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Interest groups: an organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. IGs operate at every level of government in America’s federal system.
1. Political parties nominate candidates, contest elections, and seek to gain control over government. In contrast, interest groups seek to support public officials and influence public policies. Interest groups have no legal status in the election process.
2 Political parties have positions on a wide range of public issues. In contrast, interest 2.
Political parties have positions on a wide range of public issues In contrast interest
groups focus only on specific issues that directly affect their members. As a result, interest groups are able to articulate specific policy positions.
3. Political parties are public organizations that are accountable to the voters. In contrast, interest groups are private organizations that are accountable to their members. Membership may be restricted or open to all interested. Not all interested people belong to interest groups; many people belong to various interest groups at the same time
Interest groups have often been viewed with suspicion. In Federalist #10, James Madison warned against the dangers of “faction.” Although Madison was opposed to the elimination of factions, he believed that the separation of powers under the Constitution would moderate their effect.
Officials in the legislative and executive branches control the distribution of billions of
Officials in the legislative and executive branches control the distribution of billions of federal dollars. As a result, most industries, corporations, professions, and unions now have interest groups to represent them in D.C.
The number of interest groups has increased from 6,000 in 1959 to approximately 22,000 in 2010.
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Interest groups serve several important functions.
• Raise awareness and stimulate interest in public affairs by educating their members and the public
• Represent their membership, serving as a link between members and government (linkage institution)
• Provide information to government, especially data and testimony useful in making public policy
• Provide channels for political participation that enable citizens to work together to Provide channels for political participation that enable citizens to work together to
achieve a common goal
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Most interest groups are formed on the basis of economic interests. Labor Groups: The American labor movement reached its peak in 1956 when 33 present of the nonagricultural work force belonged to a union. Today, 16 million Americans, or about 13% of the nonagricultural work force, belong to a union.
• The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL‐CIO) is America’s largest union both in size and political power. About 10 million workers are members of unions belonging to the AFL‐CIO.
Business Groups: Most large corporations employ lobbyists to monitor legislative activity that may affect their business.
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• The Chamber of Commerce is the world’s largest business federation. It spends $20 million a year lobbying for its 3,000 local chambers and 3 million members
• The NAM represents 12,000 small and large manufacturers in ever industrial sector and in all 50 states. It focuses on legislation affecting labor laws, minimum wage, corporate taxes, and trade regulations.
Professional groups: • The NEA represents 3.2 million public school teaches, supports personnel, and retired educators. The NEA represents 3 2 million public school teaches supports personnel and retired educators
The NEA was actively involved in the debate over how to implement the NCLB Act.
• AMA is the nation’s largest association of physicians and medical students. The AMA is actively involved in proposals to reform the health care system.
• The ABA is a voluntary association of 410,000 lawyers and law students. The ABA is actively involved in setting academic standards for law schools and in formulating ethical codes for the legal profession.
Agricultural groups: although farmers comprise less than 2% of America’ss population, their interest Agricultural groups: although farmers comprise less than 2% of America
population their interest
groups play an influential role in shaping agricultural policies.
• The NFU is a broad‐based organization that speaks for farmers, where as a specialized interest group, like the National Milk Producers Federation represents the interests of American dairy farmers.
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Influence elections—encouraging members to vote for candidates who support their views, influencing party platforms and the nomination of candidates, campaigning and contributing money to parties and candidates through PACs
Lobbying—attempting to influence policymakers, often by supplying data to government officials and their staff t o convince these policymakers that their case is more deserving than another’s
• Direct lobbying
Direct lobbying—using
using personal contacts between lobbyists and policymakers
personal contacts between lobbyists and policymakers
• Grassroots lobbying—interest group members and others outside the organization write letters, send emails, and make telephone calls to influence policy makers
• Coalition lobbying—several interest groups with common goals join together to influence policymakers
Litigation—groups often take an issue to court if they are unsuccessful in gaining the support of Congress; this strategy was used successfully by the NAACP to argue against segregation during the 1950s. IGs are not limited to directly sponsoring a case. They can also file an amicus curiae (“friend of the court”) brief in a case the group is interested in. amicus briefs consist of written arguments submitted to a court in support of one side of a case. Interest groups now play a prominent role in influencing who is nominated to the federal courts. This is especially true for Supreme Court nominations.
Going public—appealing to the public for support by bringing attention to an issue or using public relations to gain support for the image of the interest group itself
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The campaign finance reforms of the 1970s prohibited corporations and labor unions from making direct contributions to candidates running for federal office. PACs were formed as political arms of interest groups. PAC contributions are basically investments for the future, and incumbents are the most likely to return the investment.
Federal law regulates PACs
Federal
law regulates PACs—contributions
contributions to an individual candidate is limited by law; the to an individual candidate is limited by law; the
must register with the federal government, raise money from multiple contributors, donate to several candidates, and follow strict accounting rules.
For a federal PAC to be legitimate, the funds must be raised from at least 50 volunteer donors and must be given to at least five candidates in the federal election. PACs can contribute up to $5,000 to each candidate in each election. Each p
corporation or each union is limited to one PAC.
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The first major attempt to regulate lobbying came in 1946 with the passage of the Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act, requiring lobbyists to register with the clerk of the House of Representatives and the secretary of the Senate if their principle purpose was to influence legislation. This law was directed only at those who tried to influence members of Congress. The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 essentially replaced all past laws. The act placed no limit on overall spending but restricted the amount that could be spent on mass‐media advertising including television if the candidate too public money It limited the amount
advertising, including television, if the candidate too public money. It limited the amount that candidates could contribute to their own campaign ( a limit later ruled unconstitutional in Buckley v. Valeo, 1976) and required disclosure of all contributions and expenditures over $100.
In 1995 Congress passed the Lobbying Disclosure Act, creating much stricter regulations by requiring registration if lobbying was directed at members of Congress, congressional staff, or policy makers within the executive branch. It also requires the disclosure of more information concerning the activities and clients of lobbyists.
In 2010, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission has often been credited for the creation of “super PACs", political action committees which make no contributions to candidates or parties and so can accept unlimited contributions from individuals, corporations and unions. However, it took another decision by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Speechnow.org v. Federal El ti C
Election Commission, to actually authorize the creation of super PACs. This had i i t
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th i th
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f
PAC Thi h d
serious implications for campaigning in the 2012 presidential election.
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