LOST EGYP
Educator’s Guide
LOST EGYPT
COSI developed the Lost Egypt: Ancient Secrets, Modern Science Educator’s
Guide to help you prepare your students to see and get the most out of their
field trip.
Included you will find:
• A description of the exhibit and its components
• Connections to the Ohio and national education standards
• Background information to help you become familiar with ancient Egypt
• Fun facts
• Lesson plans for use either before or after viewing the exhibit
• Scavenger hunt, which can be used by your students inside the exhibit
• A glossary of terms
• Bibliography
This guide was created by COSI staff with the help of teachers and real
scientists working both in the lab and in the field.
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LOST EGYPT
Exhibit Overview
Lost Egypt is an immersive quest for knowledge that reveals how archaeologists use modern science and
technology to uncover and understand the ancient civilization of Egypt. Through hands-on challenges,
authentic artifacts and guidance from real archaeologists, visitors will unearth the mysteries of Egypt, its
culture and its people.
This interactive exhibit features a real human mummy and animal mummies, as well as scans, forensic
facial reconstructions and – for the first time ever – three life-size rapid prototypes, displaying the
mummy in various stages of “unwrapping.” Visitors can explore the art and artifacts from the daily life
and funerary culture of ancient Egypt and connect with real scientists working in Egypt through video
interviews and photographs from the field.
With theatrical set design, realistic props and numerous hands-on activities, Lost Egypt makes an
unforgettable connection between past and present customs, cultures and sciences. A thought-provoking
journey for all ages, Lost Egypt is particularly inspiring for young people, illuminating the roles they can
play as future archaeologists, scientists, engineers, technicians and life-long learners.
Presented locally by AEP with promotional support from Pepsi.
Lost Egypt was produced by COSI in cooperation with the Science Museum Exhibit Collaborative, and
was designed and built by the Science Museum of Minnesota. Artifacts are on loan from the Brooklyn
Museum and The Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
Why Archaeology?
Archaeology is the scientific study of historic people and their cultures by excavation and analysis of
their material remains, such as artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, artworks, and human, floral and faunal
remains.
Why Egypt?
Egypt is the framework in which we are exploring archaeology. Many of Egypt’s pyramids and large
monuments are still standing. Large amounts of architecture, artifacts and human remains preserved in
the desert environment, so scientists can study them. Archaeology has been occurring in Egypt for many
years. Cumulative knowledge gives us a context that archaeologists are using to understand the ancient
Egyptian culture.
Real Scientists
Throughout the video interviews and graphic panels, you and your students will come face to face with
working archaeologists.
Dr. Jonathan Elias – Akhim Mummy Studies Constortium
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Dr. Salima Ikram – Professor of Egyptology, American University in Cairo
Dr. Mark Lehner, Director of Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA)
Jessica Kaiers, AERA Osteologist
Camilla Mazzucato, AERA GIS Specialist
Dr. Mary Anne Murray, AERA Assistant Director of Archaeological Science/Archaeobotanist
Dr. Ana Tavares, AERA Co-Field Director
Dr. Anna Wodzinska, AERA Ceramicist
Richard Redding, AERA Chief Research Officer
Dr. Janice Kamrin, Supreme Council of Antiquities
Dr. Brad Lepper, Ohio Historical Society
Gerry D. Scott III, Director, American Research Center in Egypt
Kathleen Scott, Director of Publications/Communications, American Research Center in Egypt
Dr. Nancy Tatarek, Ohio University
Dr. Tosha Dupras, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Central Florida
Dr. Jane Butler Kahle, Condit Professor of Science Education, Miami University
Dr. Sarah Parcak, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
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Orientation Area
The introductory area helps visitors understand where Egypt is in the world and that
they will be exploring modern day Egypt and archaeology. The area includes large photo
murals, an orientation video with images of Egypt and the archaeological process and a
large floor map of Africa.
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Field Site Area
The Field Site encourages visitors to experience a hands-on version of the archaeological
process, while also learning about modern and ancient technology.
GPR Unit and Mapping Table
This table includes several laminated maps of Egypt and a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) unit.
Students can explore the maps and learn about this high-tech method for finding archaeological sites.
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Finding the Site Videos
These videos explore both high-tech and low-tech methods of finding buried or lost archaeological sites
in Egypt.
• “Viewing the Past From Space” – Dr. Sarah Parcak
In this video Dr. Sarah Parcak introduces students to the concept of remote sensing and the
power of using satellite imagery to aid the field of archaeology. Dr. Parcak became the first
archaeologist to use a combination of satellite imaging analysis and surface surveys to locate new
archaeological sites in Egypt. In one year she detected over 130 new sites.
• “Uncovering Sites in the Sahara Desert” – Dr. Salima Ikram, and Dr. Tosha Dupras
In this video, both Dr. Salima Ikrama and Dr. Tosha Dupra discuss how ancient sites are
discovered through the use of an archaeologist’s five senses and the natural world. Dr. Ikram
is a professor of Egyptology at The American University in Cairo, a grantee of the National
Geographic Society’s Committee for Research and Exploration, and an international guest
speaker. Dr. Dupras is a physical anthropologist who studies human diet, forensic anthropology,
human osteology, and Egyptian mortuary archaeology.
Aeolian Landscape Interactive
Students explore the effect of wind on sand, using a moveable fan in a sand-filled “landscape” to cover
and uncover models of pyramids, Sphinx and other objects. The message is that while some sites, like the
pyramids, are easy to find, others may be hidden – buried beneath the sand, located under modern cities
or buildings, or intentionally destroyed in ancient times.
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Build A Pyramid Interactive
Students use specially-shaped wooden blocks to build a tabletop pyramid. This puzzle is accessible from
multiple sides encouraging groups of people to work together to build the pyramid.
”Find” Computer Interactive
After watching a video of archaeologist Sarah Parcak, the first person to use satellite imaging to find
archaeological sites in Egypt, students look at a satellite image using a computerized filtering technique
and attempt to discover buried ancient remains at Amarna, a real archaeological site in Egypt.
Camel Interactive
A colorful replica of a life-size kneeling camel allows students to climb into the camel’s saddle for a photo
opportunity.
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“Pack” Computer Interactive
A computer game challenges students to pack the right equipment and supplies for their excavation.
Archaeologists Dr. Brad Lepper and Dr. Salima Ikram and forensic anthropologist Dr. Tosha Dupras
provide written answers to a series of questions about the supplies they pack for an excavation, which
students can scroll through and read.
Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) Archaeological Specialists Videos
Ancient Egypt Research Associates is a non-profit organization that is exploring Egypt’s archaeological
sites. They are facilitating the research of the Giza Plateau Mapping Project and are responsible for the
discovery of the Lost City of the Pyramid Builders site. The discoveries that have been made at this
settlement have unlocked some of the secrets behind the biggest building project of the ancient world,
the pyramids at Giza. Interviews with Ancient Egypt Research Associates’ archaeologists explain what
they do at the Lost City site.
• “The Dead Speak” – Jessica Kaiser , AERA Osteologist
As the osteologist for the Giza Plateau Mapping Project, Jessica Kaiser handles all the burials
found at this ancient site. Ms. Kaiser discusses what archaeologists can learn from studying
human remains and why this is important.
• “Seeds of the Past” – Dr. Mary Anne Murray, AERA Archaeobotanist
Dr. Mary Anne Murray explains how plant remains are found at every archaeological site in
the world. She details the process used to study these plant remains and discusses what can be
learned.
• “Pyramids and Pottery” – Dr. Anna Wodzinska – AERA Ceramicist
Anna Wodzinska details the importance of studying pottery by giving an example of what has
been learned from one small pottery assemblage found at the Lost City site.
AERA Lost City Site Project Videos
Interviews with AERA Director Mark Lehner and Co-Field Director Ana Tavares describe the Lost City
project.
• “Locating a Lost City” – Dr. Mark Lehner
Dr. Lehner created the first detailed maps of the Great Sphinx and the Giza Plateau and
discovered the Lost City of the Pyramid Builders, a site on the Giza Plateau that confirms the
pyramids were build by skilled laborers rather than by slaves. He explains how by studying the
landscape and using the scientific method, a hypothesis of where to find the Lost City site was
developed.
• “Life of the Pyramid Builders” –Dr. Ana Tavares
Dr. Ana Tavares, Co-Field Director for AERA, introduces visitors to the physical landscape of the
Lost City site and what archaeologists have learned by studying the remains of the settlement.
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Pyramid Block Challenge Interactive
Students gain an appreciation for the technologies used to move the massive pyramid blocks. The
interactive includes two tracks, each containing a block weighing approximately 60 pounds. In one
track, the block is pulled using only a rope. In the other track, the technologies used in ancient Egypt are
featured: the stone sits atop a wooden sled, wooden slats have been laid across the bottom of the track,
and a rope is attached for pulling. By building slats into their roadways and placing the stones on sleds,
the Egyptians would have been able to greatly reduce the amount on friction between the ground and
the stones, thus making pulling the stones much easier. Students can feel the difference by attempting to
move each block.
Archaeology Process Interactives
A cluster of interactives focuses on how to apply the scientific or archaeology process to reach a
conclusion. The work of three different scientists working at the Lost City site is featured, along with how
their discoveries can be combined to provide a picture of life in ancient Egypt.
In the center of this group of interactives is a one meter squared diorama modeled after the Lost City
excavation. The diorama itself is fictional, but contains replicas of the types of artifacts actually found at
this site (pottery shards, mud sealings, animal bones). The diorama is surrounded by bench-like seats
so students can sit down and carefully examine the excavated area for clues, and can socially interact
with others to discuss what they are observing. Signage describes a mystery: What were the ancient
Egyptians doing at this site? Three workstations surround the diorama, each of which focuses on a
different archaeological discipline.
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At the ceramics station, students learn from Anna
Wodzinska, AERA ceramicist, how to differentiate
between pottery shards from different types of
vessels in order to determine the types of pottery
vessels that were found in the diorama. After
visiting the ceramics station students should be
able to identify that the ceramics included in the
diorama are from more than one vessel and at least
one vessel is from a bread mold.
At the faunal remains station, students learn from
Richard Redding, AERA faunal analyst, how to
study sheep bones to determine the part of the
sheep they came from (leg, hoof, etc.) and to
learn how evidence of charring may indicate how
the meat was prepared as food. After visiting this
station students should be able to tell the bones
included in the diorama are charred and are from
a meaty part of the animal.
At the sealings station, students learn from John
Nolan, AERA sealings expert, how to examine mud sealings to determine the inscription on the sealings,
the way the sealings were made, and the type of vessel the different seals were attached to. After visiting
this station students should be able to pick out a sealing that would have been included on a jar.
Once students answer each of the questions posed at the three stations, a fourth station encourages them
to use the evidence they have gathered to determine what was happening at the Lost City site. Different
possibilities are presented on a graphic at the diorama. By using the flip cards guests can check to see if
they discovered the correct answer.
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Mummification and Culture Area
The Mummification and Culture area encourages students to explore some of the artifacts from
ancient Egypt, while learning about the objects’ context in scientific understanding. Modern
technologies and scientific research are introduced, helping students understand how scientists
know what they know.
Sekhmet Statue Artifact Case
Students examine an artifact case containing a bronze statue of the goddess Sekhmet. Sekhmet (SEKHmet), the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and pestilence, is depicted as a woman with a lion’s head.
According to one legend, Ra, the Sun god, created Sekhmet to destroy people who had disobeyed him.
But once she was released, the terrible Sekhmet could not be stopped. So Ra sent messengers to mix red
pigments with beer. Thinking that the beer was blood, she drank heavily. Her rampage stopped, Sekhmet
turned into Hathor—the goddess of love.
Quest for Eternal Life Multimedia Show
Students enter a tent-like theater to watch a multimedia presentation about the Egyptian belief system in
the afterlife. This presentation touches on the ancient Egyptian’s beliefs regarding the journey a person
must undergo once he or she had died. All the trappings of Egyptian funerary culture (mummies, tomb
art, tomb goods, etc.) were believed to help serve the deceased on this journey.
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Amulet Artifact Case
Students examine a collection of real amulets. Twenty four amulets are included and graphics detail the
image and meaning of each amulet. Amulets include examples of heart scarabs, gods and goddesses, and
many other important symbols.
Sacred Magic Amulet Interactive
Students examine a series of layered CT scans of a real human mummy to search for amulets within the
wrappings. Three life-size CT scans of a human mummy are presented on a tabletop light box. Students
slide panels one at a time and search for amulets on the mummy. The third slide reveals the location of
the amulets (three in all) and gives a brief description of the purpose of each. Common locations for
other types of amulets are also described.
Funerary Objects Artifact Cases
Students examine cases of funerary objects including: a stela, an offering table, canopic jars, ushabtis,
and god/goddess statues. Written descriptions within the case and graphic panels explain the purpose of
these objects in ancient Egypt.
Mummy, Coffin and Lid Artifact Cases
The real human mummy (nicknamed “Annie,” which is short for Anonymous) is one of the artifact
highlights of the exhibition. The mummy, along with a separate case for her coffin and lid, is presented in
a neutral room, creating an atmosphere of respect. Graphics reinforce the idea that this is a real human
being, telling what is known about her story from both an historical and modern scientific perspective.
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Rosetta Stone Artifact Case
This is a full-size model, not an historical artifact.
A graphic accompanies the stone, explaining how
it was used to help translate the language of the
ancient Egyptians. Students are asked to pick out
Ptolemy’s cartouche from the section written in
hieroglyphs.
Tomb Art Hallway Interactive
Students explore this darkened re-creation of
a tomb hallway decorated with artwork and
hieroglyphs from tombs located in Saqqara,
the Valley of the Nobles, and the Valley of the
Kings. The message is that archaeologists and
historians can learn a great deal about the beliefs
and culture of ancient Egyptians by studying their
artwork and language. Mirrored reflector cards
are provided at both entrances of the hallway.
Students are encouraged to use light sources
located inside the hallway to reflect light onto
sections of the tomb art, much as the ancient
Egyptian laborers and artisans used polished
metal to reflect sunlight into the tombs.
Translating Hieroglyphics Interactive
Students learn about the language of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. Using a set of tiles similar to a
game of Scrabble®, students match Egyptian hieroglyphs to tiles featuring a small set of corresponding
hieroglyphs with English translations.
Hearing Hieroglyphs
A second station allows students to hear what ancient Egyptian may have sounded like. Included are
three authentic hieroglyph passages. By pushing a button the passage is read aloud. The spoken language
is only a rough approximation, since there are no recorded vowel sounds in hieroglyphics.
Ostraka Artifact Case
Students examine a case of ostraka – written notes on pieces of rock or broken pottery. These show
the evolution of written language in ancient Egypt. A product label and several ostraka are displayed
including a religious text and payment list. Written descriptions within the case and graphic panels
explain the purpose of these objects in ancient Egypt.
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Magnetic Tomb Art Wall Interactive
At this interactive students find a magnetic tomb art wall, along with magnetic modern items created in
an Egyptian illustrative style. Students add magnets to the wall, deciding what modern objects they want
in their tomb goods. Magnets represent modern objects such as televisions, MP3 players, clothing, soda,
etc.
Laboratory
The Laboratory encourages students to experience a hands-on version of the more involved study of
ancient Egypt using modern science and technology. Students explore artifacts, X-rays, CT scans, facial
reconstructions, and other tools to gain a deeper understanding of the ancient Egyptians.
3D Rapid Prototype Printing Artifact Case
A full-size 3D print of the mummy “Annie” is on display, the only full-size 3D print of a mummy every
made. Created in sections, the model shows the details produced with a CT-scan below the surface of
the mummy’s funerary mask. This modern technique allows us to virtually unwrap a mummy without
causing harm. A series of smaller 3D mummy prints show three stages of unwrapping – a mummy
with bandages, in a cadaver-like state with only flesh and bone, and with only the skeleton. Students
can also see the rapid prototype of the skull of another mummy, Djedhor. A hole in the mummy’s skull
(trepanation, probably a surgical procedure attempted to relieve pain and pressure) can clearly be seen.
Another hole in one eye socket provides the likely source of disease.
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Facial Reconstructions Artifact Case
Students see four forensic facial
reconstructions (models) of real ancient
Egyptians from a burial in Akhmim, Egypt.
Written descriptions within the case and
graphic panels describe the process of
forensic facial reconstruction, along with
information about the four individuals, one
of whom is the mummy displayed as part of
the exhibit, “Annie.”
Human Mummy Scans
Life-size backlit wall displays illuminate
a series of scans and information about
mummies, as well as the amulets and other
objects sometimes found with a mummy. A
text panel tells the story of these mummies,
highlights various points of interest on
the scans and explains what scientists
have learned from these points of interest.
Students are invited to examine these scans.
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Human Mummy Scans Interactive
A light box interactive allows students to view detailed X-rays of a burial from the Dakhleh Oasis.
Visitors choose from a series of X-rays to place on the light box. Written instructions on the X-rays direct
students to examine certain areas in order to learn more about the burial being studied here.
Mummy Scans Videos
Dr. Jonathan Elias, Director of the Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium and forensic anthropologist
Dr. Tosha Dupras discuss the scientific study of mummies.
• “Bringing Mummies to Life” – Dr. Tosha Dupras
Dr. Tohas Dupras introduces students to the study of physical anthropology and describes how
studying human burials can inform archaeologists about the population at large including diet
and disease.
• “The Inside Story of Mummies” – Dr. Jonathan Elias
Dr. Jonathan Elias, Director of the Akhmim Mummy Studies Contortium introduces students to
CT scans and their importance in mummy studies.
Pottery Puzzle Interactive
Students piece together a three-dimensional pottery puzzle, similar to how real archaeologists
reconstruct an object from broken pieces. Two different puzzles can be reconstructed. Painted patterns
on the pot shards aid in their reconstruction.
Pottery Artifact Case
Students examine a case of vessels from different time periods in Egyptian history. These show some of
the characteristics an archaeologist might use to identify a particular time period. Written descriptions
within the case and graphic panels explain the purpose of these objects in ancient Egypt.
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Animal Mummy Scans Interactive
Students interpret X-rays of six animal mummies,
learning why these animals were mummified using
images and a light box. Written instructions on the
X-rays direct students to examine certain areas in
order to learn more about these animal mummies.
Animal Mummy Artifact Case
Students examine two animal mummies. Written
descriptions within the case and graphic panels
explain the purpose of animals in ancient Egypt, along
with the process of mummifying animals.
Animal Mummy Video
This video is an interview with faunal analyst Dr.
Salima Ikram about the roles of animals in ancient
Egypt.
• “Beloved Beasts” –Dr. Salima Ikram
As founder and co-director of the Animal
Mummy project at the Egyptian Museum in
Cairo, Dr. Ikram is a leading expert on animal
mummies. Here she explains how animals were
valued in ancient Egyptian society and why they
created animal mummies. She also explains the
importance of animal mummy studies, which
allow archaeologists to learn about the culture of
this ancient society.
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Egypt
“The Nile River is a huge river, a very powerful river. The ancient Egyptians feared it and revered it for
a very specific reason. And that’s because it was so unpredictable; that’s because it was so powerful.”
-Dr. Sarah Parcak
Visualization by Paul Morin of the National Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics and
the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota
Modern Egypt is approximately 386,874 square miles
(1,002,000 sq. km.). The capital city is Cairo.
Located in northeast Africa, Egypt is a Middle Eastern
country that includes part of the Sahara Desert, the
Nile River, and the Suez Canal, which connects the
Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. To the
north is the Mediterranean Sea; to the east is the Red
Sea; to the south is Sudan; and to the west is Libya.
The Nile River was the lifeblood of ancient Egypt. The
longest river in the world, the Nile flows north from
the higher altitudes of central Africa over waterfalls
and through desert until it reaches the Mediterranean
Sea. Ancient Egypt was divided into Upper Egypt in
the south and Lower Egypt in the north.
The ancient Egyptian civilization developed along
this primary source of water, and even today, over
95% of the population still live in the Nile Valley or
Delta. In the harsh desert environment, life depended
on the yearly rise and fall of the Nile. Agriculture,
transportation, commerce, and even the religion of
the ancient Egyptians depended on the river. Today,
archaeologists find most ancient sites near the Nile, or
along the oases in the western desert.
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Source of map Central Intelligence Agency
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/eg.htmla
Visualization by Paul Morin of the National Center for Earth-Surface Dynamics and the Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Minnesota
LOST EGYPT
In ancient times, Egypt was broken into two regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Rivers flow from
higher altitudes to lower. In Egypt, this causes the Nile River to flow from south to north. Therefore,
Upper Egypt was in the southern part of the country while Lower Egypt was in the north. Settlements
were located near the water, so archaeologists tend to find many ancient sites close to the Nile River.
Lost Egypt covers a 3,000 year period of Egyptian history from approximately 3110 B.C. to 343 B.C..
This was the time of the pharaohs in Egypt, with dynasties of kings who ruled for decades or hundreds of
years, connected to one another by blood, marriage, or because they came from the same home town or
ruled from the same capital city.
There are 31 known dynasties in ancient Egypt, grouped together in Kingdoms and Periods. For more
information visit http://www.thebanmappingproject.com/resources/timeline.html
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Archaeology
“I think the one thing I’ve learned about archaeology that I didn’t really think about before I got involved with
it, is just how team-oriented it is. I am never out there alone with my trowel in the middle of the desert pecking
away at the hard earth, hoping to find something.”
-Dr. Sarah Parcak
“All we get is discarded objects, leftovers, rubbish, and that is perfect. Rubbish tells you a lot about the person,
and not necessarily the official, glamorous, or polished version, but the real version. How many candy bars you
really ate and how many versions of your text you had to throw away.”
-Dr. Ana Tavares
Archaeology is the scientific study of historic people and their cultures by excavation and analysis of
their material remains, such as artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, artwork, and human, floral and faunal
remains. Archaeologists learn about past people and cultures by studying the things they left behind.
These items may be buried in centuries of dirt and sand. Archaeologists dig, or excavate, artifacts to
recover, document and analyze them. When many different artifacts are studied at a site, a story of the
people and culture begins to emerge.
An artifact is any object manufactured, used or modified by humans. These include everything from
funerary objects such as coffins, canopic jars or an offering stone to items from daily life, such as pottery
jars used to bake bread or hold beer, clothing, jewelry, and furniture. Artwork and writing is found as
well, such as statues, amulets, papyrus scrolls and tomb paintings.
The science of archaeology is nearly 130
years old. Prior to the late 1800’s, expeditions
to find artifacts were religious crusades or
treasure hunts. The treasure hunters were
usually after gold and precious stones, and
would dig into a site, shove everything out of
the way, and then steal the valuable artifacts.
Whole tombs were destroyed this way, and
much information has been lost.
The goal of modern archaeology is much
different. Today, archaeologists work
together to develop a better understanding
of the people and cultures of the past. Often,
the most important information comes
from studying the remains of common
people, rather than just finding and analyzing
impressive tombs of great pharaohs.
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Technology has changed the work of archaeologists. While
simple tools such as the trowel (a hand tool for digging) are still
vital, archaeologists also use high-tech equipment such as CT
scans and satellite images. Modern tools help archaeologists
search for artifacts more efficiently, and protect the
environment from unnecessary digging.
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Photograph courtesy of Akhm
Mummy Studies Consortium
Archaeology is a team effort. It takes a whole crew to document, protest and study a site. GIS specialists
and surveyors locate the site; excavators do the actual digging; and photographers and illustrators
document architecture and artifacts, along with many others. When a house is found, a ceramicist studies
the pottery and dishes used by the people who lived there. A faunal analyst examines the animal bones
from the food they ate. An archaeobotanist researches the plants that grew nearby that might have been
used for food, medicine, or daily items. And an osteologist studies bones found in human burials. All of
this information is combined to tell the story of the people who once lived in the house.
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LOST EGYPT
Specialists who may be involved in a project include:
Anthropologist – A person who studies what it is to be human in past and modern societies. beings and
their ancestors, including the origin, behavior, and physical, social and cultural development of humans.
Archaeobotanist – A person who studies ancient plants found on archaeological sites.
Archaeologist - A person who studies historic people and their cultures. by excavation and analysis of
their material remains
Ceramicist – A person who studies the ceramics and pottery found on archaeological sites.
Egyptologist - A person who specializes in the study of ancient Egypt. Egyptologists may be
archaeologists, historians, linguists, or art historians, among others.
Faunal Analyst – A person who studies animal bones and other food refuse in order to determine diet.
Forensic Anthropologist – A person who studies human remains to help identify the individual and
their cause of death.
Geologist – A person who studies the earth and land.
Geomorphologists – A person who studies landmasses and how they have changed over time.
GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Specialist – A person who specializes in computer mapping.
Illustrator – An artist responsible for drawing and excavation site and its related artifacts.
Lithics Specialist – A person who studies stone tools and artifacts.
Osteologist - A person who studies the structure and function of human bones.
Surveyor – A person who determines the site’s position on the earth’s surface and studies sites for future
excavation.
Zooarchaeologist – A person who studies animal remains found on archaeological sites.
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Finding the Site
“Whenever you’re doing survey work in Egypt, you have to think about how different things would have
looked in antiquity. The Egypt you see today looked very different in antiquity.”
-Dr. Sarah Parcak
Looking for buried remains from the past can
be impossible if you do not know where to dig.
Archaeologists use a variety of methods to find
good dig sites. The best place to start is where
artifacts were found in the past, or in locations
that seem habitable. Common locations for sites
include places that have easy access to water,
food and shelter, such as caves, lakes, streams and
shorelines. Archaeologists find these sites by using
ancient and modern maps, tips from local people,
aerial photography, and even satellite images from
space. In Egypt, the majority of settlements are
near the Nile River, which is the major source of
water in the desert environment.
Once scientists identify a potential archaeological
site, they conduct visual scans and searches
around the area. When searching in any
unexcavated area, archaeologists use a technique
called surveying. This involves walking around the
site and looking at the ground for any artifacts, as
well as digging test pits, which are small circular
holes placed at consistent distances from one
another. Test pits help to find sites and determine
their size.
Technology is also used to locate potential sites.
Remote sensing is the process of looking at things
without touching them. It limits the intrusive
nature of archaeological by helping to pin
point locations for excavation. Remote sensing
equipment also speeds the process of surveying
and can provide a bird’s eye perspective, allowing
archaeologists to get a sense of the landscape. An
aircraft taking photographs of the ground, Earth
observation and weather satellites, and even x-rays
of bones inside your body are all examples of
remote sensing.
27
LANDSTAT SATELLITE IMAGE OF EAST DELTA- courtesy of NASA and Sarah Parcak
MEDINET HABU- Image courtesy of Sarah Parcak
LOST EGYPT
Ground-penetrating radar
(GPR) lets archaeologists see
structures and artifacts buried
in the sand. A GPR unit shoots
high-energy pulses into the
ground. If the pulses strike
something below the surface,
they echo back at different
rates. This tells researchers
something is hidden
underground.
USING A GP
R
AT GIZA PL
ATEAU - Photo
graph courtesy
of
Geophysical
Systems, Inc.
Magnetometers measure the strength
of a magnetic field. They are used to
find anomalies buried underground.
Magnetometer surveys track contrasts
in the magnetic property of the feature
of interest and its surroundings. In
the 1990s, a German expedition used
magnetometer to map an area in Qantir,
Egypt, which they suspect was the
location of the capital of Egypt under
Pharaoh Ramses II. The area is mostly
farmland and this process of surveying,
while expensive, was deemed the most
suitable for exploring the site. Their work
has proven the site to be a vast complex
belonging to that of Ramses II.
AERA
tograph courtesy of
T CIT Y SITE - Pho
METER AT THE LOS
USING A MAGNETO
28
“As in all things in life, the more you look, the more you see… It’s like a puzzle or detective work.”
-Dr. Mary Anne Murray
EXCAVATION AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA
LOST EGYPT
Excavation
Once a site has been found, archaeologists begin the exciting process of excavation and recovery of
ancient artifacts.
Before archaeologists begin digging, they determine the
size of each hole. Digging areas are sectioned off with rope,
usually in one-by-one meter squares. In order to map the
area and document findings, each side of the square is
aligned with the cardinal directions (North, South, East,
and West).
Once the grid is finished, the excavation can begin.
Holes are dug down in even levels, which can allow for
a 3-dimensional reconstruction of the site. This helps
archaeologists uncover artifacts, and see changes in
soil color and texture, which may indicate a feature
or the beginning of a new level.Archaeologists sift all
of the soil through a sieve, which is a screen they use to
ensure they do not overlook any artifacts.
29
SIFTIN
G AT T
HE LOST
CIT Y SI
T
E - Phot
ograph
courtesy
of AERA
LOST EGYPT
Documentation
“Recording an archaeological site is like recording a crime scene. When a crime has been committed,
immediately you record everything, because everything is telling you a story…”
-Dr. Mark Lehner
Recording and mapping all findings during
excavation is one of the most important tasks
an archaeologist performs. Once a site has been
excavated, the archaeologists have no way to go
back and re-check for any overlooked information.
Therefore, archaeologists must record every detail
about uncovered remains. They document the
exact location and assign a number that represents
the specific location the artifact was found. With
this information, archaeologists can reconstruct
the entire area even after removing the artifact
from the site, maximizing the data learned from
the site. Illustrations and photographs further
document the excavation.
MAPPING
AT THE LO
ST CITY SIT
E
All of the information gained from the precise
process of excavation helps archaeologists answer
who, what, where, when, why, and how an object
came to rest in that location.
30
PHOTOGRAPHING ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATTURES AT THE LOST CITY SITE - Photograph courtesy of AERA
courtesy
Photograph
of AERA
LOST EGYPT
Religion
“The ancient Egyptians worshipped the gods and goddesses of the Nile, of the air, of the Earth. I think
the Egyptians were really some of the first ardent environmentalists on the planet.”
-Dr. Sarah Parcak
Ancient Egyptian religion was complex, with many deities, or gods and goddesses. A deity could be shown in
human form, as its animal counterpart, or as a human with an animal head. Interpreting hieroglyphs made it
possible to identify them more accurately.
Several hundred gods and goddesses comprise the ancient
Egyptian religion. Some of the most well known include:
Geb:
god of the earth and father of
Osiris
Amun:
primeval creator god of
Thebes called the King of the
Gods
Hathor:
goddess of love and joy
Anubis:
god of embalming, and
guardian of the dead
Horus:
god of the sky, the living
pharaoh
Aten:
a form of the sun god Ra
known as the solar disk
Isis: Atum:
father of all the gods
primeval creator god of
Heliopolis
Bastet:
goddess of fire, cats, the
home, and pregnant women
31
mother goddess
Khepri:
a solar god, god of creation,
movement of the sun, and
rebirth
Khnum:
creator god and bringer of
the inundation (beneficial
Nile flood)
LOST EGYPT
Maat:
goddess of truth and justice
Min:
primeval creator god and
source of fertility
Nut:
goddess of the sky, mother of
Osiris
Osiris:
god of the dead and ruler of
the underworld, represented
the deceased pharaoh
Ptah:
god of craftsmen, primeval
creator god of Memphis
Ra:
the Sun itself
Sekhmet:
goddess of war
Seth:
god of chaos, and disharmony
Shu:
god of the air
Sobek:
god of crocodiles and a solar
deity
Tawaret:
goddess who protected
women during pregnancy
and childbirth
Thoth:
scribe of the gods
Priests helped connect the people to their gods. Priests and the pharaoh were the only people allowed
to enter the inner rooms of the temples. Because the ancient Egyptians believed the gods lived in the
temples, they needed the priests to intercede on their behalf. If the priests did not do their jobs well, the
gods would be dissatisfied. In recognition of their important role, the priests were well paid and had their
needs provided for.
32
LOST EGYPT
Afterlife
“The ancient Egyptians thought that animals and people had souls, so everyone got to have an afterlife.
And for the Egyptians the afterlife was a sort of deluxe version of this life. So no matter if you had been
poor in this life and had a hard time, by doing certain things in your tomb and saying the right sort of
prayer, your afterlife could be fabulous.”
-Dr. Salima Ikram
Ancient Egyptians had strong beliefs about the afterlife, and they made elaborate preparations to help
themselves reach the next world. They believed the afterlife was a continuation of this one, but without
any disease, hunger or pain. You would still need shelter, clothing, tools, and food. In addition, ushabtis
were included in many tombs. These small statues were the deceased’s servants in the afterlife.
Nature was important to the ancient Egyptians,
and they used images of the sun, plants and
animals in their religious lives. When the sun(Ra)
set in the west, the Egyptians believed he was
vulnerable to attack from demonic forces. It was
the duty and privilege of Egyptians upon their
death to join Ra and be beside him during this
nightly combat. Because the sun (Ra) began his
journey in the west, the ancient Egyptians also
buried their dead to the west of the Nile River
whenever possible.
Papyrus, a plant that grew throughout the country,
was a symbol of life and health. Its symbol can be
seen in their artwork.
PAPYRUS PLANT - Photo
graph by Wikipedia
The lotus flower symbolized rebirth. The lotus
would sink below the surface of the water each
night with the setting of the sun, but each morning
when the sun rose, the plant would rise from the
water and open.
The ancient Egyptians also believed that people
were made of several parts. Each part needed to
33
LOTUS FLOWER
- Photograph by Wik
ipedia
LOST EGYPT
survive death in order to have a happy afterlife. One of the most important parts of a person was their
name. Without a name, a person would cease to exist, so names were carved or painted in several places
around their tombs. Pharaohs had their names written throughout their tombs, temples and monuments.
If someone destroyed the names by plastering over them or damaging the carvings, the ancient Egyptians
believed that the person disappeared from history.
Another important part of a person was the ka, vital
force. The ancient Egyptians believed when a person
died the ka left the body, though the ka lived on if
provided for properly. The ka needed food and drink,
which were left as offerings in the tomb.
The ba represented the deceased’s soul and
personality. Depicted as a bird with the face of the
deceased, the ba could travel the Earth. The ba,
which had separated from the body, needed to be
attracted back.
BA BIRD - Photograph ©
2008 Brad Feinknopf
The ancient Egyptians believed that not everyone could achieve the afterlife. During the dead person’s
journey through the underworld, they were subjected to the “weighing of the heart ceremony”
Photograph by Jon Bodsworth), which measured their heart against Maat. Maat is defined as the order
of the universe. If a person lived out of harmony with the universe, they were destroyed. If a person had
lived in harmony with the universe, the spirit of the deceased would transform into the akh (or successful
entity in the afterlife), thus achieving eternal life.
SCENE FROM BOOK OF THE GOING FORTH BY DAY DEPICTING THE WEIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONY - Photograph by Jon Bodsworth
34
LOST EGYPT
Mummification
“In the old days when people studied mummies, they’d just unwrap them, and then they’d look at the
body and poke around. Nowadays, we have much more respect for the dead…”
-Dr. Salima Ikram
“[W]e’ve seen that they [the embalmers] understood the person who they were working on, whose
funeral they were arranging, as a member of their community and they were practicing ex-post facto
medicine on the individual. They could not save her life, but they were able to treat what it was that
caused her death magically so that when she resurrected she would be back together again, fully
operative and as good as new.”
-Dr. Jonathan Elias
Mummification is the process of preparing the
physical body for the afterlife. The various parts
of a person, including the ka, and ba, needed to
return to the body for the person to achieve the
afterlife.
There was no one-way to make a mummy.
Techniques and practices changed over time, and
varied depending on whether you were rich or
poor. According to the classical writer Herodotus,
the mummification process took 70 days. He
maintained that embalmers first washed the body
with palm wine and then proceeded to remove
the internal organs. Modern research shows
that in most cases an incision was made in the left flank and all the major organs, except the heart, were
removed. The heart was left inside the body because Egyptians believed it was responsible for a person’s
intelligence and emotions. The brain was removed through a hole created in the ethmoid bone, the bone
separating the nasal cavity and brain, and discarded.
ANUBIS ADMINISTERING TO MUMMY FROM TOMB OF TAWOSRET
- Photograph © 2008 Brad Feinknopf
After the removal of the internal
organs, the body drained of
fluids. Embalmers washed the
body with palm wine, packed it
with small satchels of granular or
powdered natron (a compound
of sodium salts), and left it for
40 days and nights. The natron
removed any remaining moisture
35
MUMMY PREPARATION FROM TOMB OF NEBAMUN AND IPUKI - Photograph © 2008 Brad Feinknopf
LOST EGYPT
within the body. Following this period, they used oils, perfumes, and resins to keep the skin supple and
pleasant smelling. Depending on the period, material (e.g., sawdust; mud; butter-like fat mixed with
bicarbonate of soda; lichen;and occasion linen pads) was sometimes inserted into the body cavities, or
between the muscle and the skin. The outside of the body was wrapped in linen. Sometimes amulets
were wrapped inside the linens to protect and provide for the deceased during its journey to the afterlife.
How do we study mummies?
The earliest known public unwrapping of a mummy took place in Cairo in 1698. Margaret Murray
from The Manchester Museum in England arranged for a group of scientists to conduct unwrappings
of “The Two Brothers,” two Middle Kingdom mummies in 1908. Scientists considered this the first
interdisciplinary study of mummies.
In 1895 the discovery of X-rays led to a new era of mummy studies. Sir Flinders Petrie conducted the
first radiological study of an Egyptian mummy shortly after the discovery of X-rays around 1898. Since
then, radiology has never stopped investigating these special patients. By the end of the 1970s, computed
tomography (CT) scanning permitted more in-depth studies without removing a mummy’s masks and
coverings. A CT scanner shoots X-rays at the test subject from all angles, not just from the front as with
typical X-rays. A computer compiles all the information into a 3-D image that provides scientists with
important new information. CT data also allows scientists to reconstruct an image of the face of the
mummified individual at the time of his or her death. The history of imaging allows us to appreciate why
these studies have been, and still are, fundamental in the study of Egyptian mummies.
Photogr
36
aph co
NER
T SCAN
ING A C Consortium
’ EN TER
“ANNIE Mummy Studies
Akhmim
urtesy of
RAMESSE
8
graph © 200
S VI - Photo
opf
Brad Feinkn
Some ancient Egyptians buried their dead in tombs, which held the
deceased’s body and funerary goods. Pharaohs often began preparations
for their tomb as soon as they ascended the throne. These practices
were usually carried out for the wealthy. We are still learning about
burial practices for the ordinary people of ancient Egypt.
Goods brought into the tomb would provide
the deceased with everything they needed in
the afterlife, and provide for their ka. Food,
clothing, furniture, amulets, statues of gods and
the deceased, chariots and models of boats have
all been found inside tombs. Statues were also
very important. They represented the ka (vital
force) in the accessible parts of the tomb and
channeled nourishment to the mummified body
protected deeper underground. Not everyone
in ancient Egyptian society could afford lavish
tombs and burials. A wide range of tombs have
been discovered, from the elaborate tombs of the
pharaohs , to the one-story mud brick structures
of the nobility called mastabas, and the simple
graves of the common people.
otogra
ph
by Jon
Bodsw
orth
Using this style, pharaohs and gods were very rigidly painted or carved, with very
serene faces. It was a rule when painting or carving important people that the
space in front of the head or body remained clear. They did not hold animals and
other people to such strict standards and showed them in more relaxed positions.
37
pf
PL ATEA
U - Ph
Feinkno
GIZ A
08 Brad
N THE
B OF TA
WOSRE
T - Photo
graph ©
20
TOMB
O
IN TOM
A ROC
K CUT
HORUS
Those who could afford it decorated their tombs
with elaborate paintings and carvings. The ancient
Egyptians believed these were magical. The
pictures could provide things the deceased would
need in the afterlife. The Egyptians’ artistic style,
which relied on consistent and strict rules, is very
recognizable. The style, called “frontalism,” shows
people with their face in profile, body facing
forward, and legs facing the same direction as the
head with one foot in front of the other. The eye,
even though the person is facing forward, is always
fully drawn.
TOMB OF
LOST EGYPT
Tombs and Tomb art
“To excavate in Egypt you don’t have to understand a single hieroglyph. To be a good dirt
archaeologist, you need to read dirt, not hieroglyphs. But in order to say anything accurately about the
culture itself, you should have an understanding of ancient Egyptian language.”
-Dr. Jonathan Elias
MPLE - Pho
KARNAK TE
TOMB AR
T FROM
TOMB OF
RAMESS
ES VI - Ph
otograph
© 2008
Brad Feink
no
pf
opf
8 Brad Feinkn
tograph © 200
MPLE - Pho
38
KARNAK TE
Over time, the ancient Egyptians created a system
where certain symbols represented certain sounds
or consonants. Several symbols were written
together to make a word. This is as close as the
Egyptians ever came to creating an alphabet.
Vowels, usually “eh” or “ah,” were not written, but
were added by the reader. This is why we do not
know exactly what the ancient Egyptian language
sounded like.
COLUMN AT
Scribes carved and painted hieroglyphs on the walls
of tombs and temples, on obelisks, and on sculptures.
They were also written with pen and colored ink on
sheets of papyrus. These written texts were thought
to be necessary to ensure a good afterlife. Because
the ancient Egyptians believed the deceased’s afterlife
journey to be perilous, they often recorded hymns,
spells, and instructions to help them along their way.
Commonly referred to as the “Book of the Dead,”
the proper name for this collection of writings is the
“Book of Going Forth by Day.”
tograph © 200
8 Brad Feinkn
opf
The ancient Egyptians created a form of picturewriting using signs known as hieroglyphs beginning
around 3100 BC.
Hieroglyph, literally “sacred writing”, is the Greek
rendering of the Egyptian term medew-netjer,
meaning “divine words.” As writing became more
widespread among the Egyptian people, other
written scripts developed for use in daily documents.
However, hieroglyphs continued to be used in tombs,
temples, and other “sacred documents” for over 3,000
years.
OBELISK AT
LOST EGYPT
Hieroglyphs
LOST EGYPT
Tools and Technologies of Ancient Egypt
“[O]ne of the things that the site of Deir Al-Barsha is very well known for is one of the tomb paintings
that we find in the tomb of the governor. And, in that scene, we see a depiction of how the early
Egyptians moved very, very large pieces of stone. What’s depicted is hundreds of Egyptians pulling
an extremely large statue of a seated figure on a sled and these individuals are pulling it forward, with
people standing on the statue in the sled, pouring water in front of the sled to reduce the friction.”
-Dr. Tosha Dupras
LE - Photograp
h © 2008 Bra
d Feinknopf
The multitude of monuments and tombs found
throughout Egypt provide evidence that the
ancient Egyptians placed a high priority on
constructing their tombs. Over 100 pyramids
were built in Egypt. The biggest ones took more
than 20 years to complete. This massive building
effort required the use of many tools, a great deal
of stone, and many workers including craftsmen,
artists, architects and laborers. They did not use
slaves to build the pyramids and other Egyptian
monuments, but rather free people who dedicated
their time to construction when the farm fields
were flooded and unworkable.
LUXOR TEMP
The large rocks used to build the pyramids
weighed up to 20 tons each, which is equal to
the weight of 27 refrigerators. The stones were
quarried upstream and floated down the Nile on
large ships. The blocks and obelisks had to be
dragged across the desert floor, which was no easy
feat. Archaeologists believe they moved this weight by creating roads made of limestone and gypsum
with wooden slats (similar to railroad ties). The large rock or obelisk was placed on a wooden sled and
dragged upon the road. Mud and water were used to lubricate the space between the sled and the slats.
Lifting stones to the top of a pyramid or temple was a very complicated task. Archaeologists have several
ideas about how this may have happened. Ramps would have allowed the workers to move the stone up
to a higher level without the strain of lifting. For a ramp to be useable, it needed to have a ratio of 10:1.
This means that for every 1 foot it goes up, it must be 10 feet long. The exact shape the ancient Egyptians
might have used is a mystery. Were they long ramps that stretched out ten times as far as the pyramids
are tall? Did they spiral around the pyramid as it grew? Was it a combination of both? There is no clear
evidence, since all useful materials were taken after the completion of the pyramids.
39
LOST EGYPT
Archaeologists believe the ancient Egyptians also
used levers to lift heavy objects. Levers give a
mechanical advantage, allowing them to lift weight
much heavier than what they could lift on their
own. It is unknown exactly how they used levers
to raise an obelisk. For more information on how
an obelisk could have been raised, see http://
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/egypt/raising/
Using only very simple tools, the ancient
Egyptians built complex monuments. The
Egyptians had to cut the large limestone blocks
by hand, using only copper and bronze saws
and drills, and other stones. The saws served as
a guide, while a mixture of water, gypsum and
quartz sand actually cut the rock. The straight
lines and angles carved into the monuments were
made with the assistance of a plumb bob. The
plumb bob is essentially a weight at the end of a
string, providing a straight line down. Using the
information from the plumb bob, the ancient
Egyptians carved numerous consistent angles and
today construction projects still occasionally use
the plumb bob.
LUXOR
TEMPLE
ph © 2008
- Photogra
pf
no
Brad Feink
The pyramids and monuments were smoothed
by hand with very narrow blades of copper or
bronze tapped with a wooden mallet. These
blades needed to be sharpened again and again.
Archaeologists estimate there would have been a
full-time tool sharpener for every 100 workers.
Archaeologists estimate it took a city of 20,000
– 25,000 people between 15 to 25 years to build
the pyramid of Khufu. At least two teams of 2,000
people served as stone haulers, and two teams of
1,000 people served as stone setters and trimmers.
Additional jobs included building ramps, making
tools, working metal, making pottery, feeding the
workers, and performing many other tasks.
40
PYRAM
IDS ON
GI
ZA PLTE
AU - Phot
ograph ©
2008 Brad
Feinkno
pf
LOST EGYPT
Fun Facts
 King Tut never rode a camel. The animals came to Egypt at
the end of the age of pharaohs.
 As of 2002, AERA had catalogued nearly 25,000 pieces
of flint, 200,000 fragments of animal bone, and 500,000
pieces of pottery from the Lost City site. Those numbers
continue to grow.
 According to Richard W. Bulliet’s book The Camel
and the Wheel, camels actually replaced pre-existing
wheeled technologies in some parts of the Middle East
because they didn’t get stuck in the sand.
 The first recorded restoration of the Great Sphinx at
Giza took place nearly 3500 years ago, when Pharaoh
Thutmose IV removed the sand that had buried it up to its neck.
At the time of Thutmose’s restoration, the Sphinx was already 1000 years old.
 In the film Raiders of the Lost Ark, Indiana Jones discovers the Ark of the Covenant in a hidden
chamber in the ancient city of Tanis. Tanis was an actual city, and it served as the capital of Egypt
from the Twenty-first to the Twenty-third dynasty (approximately 1078 BC – 740 BC).
 The mummy in both the 1932 film The Mummy and in the 1999 remake of the same name is
named Imhotep. In reality, Imhotep was the engineer who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser,
the first pyramid constructed in ancient Egypt.
 Thutmose III covered the texts of Hatshepsut’s obelisks
at Karnak Temple with stone in an attempt to remove
any mention of her from the temple. Ironically, the
stone coverings helped to keep these carvings in pristine
condition almost 3500 years later.
 Using her work as a remote sensing expert, Dr. Sarah
Parcak estimates that less than 0.01% of the archaeological
sites in Egypt have been discovered.
 The words mummy, sphinx, and pyramid do not have
Egyptian origins (mummy is derived from Latin and
Persian, while sphinx and pyramid are derived from
Greek).
 The popular myth of Napoleon’s soldiers shooting off the
41
CAMEL
ON TH
E GIZA
PL ATEA
U
LOST EGYPT
Great Sphinx’s nose is untrue. It is more likely that the nose was
destroyed some 400 years before Napoleon ever set foot in Egypt.
 Around 99% of Egypt’s population lives along the Nile River or in
the river’s delta.
 The total number of animal mummies found in Egypt is
unknown. Animal mummies were so prevalent, sailors would
use them as ballast (or weight used to stabilize a ship). It is
unsure how many animal mummies left Egypt stuffed into the
holds of ships.
 It took over 100 years to translate the Rosetta Stone.
 In popular culture, we often see images of mummies buried
standing up. Archaeologists have not found any mummies
buried standing up.
 There is a cemetery near the Step Pyramid at Saqqara
dedicated entirely to Apis Bulls. Both in life and death,
these animals were treated like royalty. After the funeral
ceremony, some Apis Bulls were buried in sarcophagi
weighing over 60 tons.
STATUE
OF
NAPOLEON AT THE GREAT SPHINX
42
AN APIS
BULL
LOST EGYPT
Glossary
Akh – A successful entity in the ancient Egyptian afterlife.
Amulet – A charm used to bring good luck or ward off evil.
Anthropology – The scientific study of human culture and biology. Anthropologists study what it is to be human
in past and modern societies. In North America, anthropology usually falls into four sub-disciplines: cultural
anthropology, physical anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics.
Archaeobotanist – A person who studies ancient plants found on archaeological sites.
Archaeology – The scientific study of historic people and their cultures by excavation and analysis of their
material remains.
Archaeologist – A person who studies historic people and their cultures.
Artifact – Any object manufactured, used or modified by humans.
Ba – An aspect of ancient Egyptian religion that can be translated as a person’s soul and personality.
Bitumen – Mineral pitch, or natural hydrocarbon, used in the process of mummification.
Canopic Jars – A set of four containers used to store some of the internal organs of the deceased after
mummification.
CT (Computed tomography) scan – Imaging technology used to view soft and hard tissue in the human body.
Ceramicist – A person who studies the ceramics and pottery found on archaeological sites.
Coffin – A container for a dead body usually intended to lie within a sarcophagus in ancient Egypt. Shapes were
typically rectangular or anthropoid (following the outline of the human body), made of wood or stone, and have a
separate box and lid.
Coffin Texts – Texts that were inscribed on the inside of a coffin to help the deceased reach the afterlife.
Culture - The full range of learned behavior patterns that are acquired by people as members of a society. A
culture is a complex, largely interconnected whole that consists of the knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs,
skills, and habits learned from parents and others in a society.
Deity – A god or goddess.
Dynasty – A line of pharaohs who were related to each other by blood or marriage or who shared the same point
of origin (like the same hometown) or who ruled from the same capital.
Egyptologist – A person who specializes in the study of ancient Egypt. Egyptologists may be archaeologists,
historians, linguists, or art historians, among others.
Egyptology – The study of ancient Egypt, its people, monuments and culture.
Epigraphy – The study of ancient inscriptions.
Excavation – Digging up and removing artifacts and features from an archaeological site in order to analyze and
predict past human behavior.
Faunal Analyst – A person who studies bones and other food refuse in order to determine diet.
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LOST EGYPT
Forensic Anthropologist – A person who studies human remains to help identify the individual and their cause
of death.
Funerary Books – A series of writings that aid the deceased in a safe journey through the Underworld. These
include such books as The Book of Gates, The Book of What is In the Underworld and the Book of the Heavenly
Cow.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) – Computer systems used to manage geographic data.
Geologist – A person who studies the earth and land.
Geomorphologist – A person who studies landmasses and how they have changed over time.
Geophysical Surveying – Using specially designed equipment, such as magnetometers and GPR, to locate
subsurface archaeological remains.
GIS Specialist – A person who specializes in computer mapping.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) – An instrument that uses radar waves to reveal objects hidden beneath the
surface of the land.
Hieroglyphs – Symbols which made up the ancient Egyptians’ form of picture writing.
Hypothesis – A tentative explanation for a set of observable or measurable facts that is tested using the scientific
method.
Illustrator – An artist responsible for drawing an excavation site and its related artifacts
Ka – An aspect of ancient Egyptian religion that can be translated as a person’s life force.
Lithics Specialist – A person who studies stone tools and artifacts.
Magnetometry – An instrument used to measure the strength and direction of magnetic fields.
Mastaba – Arabic word for ‘mud-brick bench,’ which it resembles, these one-story structures were flat on the top
and marked some ancient Egyptian tombs.
Mummification – The process used by the ancient Egyptians to preserve the dead.
Mummy – Artificially preserved human or animal corpse. The word is derived from the Persian, mum, meaning
wax or bitumen.
Natron – A combination of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate used to desiccate and purify corpses during the
mummification process. These sodium salts occur naturally in Egypt.
Obelisk – A tall four-sided monolithic monument that tapered to a pyramid shape at the top which was placed
outside temples.
Osteologist – A person who studies the structure and function of bones.
Ostrakon – A pot shard or stone chip used as a writing or drawing surface. The plural is ostraka.
Papyrus – An abundantly found water reed used by the ancient Egyptians for creating a writing surface.
Pharaoh – The title given to ancient Egyptian kings.
Pyramid – An ancient Egyptian monument with a rectangular base and four sloping triangular faces meeting at
the top to form a point, built over or around a tomb. These were typically built for the pharaohs, and took many
years to complete.
Pyramid Texts – Magical texts inscribed in the burial chambers of pyramids.
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Remote Sensing – The process of looking at things without touching them. In archaeology, the use of satellite
images and aerial photographs to study sites and their geological settings. On-ground remote sensing is also called
geophysical surveying.
Sarcophagus – Outermost container for the deceased, intended to hold coffins, and composed of either wood or
stone.
Satellite imagery – Data obtained from sensors located on satellites. Data can be collected in both the visible
and non-visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Sealing – Mud or clay that is used to cover and seal a container, such as a jar, or storeroom door, often with the
rolled or stamped impression of a royal cartouche or other official seal.
Seriation – In archaeology, placing artifacts in a relative sequence from early to late.
Shabti or Ushabti – Magical servant statue found in tombs from the Middle Kingdom on. These figures served
the deceased in the afterlife, performing manual labor and acting as a substitute. Sometimes many were included in
one tomb.
Stratigraphy – The study of strata or layers.
Stela – An upright slab or stone or wood that was carved or painted with inscriptions and scenes. The plural is
stelae.
Surveyor – A person who works to determine positions on the Earth’s surface and studies sites for future
excavation.
Syncretism – The combination of different cultures’ religious beliefs or practices into one.
Test Pits – A series of small excavations used to gather data on the potential of an archaeological site.
Theory – A set of facts or principles that explain phenomena in the natural world.
X ray – Imaging technology used to view the bones in the body.
Zooarchaeologist – A person who studies animal remains found on archaeological sites.
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