Examining Current-Ideal Discrepancy Scores and
Exercise Motivations as Predictors of
Social Physique Anxiety in Exercising Females
Catherine M. Sabiston and Peter R.E. Crocker
University of British Columbia
Krista J. Munroe-Chandler
University of Windsor
This sttidy exatnined predictors of social physiqtie anxiety (SPA) using a tnultidimensional
model of body image. Exercising fetnales (n=296) completed cognitive, behavioral, and
affective (SPA) body image measures and descriptive questions related to their physical
characteristics. The sample had a mean age of 20.53 (SD =2.90) years and BMI of 22.56
(SD=3.23) kg/m\ The predictors, which included BML figure rating difference scores (cognitive body itnage), and reasons for exercise (behavioral body image), accounted for 44.9%
ofthe variance in SPA. In an attempt for a more parsimonious model, a second regression
model was examined. Significant predictors included the discrepancy score between an
individual's ctirrent shape and their ideal(/i =.232) and the exercise motives for weight/
appearance (fi = .516), and accountedfor 43% ofthe variance in SPA. These results suggest
that perceptions of body shape, size, and appearance are associated with social physique
anxiety in a female tmdergradtiate sample.
Address Correspondence To: Catherine Sabiston, School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Rm. 220B, War Memorial Gym, 6081 University Boulevard, Vancouver,
BC.V6T lZl
68
Examining Predictors of SPA... /69
Body image is generally defined as a multidimensional construct purporting to identify
an individual's perceptions and attitudes towards her/his body and physical characteristics
(Bane & McAuley, 1998; Banfield & McCabe, 2002). The multidimensional measurement of
body image includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral modalities (Bane & McAuley, 1998).
A weakness in the literature is that body image research has typically been detached from
foundational conceptual and theoretical frameworks (Bane & McAuley, 1998; Kulbok & Cox,
2002). However, associations between sociocultural frameworks, self-esteem theories, selfpresentation and social anxiety perspectives, and behavioral motivations are inherent in recent portrayals of body image as a multidimensional construct (Bane & McAuley, 1998; Banfield
& McCabe, 2002). Therefore, an individual's body image and possible implications of psychosocial functioning and related social physique anxiety should be examined using sound theoretical frameworks.
Researchers have emphasized females' reports of negative psychosocial affect related
to body image, since they place higher meaning and importance on physical characteristics
and perceptions ofappearance than do males (Harter, 1999; Pliner, Chaiken, & Flett, 1990). It
has been observed that the pressures to achieve a thin body shape amongst females may arise
from comparisons of their own figures with the perceived female figures thought to be 'ideal'
to same and opposite sex peers (Bordo, 1993; Cohn & Adler, 1992; Heinberg & Thompson,
1995). These comparisons of current and ideal body shapes may lead to heightened bodyrelated anxiety. According to Harter (1999), real-ideal discrepancies are also motivations for
behavior change, such as behaviors focused on altering body shape and size.
One method of assessing females' perceptions ofthe ideal body, in addition to perceptions of what others find attractive, is the Figure Rating Scale (FRS; Stunkard, Sorenson, and
Schulsinger, 1983). The FRS consists of silhouette drawings of adult body figures ranging
from extremely thin to very large. Individuals are asked to indicate the body figure that
represents their current body shape, the body shape most desired (which is considered the
ideal body figure), the body shape they perceive to be most attractive to the opposite gender,
and the body shape that is perceived to be ideal to individuals ofthe same gender (Cohn &
Adler, 1992). The FRS is purported to measure the cognitive dimension of body image (i.e..
Bane & McAuley, 1998), and is frequently used as a measure of personal body dissatisfaction.
This is obtained by assessing the discrepancy between the individual's current body shape
and their perceived ideal body shape (i.e., Lavine, Sweeney, & Wagener, 1999; Thompson,
Heinberg, Altabe, &Tantleff-Dunn, 1999).
There is a multitude of research employing an individual's current and ideal discrepancy
scores. However, very few studies have examined the discrepancy scores between an
individual's perceived current body shape and the body shapes they perceive to be most
70/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 1
attractive by same gender or opposite gender peers as a measure of cognitive body image
(Cohn & Adler, 1992). These discrepancy scores take into account the apparent perceptions of
other individuals, which are considered antecedents to body image disturbances, changes in
overall self-esteem, and subsequent health behaviors (i.e., Leary, 1992; Harter, 1999; Heinberg
& Thompson, 1995).
Using the FRS as a measure of perceived ideal female body shapes allows the researcher
to identify discrepancies that may lead to unhealthy behaviors, such as eating disturbances,
and excessive or avoidance of physical activity (Thompson et al., 1999). Although the FRS is
a global-like measure, whereby individuals can only identify entire shapes rather than specific
aspects ofthe body, it does provide an indication of whether there are differences between the
body shape perceived to be current, ideal, and the shapes perceived to be desired by others.
Females who report a current body shape that falls short of the perceived ideal body shape
desired by themselves, males, or by other females may express body-related anxiety in social
because they do not measure up to the perceived ideal body and physical attractiveness
standards. Partial links between perceptions of body shape and social physique anxiety have
been reported (Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Eklund & Crawford, 1994).
Social physique anxiety is rooted in self-presentation and social anxiety frameworks
(Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989; Leary, 1992; 1999). Self-presentation is an individual's attempt to
control and monitor the impressions others form of them (Leary, 1999). Due to the importance
of physical appearance in Western cultures, positive impressions related to attractiveness and
body shape/size are coveted by females, and self-presentation strategies are prolific (Leary,
1999; McAuley & Burman, 1993). Consequently, an individual's degree of body-related anxiety can be infiuenced by the perceived or known impressions of others and the individual's
subsequent attempt to control these impressions. Social physique anxiety arises when individuals are motivated to make desired (physical) impressions on others but doubt their capabilities to do so (Hart et al., 1989). Since social physique anxiety is a reported affective
component of body image (Bane & McAuley, 1998), it is important to understand the relationships among discrepancies in perceptions of body shapes and affective responses that could
have negative impacts on females' psychological and physiological health.
Apart from possible relationships between perceptions of attractive female body shapes
and body-related anxiety, individuals who report a greater discrepancy between their current
and perceived ideal body shapes may also identify more self-presentational concerns as motivation for physical activity. As such, these individuals may be more likely to report participating in physical activity in order to change aspects related to their appearance and shape.
Examining Predictors of SPA. ../71
Research examining the relationship between social physique anxiety and physical activity behavior has yielded ambiguous results. Predictions alluding to social physique anxiety
as a precursor to behavioral responses, such as physical activity avoidance or withdrawal,
have only been partially supported (Hart et al., 1989; Leary, 1999; Sabiston, Sedgwick, Farrell,
et al., 2003). In recent reports, social physique anxiety had low or insignificant relations with
physical activity (Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Crocker, Sabiston, Forrester et al., 2003; Lantz,
Hardy, & Ainsworth, 1997), competence in physical activity (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker,
Snyder, Kowalski, & Hoar, 2000; Kowalski, Crocker, & Kowalski, 2001), physiological measures
(Treasure, Lox, & Lawton, 1998), and preference for exercise settings (Eklund & Crawford,
1994) in adolescent and adult females. However, Frederick and Morrison (1996) found that
social physique anxiety was related to activity type preference, whereby individuals who
reported higher body-related anxiety were more likely to participate in fitness-type activities
rather than individual and team sports. Given these research findings, the strength and implication of the associations between social physique anxiety and exercise behavior are not
entirely understood.
Despite the inconclusive results noted above, an expected yet equivocal relationship
between body-related anxiety and physical activity is evident. Females often report exercise
motivations that originate from self-presentational concerns, which include weight concerns,
appearance, and body shape and tone (Bane & McAuley, 1998; Crawford & Eklund, 1994;
Frederick & Morrison, 1996; Leary, 1999; Marten & Shaffer, 2002). According to Ingledew and
Sullivan (2002), body image and body mass index (BMI) were significant predictors of appearance-related exercise motives among older adolescent females. Specifically, individuals who
had higher BMI's and/or expressed greater body-related anxiety (measured as lower body
image scores) were more likely to exercise in order to become thinner or alter their attractiveness. These findings support research linking exercise strategies to weight and appearance
(Silberstein et al., 1988).
To investigate the reasons that individuals report as motives to engage in physical
activity, Silberstein et al. (1988) developed and tested the Reasons for Exercise Inventory
(REI). The researchers identified weight and appearance as primary motives for females'
engagement in physical activity. Since the development ofthe REI, some researchers have
used the instrument and challenged the psychometrics of the scale (Cash, Novy, & Grant,
1994; Smith, Handley, & Eldredge, 1998). Using factor analysis techniques. Cash et al. (1994)
determined that the original 7-subscale instrument actually comprised only 4 factors that were
guided by theory and methodology. These four factors were subsequently labeled "weight/
appearance management", "fitness/health management", "stress/emotion management", and
"socializing". Smith et al. (1998) reported that the inventory's factor structure might not be
72/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28. No. I
generalizable to males and females. Despite the ambiguous scale dimensions and psychometrics, self-presentational exercise strategies consistently emerge among female adolescents
and adults (Cash etal., 1994; Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Silberstein etal., 1988).
Several theorists have stated that the sociocultural pressures for females to achieve
and/or maintain an 'ideal' figure are likely the basis for the emphasis on self-presentational
motives (i.e., Frederickson& Roberts, 1997; Leary, 1999; Monteath& McCabe, 1997). Therefore, it is important to determine whether perceptions of ideal female figures are related to
weight and appearance exercise motives. Females are motivated to achieve perceived ideal
body shapes by exercising to lose weight and gain muscle tone, thereby improving their
appearance (Bordo, 1993; Page & Fox, 1997; SilbersteinetaL, 1988). However, the relationships between exercise motivations (especially weight and appearance), self-presentational
anxiety (such as social physique anxiety), and perceptions of attractive female body shapes
(the discrepancy between an individual's current body shape and the female shapes thought
to be considered ideal by oneself and others) have not been examined.
The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors of social physique anxiety
(SPA) in exercising females, while controlling for physical characteristics of weight and height
(BMI). The sample was limited to exercising females due to the consistent reports that SPA is
not a critical variable in determining physical activity level (frequency or duration) but appears
to be related to the motives for exercise as well as perceptions of body shape (Crawford &
Eklund, 1994; Kowalski etal., 2001; Lantz etal., 1997). It was hypothesized that discrepancies
between an individual's current perceived body shape and their ideal, and the female figure
thought to be most attractive to both male and female peers would significantly predict SPA.
Furthermore, exercise motivations pertaining to weight and appearance, would also significantly predict SPA. Based on previous research, BMI may be significantly related to SPA and
was controlled in the analyses (Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Crocker et al., 2003; Eklund &
Crawford, 1994; Kowalski etal., 2001).
Methods
Participants
Three hundred and seventy three undergraduate females were recruited from a range of
classes at the University of Windsor in Ontario, Canada, and volunteered to participate in the
study. University-aged females were targeted since they have been known to place strong
emphasis on the importance of physical attractiveness, body image, and social acceptance
(Altabe & Thompson, 1993;Bordo, 1993; Thompson etal., 1999). From the sample, only those
individuals who reported exercising at least once a week were included in the analyses (n=296).
Examining Predictors of SPA.. ./73
Therefore, 79% of the recruited sample was included in this research. The participants reported a mean age of 20.53 (SD=2.9l) years, mean height of 1.66 (^^=.07) meters, and mean
weight 61.84 (50=10.39) kilograms. Mean body mass index (BMI) was 22.56 {SD =3.23) kg/m^.
This BMI is consistent with previous research using undergraduate participants (i.e., Crawford
& Eklund, 1994; Kowalski et al., 2001). The participants indicated that main exercise activities
included: biking, individual sports, running, swimming, team sports, and weight training.
Instruments
Figure rating scale (FRS). The FRS is a reliable and valid instrument of cognitive body
image for adult and adolescent females (Bane & McAuley, 1998; Candy & Fee, 1998; Thompson et al., 1999). The instrument measures perceived body shapes using a 9-point continuum
of female body figure diagrams ranging from extremely thin to extremely overweight. Individuals are asked to identify their current body size (CFR), an ideal or desired body shape (IFR), an
indication ofthe body shape thought to be most desirable to males (MFR), and the perceived
body shape desired by female peers (FFR) on the FRS. Refer to Stunkard et al. (1983) or Cohn
and Adler (1992) to see the female silhouette images.
Three cognitive body image scores were derived for each participant by subtracting the
ideal figure rating, the body shape perceived to be most attractive to males, and the perceived
body shape ideal for female peers from the current figure rating (Cohn & Adler, 1992; Lavine et
al., 1999). For descriptive purposes, the raw score was employed; however, the absolute value
of the discrepancy between the CFR and each of the three reported figure ratings was employed in further analyses. The direction of discrepancy was not considered as important as
the magnitude ofthe discrepancy (Crawford & Eklund, 1994).
Social physique anxiety scale (SPAS). The SPAS (Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, &
Bane, 1997) is a 9-item self-report inventory that measures social physique anxiety as an
affective modality of body image. Participants were asked to indicate the degree to which
statements are characteristic of them on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) not at all to (5)
extremely. Individuals who scored higher (e.g., maximum score is 45) on the SPAS indicated a
fear of being judged and observed by others, thus expressing the importance of others'
opinions. The SPAS has demonstrated construct validity, test-retest reliability, and internal
consistency (Martin et al., 1997; Motl & Conroy, 2000).
Reasonsfor exercise inventory (REI). The REI is a 24-item, 7-subscale self-report inventory purporting to evaluate motives for engaging in exercise activities (Silberstein et al., 1988).
The seven REI subscales include exercising for weight control, fitness, health, body tone,
overall physical attractiveness, mood enhancement, and enjoyment. Participants rated the
importance of each exercise motive from (1) not at all important to (7) extremely important.
74/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. I
Mean scores were determined for each motive, and the higher scores identified the main
reason(s) individuals engaged in exercise. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), the small
number of items within each subscale could contribute to instability for this inventory. However, acceptable reliabilities on each ofthe scales have been reported (Silberstein et al., 1988).
Procedtires
Following approval from the University Behavioral Research Ethics Board, female participants were recruited during class time from a variety of undergraduate courses. The principal investigator briefed the students on the study objectives and procedures, distributed
consent forms, and the interested female students were asked to remain behind after class. It
was emphasized that participation in the study was voluntary and would not infiuence the
individual's grade in the course.
The questionnaires were administered in person by the researcher, and full instructions
were provided, in writing, on the front page ofthe questionnaire booklet. Any further questions were addressed prior to the commencement ofthe assessment. The students were then
asked to complete all four sections ofthe quesdonnaire booklet (i.e., demographic data, FRS,
SPAS, and REI instruments). The questionnaires took approximately 25 minutes to complete
and return to the researcher.
Results
Scale structures and reliabilities
The FRS (a =.85) and the SPAS (a =.89) exhibited acceptable internal consistency. Due
to the concern over the factor structure for the REI, a Maximum Likelihood exploratory factor
analysis with oblique rotation was conducted on the scale using SPSSx (version 11). The
number of factors extracted was based on the requirement that a factor's eigenvalue be greater
than 1, and examination ofthe Scree plot. Item loadings were deemed acceptable if equal to or
greater than .50 on a single rotated factor (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The resultant factor
structure ofthe REI comprised four factors that were labeled Fitness/Health (factor 1), Weight/
Appearance (factor 2), Stress/Emotion (factor 3), and Socialization (factor 4). This structure
and the subsequent labeling are consistent with previous research (Cash et al., 1994). Three
items were deleted due to nonunique and/or insufficient loadings on any single factor (Item 10:
To have fun; Item 12: To maintain my current weight; and Item 17: To increase my energy
level). Refer to Table 1 for the factor structure ofthe REI. The revised REI subscales had
acceptable internal consistency (Fitness/health: a =.88; Weight/Appearance:a =.86; Stress/
Emotion: a =.77; and Socializing:a =.86).
Examining Predictors of SPA.. ./75
Table 1
Factor structure ofthe Reasons for Exercise Inventory
REI Factors and Items
Item
Loading
Fitness/Health
4. To improve my muscle tone
5. To maintain my physical
well-being
6. To improve my endurance,
stamina.
11. To improve my strength
13. To improve my flexibility,
coordination
16. To increase my resistance
disease
Item
Loading
Weight/Appearance
.71
.72
75
.71
.65
.52
21. To improve my overall health .66
24. To improve my cardiovascular .77
fitness
Stress/Mood
3. To improve my mood
22. To cope with stress, anxiety
23. To cope with sadness,
depression
REI Factors and Items
1. To be slim
2. To alter a specific area
on my body
7. To improve my overall
body shape
8. To lose weight
9. To be sexually desirable;
.79
.71
.62
.75
.77
.74
15. To be attractive to to
illness and members of
the opposite sex
18. To redistribute my weight .50
20. To improve my appearance .81
Socializing
.67
.81
.76
14. To socialize with friends .87
19. To meet new people
.87
76 / Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 1
Descriptive statistics for the FRS, SPAS, and REI are presented in Table 2. These values
are consistent with previous research (Cash et al., 1994; Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Eklund &
Crawford, 1994; Kowalski etal., 2001; Lavine etal., 1999). The relationships among the variables were examined using Pearson correlation coefficients and are presented in Table 3. The
social physique anxiety measure had low to moderate correlations with BMI (r=.28), absolute
discrepancy scores on the FRS (CFR-IFR: /'=.47; CFR-MFR: r=.31; CFR-FFR: r=.24), and the
Weight/Appearance subscale ofthe REI (r=.59). The Fitness/Health subscale ofthe REI was
not significantly correlated with SPAS, which is similar to previous research (Crawford &
Eklund, 1994). As expected, the Stress/Emotion and Socialization subscales ofthe REI demonstrated no significant relationships with any ofthe other variables.
Table 2
Descriptive statistics for the FRS, SPAS, and the REI measures.
Variable
Mean
SD
CFR
IFR
MFR
FFR
3.21*
2.50**
2.43***
2.04
0.73
0.76
1.17
0.80
1.08
1.33
26.83
4.67
5.28
4.50
3.47
0.99
0.66
0.69
0.66
0.84
1.08
1.12
0.68
0.74
0.85
7.31
1.18
1.01
1.41
1.72
CFR-IFR
CFR-MFR
CFR-FFR
|CFR-IFR|
CFR-MFRI
CFR-FFRI
SPAS
REI: W/A
REI:F/H
REI: S/E
RELSOC
N o t e : CFR=Current figure rating; IFR=Ideal figure rating; MFR=Male figure rating; FFR=FemaIe figure
rating; | | = absolute discrepaney score; REI:W/A=Weight/Appearance; REI: F/H=Fitness/Health; REI: S/
E=Stress/Emotion; REI: SOC=Socializing. * CFR significantly different than IFR, MFR, FFR (p < .05) **
IFR significantly different than FFR (p < .05) ***MFR significantly different than FFR {p < .05)
Examining Predictors of SPA.. ./77
Table 3
Pearson correlation coefficients for BMI the FRS, SPAS, and REI
I.BMI
2. CFR-IFR
.54*
-
3. CFR-MFR
.46*
.60*
-
4. CFR-FFR
.57*
.61*
.66*
-
5. SPAS
.28*
.47*
.31*
.24*
6.REI:W/A
.23*
.36*
.13*
.14*
.59*
7.REI:F/H
-.13*
-.20*
-.11
-.11
-.07
.15*
8.REI:S/E
-.03
-.11
-.04
-.03
-.07
.(M
.57*
9. REI: SOC
-.09
-.11
-.08
-.04
-.09
.02
.33*
.32*
Note: *p <.O5
Main analyses
Following an investigation of the assumptions of normality and outliers, a two-step
forced entry multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the hypothesis that social
physique anxiety would be related to self-presentational variables. The dependent variable
was the SPAS measure, and the predictors that were entered into the model were BMI, followed
by the absolute discrepancy scores on the FRS, and the subscales ofthe REI. The order of
variable entry was based on predictions. BMI, entered to control for physical characteristics,
was significant and accounted for 7.8% ofthe variance in SPAS. The final model accounted for
close to 45% ofthe variance in SPAS. The CFR-IFR (P = .23) and CFR-MFR (P =. 14) discrep-
78/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 1
ancy scores, and the Weight/Appearance (p=.52) and Fitness/Health (P =-.10) subscales of
the REI were significant individual predictors in the final model. However, since significant
correlations between several variables were noted, we were cautious of moderately to highly
interrcorrelated variables in the model. In an attempt to obtain a more parsimonious model, a
second multiple regression analysis was conducted. The discrepancy score between the
participant's current and ideal body shape and weight/appearance reasons for exercise were
significant individual predictors of SPA and accounted for 43% ofthe variance (see Table 4).
The second more robust model accounted for similar variance in SPA.
Table 4
Final regression analysis predicting SPA
Step
Variable
B
SE B
^
REI: W/A
3.67
.29
.591*
REI: W/A
2.99
.30
.483*
CFR-IFR
3.28
.52
.301*
1
2
R^
R-
.35*
.35*
.08*
.43*
Note: *p<0.05
Discussion
This research study examined the predictors of social physique anxiety within a multidimensional model of body image and self-presentation theoretical frameworks. This study
allowed for an extension of the social physique anxiety research with connections to both
subjective and objective perceptions ofthe ideal female body, and motives for exercise and
physical activity.
The novelty of this research is the consideration of females' subjective and objective
perceptions ofthe ideal female figure. It is well documented that perceptions of others are
important determinants of behavior and emotions related to the self (Harter, 1999; Leary &
Kowalski, 1995; Leary, 1992). According to some researchers, sociocultural pressures towards
Examining Predictors of SPA.. ./79
thinness that females experience are attributed to male preferences for thin, physically attractive figures and the prolific mediated female body (Bordo, 1993; Frederick & Roberts, 1997;
Markula, 1995; Myers & Biocca, 1992). This study examined the perceptions ofthe ideal
female figure, as perceived by oneself, and the perceived ideal for same and opposite sex peers.
The discrepancy between these perceived body shapes and reported current shapes was also
examined to determine the relationship with social physique anxiety. As predicted, the discrepancy score between females' current body shapes and that perceived to be most attractive
to males was a significant predictor of SPA. However, the relationship appeared to be significant only in the presence of other predictors. Therefore, these relationships require further
investigation.
The current-ideal female body discrepancy score, which was a significant predictor of
SPA in the final model, has been used widely as a measure of body size/shape satisfaction or
as a cognitive body image construct (i.e.. Bane & McAuley, 1998; Crawford & Eklund, 1994;
Lavine et al., 1999). The magnitude and direction ofthe discrepancy between the female's
current body shape and the shape she reportedly desired is similar to other empirical research
in the area (i.e., Cohn & Adler, 1992; Lavine etal., 1999; SilbersteinetaL, 1988). Consistently,
females report an ideal body shape that is smaller than their current body shape, and this
discrepancy is discussed as normative discontent among female adolescents and adults (Markey,
Tinsley, Ericksen, Ozer, & Markey, 2002; Thompson et al., 1999). In the current research study,
the absolute discrepancy between the current and ideal body shapes is smaller than the
discrepancy between the current and the perceived ideal female body most attractive to males,
which is again smaller than the difference between the current and the perceived ideal female
body desired by other females. Therefore, it is not the magnitude ofthe discrepancies between
the current and perceived ideal body shapes but the context of the discrepancy.
In deciphering between perceived ideal female figures, one must question the quantification of a subjective ideal figure. The individual's perceived ideal is likely the product of
situational and extemal influences in addition to one's own perceptions of what is achievable
and desirable (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Sparkes, 1997). Therefore, the measure of an
individual's subjective ideal figure may also be representative ofthe objective perceptions of
others. Nevertheless, there were differences between the measures of ideal female figures,
which indicate some level of distinctness. More research is necessary to determine the factors
that contribute to a female's perceived ideal figure.
Physical activity is a primary strategy for altering one's body shape and size, which
usually emanates from current-ideal discrepancies and motivated by strategies related to selfpresentation (Harter, 1999; Silberstein etal., 1988). The significant correlations between the
discrepancy scores and the weight/appearance motives for exercise demonstrate this conten-
80 / Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 1
tion. The fitness/health motives on the REI demonstrated low correlations with the CFR-IFR
discrepancy score, whereby an inverse relationship was noted. The closer the match between
the individual's current and ideal body shapes indicated a higher fitness/health motivation for
exercise.
The fitness/health variable was a significant predictor of SPA in the initial modeling
process, however only in the presence of the other predictors. The low-moderate significant
correlations between the fitness/health motive and all other reasons for exercise may be due to
underlying fitness and health motives for exercise that likely exist concomitantly with all other
motives. For instance, individuals may report exercising for weight/appearance reasons while
accepting that they will become more fit and healthy as a secondary benefit. Also, females
report fitness and health motives for exercise most frequently, perhaps due to the known and
highly publicized links between exercise and fitness/health or the reporting of these reasons
for exercise due to the social acceptability of the response. Further research is necessary to
understand these intricate relationships.
The weight/appearance motives for exercise was significantly and highly associated
with SPA. Previous research has identified that physical appearance-related variables demonstrate strong correlations with SPA(Crawford & Eklund, 1994; Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker et
al., 2000; Frederick & Morrison, 1996; Kowalski et al., 2001). In this study, female undergraduate students who reported exercising primarily for weight and/or appearance expressed greater
body-related anxiety. This relationship needs to be examined in more depth, especially considering the various meanings that weight and appearance hold as motivations for exercise. For
instance, some females desire a muscular and toned body shape that motivates them to exercise, which may trigger body-related anxiety as a result of perceptions of insufficient muscle
mass. This condition has recently been introduced in the literature as mttscle dysmorphia (i.e.,
Goodale, Watkins, & Cardinal, 2001). According to Goodale et al. (2001), muscle dysmorphia is
connected to various physical and psychosocial emotional and behavioral consequences,
such as anxiety and distress. Aside from desires for muscularity, other females describe their
weight and appearance in terms of thinness. Desires for thinness may also lead to bodyrelated anxiety as a result of perceptions of excess adiposity (i.e., body dysmorphia, see
Thompson et al., 1999). Therefore, the potential differences between descriptions of weight/
appearance as muscular versus thin should be examined in order to better understand the
relationship between these exercise motivations and social physique anxiety.
The relationship between weight/appearance exercise strategies and social physique
anxiety also needs to be analyzed further to determine the longitudinal effects of exercising
primarily for weight/appearance. Future studies may apply motivation theories and frameworks to the relationship between exercise motives and SPA to determine whether individuals'
Examining Predictors of SPA... /81
physical activity strategies fluctuate between extemal forms of motivation such as self-determined identified and introjected regulation (i.e., Deci & Ryan, 1995). These forms of motivation
that could be influenced differentially by experiences of SPA have demonstrated various
health and fitness consequences in the sport and exercise literature (i.e., Duda, Chi, Newton,
Walling, & Catley, 1995; Vallerand & Fortier, 1998; Vlachopoulos, Karageorghis, & Terry, 2000).
The strengths of this study include the use of valid instruments and multidimensional
body image theoretical frameworks, and a moderate sample of exercising female undergraduate
students. A limitation is that the Reasons for Exercise Inventory (REI; Silberstein et al., 1988)
did not emanate from theoretical foundations. Nevertheless, suggestions for the application
of self-presentation and self-determination theories were noted, and future research should
examine these possibilities and the subsequent properties ofthe scale. Also, the FRS schematics of body shapes do not account for muscle mass, which could be a limitation to this
research. Given the increased desires for females to attain a muscular/toned body shape along
with thinness (Bordo, 1993; Thompson et al., 1999), the FRS-type scales should include measures of muscularity. Raudenbush and Meyer (2003) have recently conducted a study with
male intercollegiate athletes using a scale of increased muscularity, and found that desires for
muscle mass varied based on the individual's sport preference and use of dietary supplements.
This type of research with females is also warranted in order to advance our understanding of
exercise motivation and possible antecedents of body-related anxiety. Finally, there was some
concern regarding the use of self-report measures that tap perceptions rather than actual
physical states. However, researchers have consistently maintained that the perceptions of
body size and shape are more strongly related to weight and body image concerns than actual
body size and have a greater influence on exercise and eating behaviors (Bane & McAuley,
1998; Davis, 1997; Thompson etal., 1999).
Aside from these limitations, this study highlighted interesting relationships between
perceptions of ideal body shapes, physical activity motives, and social physique anxiety. It is
important to continue to investigate relationships associated with body-related anxiety to gain
an understanding ofthe antecedents and consequences of this form of anxiety, and the inherent health implications. Specific future recommendations include examining whether physical
activity strategies are a coping function related to experiences of SPA, whereby the direction
ofthe relationship between the motives and social physique anxiety should be investigated.
Furthermore, the perceptions of others are integral to the study of body image and physical
self research and should not be overlooked. The current state of body image literature is
saturated with individual (objective) measures that should be combined with subjective concerns such as the perceptions of other male and females' ideal female body shapes. The
importance of these perceptions should also be investigated in greater depth. It appears.
82 / Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, No. 1
based on this research, that an individual's ideal shape and the female body shape thought to
be most attractive to others are distinct entities.
Based on the findings reported here, perceptions of body shape and reported motivations for physical activity are associated with social physique anxiety. The integral relationships with and predictors of SPA are influenced by self-presentation. However, the specific
health implications related to self-presentation are not well understood, and should become a
focus in sport and exercise research. It is also recommended that practitioners in the sport,
exercise, and health domains should focus on an individual's perceptions of themselves and
others rather than merely on the physical characteristics of weight and appearance. It is
possible that changes in perceptions of the ideal female body would also lead to changes in
the experience of social physique anxiety and other body image issues, as well as physical
fitness behaviors. The need for integrated applied and practical research is essential at this
point in body image-related studies and possible interventions pertaining to the physical self
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