes
of the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office have drastically reduced the high
rate of infant, under-five mortality and maternal morbidity rates of rural
drivellers in rural communities of Ebonyi State from a total of 15 infant
and neo-natal death in 2001 to 5 in 2007, while maternal death was 12 in
cciii
2001 and 5 in 2007 in the three (3) focal LGAs combined. (records
available in health facilities).
2. There is drastic increase in net primary school enrollment from 112157 to
122816 in 2001 and 2007 (Ebonyi UBEB) respectively, in the three focal
LGAs combined and ultimately showcased reduction in the rate of school
drop-out. This is a result of the establishment of Child Friendly Schools
Initiative (CFSI) and AGE 1 programmes by UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field
Office – where conducive learning environments are provided, teachers
being friendly with the pupil. Health and safety as well as adequate
instructional materials are provided, coupled with the Vocational
Training Scheme.
3. Presently, in rural communities of Ebonyi State, there are zero cases of
guinea worn scourge. Other diseases associated with sanitations and
hygiene like diarrhea cases has reduced as a result of accessibility to safe
water sources made by UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office water, sanitation
and hygiene programmes.
4. There is a very poor data management practice as regards to mortality and
maternal morbidity rates in the state. It is therefore very difficult to know
the present and exact rates of mortality and morbidity in terms of MNCH.
cciv
This is particularly so as many of these occur unnoticed outside health
facilities.
5. It was also found that there are incessant transfers of trained key
operational staff along political cleavages. Officers that have connections
to politicians are posted to the so called “juicy” departments even when
they lack in-dept knowledge of operations of such department, for
example, many desk officers to UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office
programmes are removed and replaced with relatives who have residual
knowledge of objectives/operations of UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office, as
soon as new commissioners/general managers are appointed.
5.2
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
In this sub-section, the findings made from the study are discussed by their
subject matter, thus:
A. The Impact of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Programmes on Mortality
and Maternal Morbidity Rates in Rural Communities
The first major finding of this study is that successes recorded in routine
immunization coverage, pre-natal, ante-natal and post natal services and
vigourous HIV awareness programme by UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office has
ccv
drastically reduced the high infant, under five mortality and maternal morbidity
rates in rural communities of Ebonyi State.
This finding intertwined with the concept of “quality of life” as one of the
mechanisms of Human Development theory where general well-being of
individuals and the society is paramount, with the context of healthcare,
recreation, leisure time and social belonging. This is in tandem with UNICEF
(2000), that “the day will come when nations will be judged neither by their
military or economic strength nor by the splendor of their capital cities or public
buildings, but by the well-being of their people”. The theory also converses
freedom, human right, politics and happiness. UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office
survival and early childcare programme where mothers are exposed to pre, ante,
and post natal health care gives them hope of survival before, during and after
birth. In the same
vein, routine immunization against polio, measles,
tuberculosis etc which are given to Ebonyi children has given them the right to
life, pursuant to the UN convention on the rights of the children adopted by the
UN General Assembly on the 20th of November, 1989; in order to improve the
quality of life of children world-wide, enhance their dignity, protect their
inalienable rights and ultimately mobilize and focus global attention on their
physical, mental, moral and spiritual development. This also caught the fancy of
Onah (2006:30), when he segregated the objectives of social development to
include: promotion of social, economic, legal and political status of women in
ccvi
developing countries and to promote human development, including better
education and health and children by choice. He (Onah) finally advised that, “in
helping people meet their social development objectives, we need to look at
what is happening within the society – to understand social reality so that, for
example, planned provision of services and infrastructure actually correspond to
people‟s own needs and situation. This is exactly why UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field
Office survival and early childcare programme rightly corresponded with the
needs of rural dwellers in Ebonyi state. With the above analysis, the evidence
shown on table 4.2 and the statistical computation done on the values of this
table using our “Chi-Square Test”, including the analysis of data gathered
through records, observation and interviews assert that UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field
Office survival and Early Childcare programme has militated against high
infant, under five and material mortality and morbidity rates in the programme
areas in Ebonyi State.
B. UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Programmes and its Effects on Early
Year Learning for Children in Rural Communities
The second finding is that the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office assisted
Universal Basic Education programme has made it possible for children to
commence learning from their early age. This reflects another right of the child
which has it that, children (male and female) is entitled to free and compulsory
ccvii
basic education; and equal opportunity for higher education, based on their
individual ability. The purpose of education is to prepare the child for a
responsible life in the society. This means that education is to give us the skills
to cope with life as adults outside the home, so that we can be productive
members of the society. Our theory is inundated on this, when it seek not only
to measure but to optimize well-being by some explicit modeling of how social
capital and instructional capital can be deployed to optimize the over all value
of human capital in an economy. In respect to this, Okoli and Onah (2002:129)
maintained that development goes beyond economic and social indicators to
include the improvement of human resources and positive changes in their
behavior. Development for them (Okoli and Onah) include good education,
among others.
United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2001:6) stated that for
development to be feasible, society must be committed to the pursuance of the
three core values of life, namely life – sustenance, self esteem and freedom. To
promote freedom, the three evils of want (hunger), ignorance (illiteracy) and
squalor (filth) must be over come. Human Development theory refuses to shift
position on its resolve that instructional capital connotes capital resulting from
investment in producing learning materials. This is in relation to the effort of
UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office on improving enrolment, retention, and
ccviii
completion rate through provisions of instructional materials to rural schools in
the state.
Evidently, the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office established Age 1 programme
reduced girls and boys drop out rate while the Child Friendly School Initiative
(CFSI) goes a long way in ensuring increase in primary school enrolment since
the programme seek to make teachers and pupils friends and informal, than
keeping them in a formal seething. Penny (2005: 238) strongly supports this
position when he outlined chart of stages and sequences of emotional and social
development. According to him, “Early years practitioners have an important
role in providing activities that help children socialize together and learn skills
of co-operation and negotiation”. He also insisted that between 6-8 years of age,
children passionately need the following:
 Love and affection
 Security and stability
 Opportunity to socialize
Added to the above analysis, are evidence as shown on table 4.3 and the result
of the statistical computation done on the values of this table using our „ChiSquare Test‟. Also analysis of data gathered through records, observation and
interviews all hinging on early year learning for children.
It therefore, implies that there is over whelming evidence as it is shown above
on the fact that the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office assisted Universal Basic
ccix
Education programme has stimulated early-year learning for children in the
programme areas in Ebonyi state.
C. The Role of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office Programmes in Reduction of
Water-borne Diseases and Increased Personal Hygiene among Rural
Dwellers
Another major finding of this research work is that guinea worm and related
water borne diseases in Ebonyi state has reduced to the barest minimum, just as
the level of personal hygiene among Ebonyi people has increased.
The finding hinged on the well-being of the people which is exactly the
underpinning factor of the theory of Human Development. The theory stresses
on the quality of life of the people in international development as one of the
mechanisms of the theory. The theory exposed that the different ways quality of
life is defined by international institutions shape how these organizations work
for mankind, for example, World bank declared a goal of working for a world
free of poverty – which according to her, is lack of basic needs such as food,
water, shelter, freedom, access to education, healthcare, or employment. This
concept of international development perhaps informed UNICEF Zone „A‟
Field Office believes that:
Lack of access to basic sanitation facilities, coupled with poor
hygiene practices causes diarrhea. Diarrhea is the 2nd largest
direct cause of childhood mortality and morbidity in Nigeria
ccx
and is a major contributing factor to diseases like malnutrition.
The lack of safe private toilets and hand washing facilities in
schools
affects
education
enrolment,
retention
and
performance. Girls are particularly affected and poor
sanitation is a contributing factor in Nigeria‟s low girl
enrolment rate (7 percent point behind boys)
(UNICEF, 2001)
Through the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office programmes, people are trained on
hygiene promotion, schools are provided with hand washing facilities, and
boreholes are drilled for access to safe water sources. In places where drilling of
boreholes are not feasible, rain water harvester tanks are provided. Also in these
programmes, there is the provision of acceptable technologies which includes
upgraded traditional pit latrines, san plat latrines, VIP toilets etc. This provision
of sanitation facilities especially water in schools and villages is a situation
corroborated by Ted (2002:232) who asserts that the number of water point per
1000 population is a better guide to the level of health care than the number of
hospital beds and reiterated that each community will need a small supply of
very clean water for drinking and a much larger supply of adequately clean
water for washing. The above discussion, the result of the statistical
computation done on table 4.4, using our „Chi-Square Test‟, analysis of data
gathered through records, Observation and interviews, all points to the fact that
the establishment of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene programme by UNICEF
ccxi
Zone „A‟ Field Office kept guinea worm and related water-bone diseases to the
barest minimum and increased the level of personal hygiene among Ebonyians.
In summation therefore, the implication of the study arising from the
discussions are that; in the opinion of the respondents, the UNICEF Zone „A‟
Field Office established Survival and Early Childcare programme in Ebonyi
State has militated against high mortality and maternal morbidity rates in rural
communities. The result shows that the people are satisfied in this programme.
The implication of this is that so long as this programme continues, infant,
under five mortality and maternal morbidity will continue to decline.
Discussion of the second finding shows that the UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office
assisted Universal Basic Education programme has stimulated early year
learning for children. The result shows a reduction in drop-out rate in school
enrolment. The implication of this is that stigma of “Educationally
Disadvantaged” labeled on Ebonyi State will gradually become a history.
Analysis of the third finding aptly points to the perceived view that the UNICEF
Zone „A‟ Field Office Water, Sanitation and Hygiene programme has increased
the level of hygiene and reduced water-borne diseases among the people in the
programme areas in Ebonyi State. The result of this is the total eradication of
guinea worm cases and drastic reduction of related diseases in Ebonyi State,
implying that life expectancy of the people will receive a boost.
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CHAPTER SIX
6.0
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
SUMMARY
This research attempted an under study of the contributions of UNICEF Zone
„A‟ Field Office to social development programmes, with particular emphasis
on Ebonyi State between 2002 to 2007 which happens to be one UNICEF zone
„A‟ maiden programme cycle.
Nigeria’s infant mortality rate is among the highest in Africa. About one million
children under the age of five died in 2004. Nigeria is one of the three
countries in the world with a continuing reservouir of the wild polio virus. High
level of mortality in young children is mainly due to illness that can easily be
prevented or can be treated with known remedies. These illnesses include
malaria, diarrhea diseases, acute respiratory tract infections (ARI) and various
vaccine preventable diseases. The most important factor associated with
maternal mortality and morbidity is inadequate assistance at delivery. Only an
infinitesimal percentage of deliveries in Nigeria take place in health facilities
while a greater percentage takes place at home.
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The above health situations are particularly the case in rural communities of
Ebonyi State. Also at a particular period, Ebonyi State was branded
“Educationally Disadvantaged” and among the south East states which Ebonyi
is one, the state had the least enrolment figure both in primary and secondary
school and the least number of under graduates.
Irrespective of great achievements made towards improving the living
condition of the people, available social statistics indicate that so much still
need to be done in those areas. These particularly attracted UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programmes
in Ebonyi State and strikingly made us to probe how the
Survival and Early Childcare programme established by UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Office
Field
have been able to address the high under five, infant mortality and
maternal morbidity rates in rural communities of the state. Again, to know the
extent the Basic Education programme assisted by the UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Office have
Field
improved net primary school enrolment and lastly the contributions
of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office WASH programme to children’s right of survival
and improved hygiene.
ccxv
To actually unravel these, ‘Descriptive Research’ method was used. Four major
sources and methods of data collection were employed via documentary
instruments, direct observation, oral interview and the questionnaire. The
statistical tools used to analyse the data derived from the questionnaire are
‘Chi-Square Test’ and ‘Simple percentage’.
As a result of the above, it was found among other things that the high infant,
under five and maternal mortality rates have reduced through UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office,
routine immunization programmes, prenatal, ante natal and post
natal health services etc. Net primary school enrolment has increased, just as
there is reduction in the rate of school dropout basically due to the UNICEF
Zone ‘A’
Field Office
Child Friendly Schools Initiative (CFSI) programme. Ebonyi
State as at today, has recorded zero case of guinea worm and drastic reduction
in other water related diseases.
6.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, we make the following recommendations:
1. UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office should always make wide consultation
before drawing their Annual Work Plan (AWP). The government, the
host communities and other donor agencies should be carried along for
ccxvi
an integrated and synergic approach to programme implementation.
This means that UNICEF should give the programmes a “bottom-up”
approach both in the Annual Work Plan (AWP) and actual operations.
This will provide for a formidable baseline study in so far as other
partners and the beneficiaries of these programmes are invited. Not just
inviting them and presenting already planned work to them as it were,
but allowing them to make input because they know what they need
and how they need it.
2.
Government should muster every political will to own these
programmes and service their Counterpart Cash Contribution effectively
and efficiently. It is only when this is done that they can be in a vantage
position to tell UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, the type of programmes they
want and how they want the programmes to run for optimal benefit.
3.
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office programmes are carried out in three (3) LGAs
in Ebonyi State. Government should replicate these programmes to
other LGAs to make these programmes state-wide and for more
Eboyians to benefit.
ccxvii
4.
Training and retraining of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Officers and desk officers
Field Office
Programme/Field
on record keeping, service statistics
management and use of data should be vigorously pursued to
occasionally provide valid information necessary to carry out baseline
survey for rational decisions that will inform the drawing of captivating
annual work plan.
6. Political interference on the part of government in posting trained
programme officers should be discouraged and key trained programme
officers should not be incessantly transferred. This will encourage
specialization and increase Productivity.
7. UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office should make every effort to ensure continuity
in the assistances they make to Ebonyi people in these areas of social
development irrespective of the discouragement they get from
government and recipient communities.
ccxviii
8. UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
and government should ensure capacity
building of programme officers, field officers, teachers etc. There should
be regular workshops, symposia, training and re-training of these
categories of staff to keep abreast of new innovations and technologies
requisite to implementation of these programmes.
6.3
CONCLUSION
Social development offers a bright opportunity to institutionally redefine
development in terms of people‟s needs rather than economic forces. Such
institutions like UNICEF Zone „A‟ Field Office has braced up to this
humanitarian and laudable pursuit. This is done within the ambit of celebrated
zeal to make the world a better place for children and women.
Therefore, the focal point in this research is to critically analyse the
Contributions of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to Social Development
Programmes in Ebonyi State, Nigeria between 2002 to 2007.
Based on the result generated through the analysis of our data which revealed
successes in UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
ccxix
social development programmes,
hypothesis one, that the UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
established survival and
Early Childcare programme has militated against high mortality and maternal
morbidity rates in the programme areas in Ebonyi state is upheld. The second
hypothesis, that the UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
assisted Universal Basic
Education Programme has stimulated early-year learning for children in the
programme areas in Ebonyi state is validated. The third hypothesis, that the
UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene programme has
increased the level of hygiene and reduced water-borne diseases among the
people in the programme areas in Ebonyi State is also upheld.
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APPENDIX I
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APPENDICES II
Department of Public Administration
& Local Government
University of Nigeria
Nsukka
To:
Recipients of UNICEF CCP
& Operator/Field Officers
Sir/madam,
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF UNICEF ZONE ‘A’ FIELD OFFICE TO SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA 2002-2007
I am a postgraduate student of the above mentioned department and
institution. This is a research questionnaire designed to x-ray the Contributions
of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office to Social Development Programmes in Ebonyi
State, Nigeria between 2002-2007, in a way to understand how these
programmes affects recipients.
The research which is strictly for academic exercise is part of the requirements
for the conferment of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree. The questionnaire
is in two types A and B. Type A is for the recipients of the programmes while
type B is for the operator/field officers of the programmes.
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Kindly, provide honest answers where applicable to assist in the execution of
this thesis. Your responses will be given utmost confidentiality it deserves and
no part of your responses will be held against you.
DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAMES.
Thank you.
Yours Faithfully,
Otu, Otu Akanu
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A (To All Respondents)
BIO-DATA OF THE RESPONDENTS
1. Sex:
(a)Male
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(b) Female
2. Age:
(a) 21-30 Years
(b) 31-40 Years
(c) 41-50 Years
(d) 51-60 Years
(e) 60 year and above
3. Marital Status:
(a) Single
(b) Married
(c) Separated
(d) Divorced
4. Academics Qualification:
(a) No Formal Education
(b) FSLC
(c) JSSC
(d) WASC/NECO or equivalent
(e) NCE/OND or equivalent
(f) B.Sc./HND or equivalent
(g) Postgraduate Certificate
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5. State of Origin:………………………………………………………………….
6. L.G.A of Origin:………………………………………………………………….
7. Are you aware of UNICEF assisted programmes in your Local Government/
Community? Yes
No
If No, please discontinue with this questionnaire
If you are an operator/ Field Officer as well as a recipient of UNICEF
programmes please, complete section B and Section C of this
questionnaire.
Questionnaire type A (To Recipient of UNICEF CCP)
SECTION B(i):
 Guide: SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, No = No Opinion,
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree.
S/N
Survival And Early Child Care
Programme
1
Do you agree that infant and under-5
mortality was on the increase through
polio, measles and related diseases due
to low or no immunization coverage
before the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office immunization programme?
2
Do you agree that malaria was on the
increase because of lack of awareness
of Insecticide Treated Nets (ITN) before
UNICEF Zone Field Office malaria
programmes?
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SA
A
NO
SD
D
3
Prior to UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
programmes, there were little or no
available and accessible antenatal and
prenatal care facilities.
4
HIV/Aids prevalent rate
was high
before the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office HIV/Aids prevention and
care programmes.
5
Children and mothers still benefit from
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office survival and
early child care programme these days.
6
After the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office immunization programme,
infant and under-5 mortality through
polio, measles and related diseases
remained the same.
7
Malarial fever still increased after the
introduction and promotion of the use
of Insecticide Treated Nets (ITN) by
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office.
8
After the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office programmes, awareness,
availability and accessibility of antenatal and pre-natal care facilities were
still low.
9
There is still high HIV/Aids prevalent
rate even after the introduction of
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office HIV/Aids
prevention and care programme.
10
Children and mothers no longer benefit
ccxxxix
from UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office survival
and early child care programme up till
now.
SECTION B(ii):
S/N
Basic Education Programme
1
Children Net Primary School Enrollment
was on the decline before the
introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
assisted Basic Education Programme.
2
Before the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office assisted Basic Education
Programme education facilities like
buildings, laboratories, libraries etc were
in deplorable condition and this militated
against proper teaching and learning
process.
3
Before the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office assisted Basic Education
Programme, there were high levels of
gender imbalance as well as male dropout rate in school enrolment.
4
Before the introduction of UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office assisted Basic Education
Programme, there were inadequate
supplies of text books and other
instruction materials, and teaching and
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SA
A
NO
SD
D
learning were not improved.
5
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted
Basic Education Programme is still in
existence.
6
Do you agree that children net primary
school enrollment continued to be on the
decline after the introduction of UNICEF
Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted Basic Education
Programme?
7
With the Introduction of UNICEF
Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted Basic Education
Programme, education facilities like
buildings, laboratories, etc still remained
in deplorable conditions and teaching and
learning process did not improve.
8
The introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field
Office assisted Basic Education Programme
had no effect on the level of gender
imbalance as well as male drop-out rate in
school enrollment.
9
After the introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office assisted Basic Education
programme, inadequate supply of text
books and other instructional materials
still persisted and teaching and learning
did not still improve.
10
The UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office assisted
Basic Education Programme is no longer in
existence.
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SECTION B(iii):
S/N
Water, Sanitation And Hygiene
Programme
1
Before the introduction of the “culture of
hand washing” by UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field
Office, your knowledge and level of
personal hygiene was poor.
2
There was poor sanitation as a result of
lack of portable water and proper waste
management
systems
before
the
introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
programmes.
3
Do you agree that before the introduction
and provision of hand pump bore-holes by
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office, there was high
incidence of guinea worm scourge and
related water borne diseases in rural
communities?
4
Before UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office
programmes, availability and accessibility
of safe drinking water were poor.
5
People
in the rural communities still
benefit from the hand pump bore-hole
provided by UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office up
till now.
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SA
A
N
SD
D
6
After the introduction of the “culture of
hand washing” by UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field
Office, the level of your personal hygiene is
still the same.
7
After the introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programmes waste management
did not improve, and mosquitoes and Tse
Tse flies are still not controlled.
8
Guinea worm is still endemic in rural
communities even with the introduction
and provision of hand pump bore-holes by
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office.
9
After the introduction of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office programme, safe drinking water
is still not available and accessible.
10
The hand pumps bore-holes provided by
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office are no longer
functional.
Questionnaire Type B (To Programme/Filed Officers)
SECTION C
S/N
1
Operation Schedules
There has been regular and timely release
of Government Counterpart Cash
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SA
A
N
SD
D
Contribution (GCCC).
2
Government always return unused
programme funds, supplies, equipment
and other materials back to UNICEF Zone
‘A’ Field Office at the end of each
programme cycle.
3
Government sometimes fails to collect all
UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office donated
supplies and equipments within three (3)
weeks of notification.
4
Government duly retires cash advances
within two (2) months of collection of
cheques or the date of transfer of fund
from UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office.
5
There is always incessant transfer of
trained key operation staff.
6
There is proper programme performance
monitoring mechanisms.
7
Programme fund, supplies, equipment
and other materials do not reach target
population as a result of activities of
political office holders.
8
Do you agree that the rural dwellers use
to be happy and participate when projects
are carried out in their communities?
9
Before programme implementation at the
beginning of a particular programme
cycle, UNICEF Zone ‘A’ Field Office use to
carry out a baseline survey
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10
At the end of each programme cycle, the
goals
set
out
in
programme
implementation agreement (PIA) were
about 80% realized.
11.
In the space provided below suggest other ways in which recipient’s
benefits of UNICEF Zone ‘A’
Field Office
assisted projects/programmes will be
maximized……………………………………………………..........
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
(You may wish to write on extra sheet of paper)
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APPENDICES III
CHI-SQUARE CALCULATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESES
HYPOTHESIS 1:
This data can be stored in a M at hcad array in t he obvious way:
bbdat
1342 128 10
10
10
10
10 10 1342 128
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The expect ed cell values are then given by
E
N P
676 69 10 676 69
E
676 69 10 676 69
and the test st at ist ic can then easily be computed:
Or  c
2
r
Er  c
2
Er  c
c
3
2  2.826 10
The degrees of freedom (v) are given by
v
( rows( O )
1 ) ( cols( O )
1)
v4
at the level of significance

c
0.05
qchisq( 1
  v)
c  9.488
Pvalue (2 statistic atleast t his large):
Pvalue
1
pchisq( 2  v)
Pvalue  0
HYPOTHESIS 2:
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This data can be stored in a M at hcad array in t he obvious way:
1350 115 15
bbdat
10
10
10
10 15 1350 115
The expect ed cell values are then given by
E
N P
680 62.5 15 680 62.5
E
680 62.5 15 680 62.5
and the test st at ist ic can then easily be computed:
Or  c
2
r
Er  c
2
Er  c
c
3
2  2.817 10
The degrees of freedom (v) are given by
v
( rows( O )
1 ) ( cols( O )
1)
v4
at the level of significance

c
0.05
qchisq( 1
  v)
c  9.488
Pvalue (2 statistic atleast t his large):
Pvalue
1
pchisq( 2  v)
Pvalue  0
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HYPOTHESIS 3:
This data can be stored in a M at hcad array in t he obvious way:
bbdat
1287 158 20
5
5
30
30 20 1287 158
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The expect ed cell values are then given by
E
N P
646 94 20 646 94
E
646 94 20 646 94
and the test st at ist ic can then easily be computed:
Or  c
2
r
Er  c
2
Er  c
c
3
2  2.718 10
The degrees of freedom (v) are given by
v
( rows( O )
1 ) ( cols( O )
1)
v4
at the level of significance

c
0.05
qchisq( 1
  v)
c  9.488
Pvalue (2 statistic atleast t his large):
Pvalue
1
pchisq( 2  v)
Pvalue  0
APPENDICES IV
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