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Communication Foundations
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Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
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Exploring Business Communication Concepts
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CHAPTER
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O B J E C T I V E S
When you have completed Chapter 1, you will be able to:
1
Define communication and
describe the main purpose for
communication in business.
2
Explain the communication
process model and the
ultimate objective of the
communication process.
3
Identify the five levels of
communication.
4
Discuss how information
flows in an organization
2
(formally and informally,
and downward, upward, and
horizontally).
5
Explain how legal and
ethical constraints act as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
6
Explain how diversity
challenges act as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
7
Explain how changing
technology acts as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
8
Explain how team
environment acts as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
I n considering new management
cases where they know best. Effective
external communication is also a
major hallmark of the HP Way. Customer feedback is credited for the
success of HP printers.
A s Hewlett-Packard climbed in its
Fortune 500 ranking, the company
has continued to adhere to its basic
principles. The advent of new technologies has presented a continuing
challenge for Hewlett-Packard: defining the company in the Internet Age
while honoring the 60-year-old principles of the HP Way. The answer was
“e-services,” a program designed to
make Hewlett-Packard’s products and
services conveniently available to customers over the Internet. In keeping
with the company philosophy, the site
allows customers to use the Internet
to improve their businesses. The philosophy of the HP Way—treating customers, employees, and suppliers
with respect and integrity—has
defined the company throughout its
history. It is a core that doesn’t go
away.
W hile electronic capabilities offered
new communication opportunities for
Hewlett-Packard, the basic principles
for success remained unchanged. Just
as Hewlett-Packard uses the HP Way
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ideas in practice, the computer industry has been characterized by flat organizations, speed, flexibility, and teams.
Companies such as Hewlett-Packard
and Microsoft provide an alternative
organizational model to the traditional,
hierarchical bureaucratic model.
Hewlett-Packard’s revolutionary ideas
extend far beyond its organizational
structure and into its practices. The HP
Way, the embodiment of company philosophy, as described by company cofounder David Packard, is built around
the concept of trust.
A t the inception of Hewlett-Packard
in 1938, William Hewlett and David
Packard initiated a set of business
practices, some of which had never
been tried before. Central to the “HP
Way” is the establishment of an open
communication environment that
allows workers to stroll into bosses’
offices and offer ideas. Company
power is not concentrated in its executives; employees make decisions in
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The HP Way: A Winning Philosophy
for Hewlett-Packard
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Establishing a Framework for
Business Communication
as a basis for its continuing success,
you will need to rely on the basic principles of business communication to succeed professionally. Even in this age of
instantaneous communication, the
basic principles of communication are
just as important—if not more important—than ever before. To be effective
in any business setting, you will need to
understand the process of communication and the dynamic environment in
which it occurs, especially in relation to
organizational communication and the
forces at work in the communication
environment.
http://www.hp.com
3
P U R P O S E S O F C O M M U N I C AT I O N
1
e communicate to satisfy needs in both our work and nonwork lives.
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W Each of us wants to be heard, appreciated, and wanted. We also want
to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. Obviously, then, a major purpose of communication is to help people feel good about themselves and about their friends,
groups, and organizations. Generally people communicate for three basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
What is communication? For our purposes, communication is the process
of exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals through
a common system of symbols, signs, and behavior. Other words often used to
describe the communication process are expressing feelings, conversing, speaking, corresponding, writing, listening, and exchanging. Studies indicate that
managers typically spend 60 to 80 percent of their time involved in communication. In your career activities, you may communicate in a wide variety of
ways, including
In what ways will communication be important in the career
field you have chosen?
• attending meetings and writing reports related to strategic plans and company policy.
• presenting information to large and small groups.
• explaining and clarifying management procedures and work assignments.
• coordinating the work of various employees, departments, and other work
groups.
• evaluating and counseling employees.
• promoting the company’s products/services and image.
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Define communication
and describe the main
purpose for communication in business.
T H E C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S
2
Explain the communication process model
and the ultimate
objective of the communication process.
ffective business communication is essential to success in today’s work
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E environments. A recent survey of executives documents that abilities in
writing and speaking will be major determinants of career success in many
fields.1 Although essential to personal and professional success, effective business communication does not occur automatically. Your own experiences have
likely taught you that a message is not interpreted correctly just because you
transmitted it. To communicate effectively, the effective manager must anticipate
possible breakdowns in the communication process—the unlimited ways the
message can be misunderstood. This mind-set provides the concentration to
design the initial message effectively and to be prepared to intervene at the
appropriate time to ensure that the message received is on target—that is, as
close as possible to what is intended.
Consider the communication process model presented in Figure 1-1. These
seemingly simple steps actually represent a very complex process.
The Sender Encodes the Message
The sender carefully designs a message by selecting (1) words that clearly convey the message and (2) nonverbal signals (gestures, stance, tone of voice, and
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Part 1 | Communication Foundations
FIGURE 1-1
The communication process
model.
SELECTS CHANNEL
AND TRANSMITS
MESSAGE
SENDER
DECODES MESSAGE
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S
DECODES MESSAGE
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ENCODES MESSAGE
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RECEIVER
SELECTS CHANNEL
AND TRANSMITS
MESSAGE
ORIGINAL MESSAGE
ENCODES MESSAGE
FEEDBACK
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so on) that reinforce the verbal message. The process of selecting and organizing the message is referred to as encoding. The sender’s primary objective
is to encode the message in such a way that the message received is as close
as possible to the message sent. Knowledge of the receiver’s educational
level, experience, viewpoints, and other information aids the sender in encoding the message. If information about the receiver is unavailable, the sender
can put himself or herself in the receiver’s position to gain fairly accurate
insight for encoding the message. As you study Chapters 3 and 4, you will
learn to use words effectively; Chapter 2 will assist you in refining your nonverbal communication.
Various behaviors can cause breakdowns in the communication process at
the encoding stage, such as when the sender uses
Diversity
Challenges
•
•
•
•
words not present in the receiver’s vocabulary.
ambiguous, nonspecific ideas that distort the message.
nonverbal signals that contradict the verbal message.
expressions such as “uh” or grammatical errors, mannerisms (excessive hand
movements, jingling keys), or dress that distracts the receiver.
The Sender Selects an Appropriate
Channel and Transmits the Message
List three breakdowns in the
encoding process that you have
experienced.
To increase the likelihood that the receiver will understand the message, the
sender carefully selects an appropriate channel for transmitting the message.
Three typical communication channels are illustrated in Figure 1-2.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
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FIGURE 1-2
TWO-WAY, FACE-TO-FACE
Channels of communication.
! Instant feedback
! Nonverbal signals
! Instant feedback
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! Limited nonverbal signals
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TWO-WAY, NOT FACE-TO-FACE
ONE-WAY, NOT FACE-TO-FACE
! No instant feedback
! Minimal nonverbal signals
• Two-way, face-to-face. Informal conversations, interviews, oral reports,
speeches, and videoconferences.
• Two-way, not face-to-face. Telephone conversations and on-line chat.
• One-way, not face-to-face. Written documents such as letters, memos, reports,
and press releases prepared traditionally or sent electronically (electronic
mail, facsimile, voice-mail, and web pages).
Selecting an inappropriate channel can cause the message to be misunderstood and can adversely affect human relations with the receiver. For example,
for a complex subject, a sender might begin with a written document and follow up with a face-to-face discussion after the receiver has had an opportunity
to study the document. Written documents are required when legal matters are
involved and written records must be retained.
A face-to-face meeting is a more appropriate channel for sending sensitive,
unpleasant messages. For example, consider a supervisor calling an employee
into a private office to discuss the employee’s continual violation of safety regulations. A face-to-face meeting provides two distinct benefits:
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Which channel would be the
most appropriate for communicating the following messages?
Justify your answer.
• Ask a client for additional
information needed to provide requested services.
• Inform a customer that an
order cannot be delivered on
the date specified in the
contract.
• Inform the sales staff of a
special sales incentive (effective six weeks from now).
• The manager can solicit immediate feedback from the receiver to clarify misunderstandings and inaccuracies in the message.
• The manager can “read” equally important nonverbal cues (tone of voice,
body movements, etc.) in addition to hearing what the receiver is saying (the
verbal message).
The manager may feel comfortable with the verbal message, but the nonverbal message may indicate the receiver is overamplifying the problem or is
underestimating the importance of the warning. The manager’s discerning choice
of a channel—meeting with the employee face-to-face rather than calling or writing a disciplinary memo—marks this manager as sensitive and empathetic, qualities that foster trust and open communication.
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Part 1 | Communication Foundations
The Receiver Decodes the Message
The infinite number of breakdowns possible at each stage of the communication process makes us marvel that mutually satisfying communication ever occurs.
The complexity of the communication process amplifies the importance of the
next stage in the communication process—feedback to clarify misunderstandings.
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List three breakdowns in the
decoding process you have
experienced.
• The sender inadequately encodes the original message. For example, the
sender may use words not present in the receiver’s vocabulary; use ambiguous, nonspecific ideas that distort the message; or use nonverbal signals that
distract the receiver or contradict the verbal message.
• The receiver is intimidated by the position or authority of the sender. This
tension may prevent the receiver from concentrating on the message effectively enough to understand it clearly. Furthermore, an intimidated receiver
may be afraid to ask for clarification because of the perceived fear that questions might be associated with incompetence.
• The receiver is unwilling to attempt to understand the message because the
topic is perceived to be too difficult to understand. Regardless of the clarity
of a message communicating procedures for operating a computer software
program, a receiver terrified of computers may be incapable of decoding the
message correctly.
• The receiver is unreceptive to new and different ideas; that is, stereotypical
visions and prejudices prevent the receiver from viewing the message with
an open mind.
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Diversity
Challenges
The receiver is the destination of the message. The receiver’s task is to interpret
the sender’s message, both verbal and nonverbal, with as little distortion as possible. The process of interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.
Because words and nonverbal signals have different meanings to different people, countless problems can occur at this point in the communication process:
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Give examples of nonverbal
gestures that have different
meanings among generations
or cultures.
The Receiver Encodes a Message
to Clarify Any Misunderstandings
When the receiver responds to the sender’s message, the response is called feedback. The feedback may prompt the sender to modify or adjust the original
message to make it clearer to the receiver. Feedback may be verbal or nonverbal. A remark such as “Could you clarify . . .” or a perplexed facial expression
provides clear feedback to the sender that the receiver does not yet understand
the message. Conversely, a confident “Yes, I understand,” and a nod of the head
likely signal understanding or encouragement.
Interferences Hinder the Process
What is meant by the terms
internal barriers and external
barriers? How can each type be
overcome?
Senders and receivers must learn to deal with the numerous factors that interfere
with the communication process. These factors are referred to as interferences
or barriers to effective communication. Previous examples have illustrated some
of the interferences that may occur at various stages of the communication
process. For example,
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
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Consider a situation in which
you have experienced a communication breakdown. What factor(s) was/were responsible for
the miscommunication? What
could have been done to assure
successful communication?
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Diversity
Challenges
• Differences in educational level, experience, and culture and other characteristics of the sender and the receiver increase the complexity of encoding and
decoding a message.
• Physical interferences occurring in the channel include loud talking near an
area where a supervisor is explaining a work assignment, distracting and
annoying static on a telephone line, or an overly warm room used for a
lengthy staff meeting. Many companies schedule officer retreats at hotels or
remote lodges to eliminate physical and mental interferences such as constant interruptions and other distractions present in workday surroundings.
• A supervisor too rushed or too insecure to allow subordinates to ask questions or offer suggestions (feedback) creates a formidable barrier to effective
communication. This supervisor loses time and money from errors made
because unclear messages are not clarified and also generates negative feelings because employees perceive their opinions to be unwelcome.
Study carefully the barriers listed in Figure 1-3, and compile a list of other
barriers that affect your ability to communicate with friends, teachers, coworkers, supervisors, and others. By being aware of them, you can make concentrated efforts to remove these interferences whenever possible.
C O M M U N I C AT I N G W I T H I N O R G A N I Z AT I O N S
3
rganizational structure is the overall design of an organization, much like
a blueprint developed to meet the company’s specific needs and to
enhance its ability to accomplish goals. A company’s organizational structure is
depicted graphically in an organization chart, as illustrated in Figure 1-4. An
organizational chart helps define the scope of the organization and the division
of specialized tasks among employees who work interdependently to accomplish common goals.
To be successful, organizations must create an environment that energizes
and provides encouragement to employees to accomplish tasks by encouraging
genuine openness and effective communication. Organizational communication is concerned with the movement of information within the company structure. Regardless of your career or level within an organization, your ability to
communicate will affect not only the success of the organization but also your
personal success and advancement within that organization.
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Identify the five
levels of
communication.
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Levels of Communication
What is the difference between
a task goal and a maintenance
goal?
Communication can involve sending messages to both large and small audiences. Some messages, internal messages, are intended for recipients within
the organization. Other messages, external messages, are directed to recipients
outside the organization. When considering the intended audience, communication can be described as taking place on five levels:
• Intrapersonal communication occurs when an individual processes information based on his or her own experiences. It is, in a sense, communication
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Part 1 | Communication Foundations
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FIGURE 1-3
Communication barriers.
within one person. All interpretation of information ultimately takes place in
the individual mind. Self-talk is the term used to describe conversation that
takes place within a person, and it may be either positive and constructive,
or negative and destructive. People’s self-talk influences the communication
with others that they initiate and receive, since attitudes and mind-sets have
already been formed prior to the exchange of ideas between individuals.
Self-talk is not considered true communication by some because it does not
involve a separate sender and receiver.
• Interpersonal communication takes place primarily when two people are
involved in the process. Their two goals are to (1) accomplish whatever task
confronts them, and (2) feel better about themselves as a result of their
interaction. These two goals are commonly referred to as task goals and
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
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Board of Directors
Audit Committee
V.P. of
Information Technology
Networks
Communications
FIGURE 1-4
Organization chart of an Internet company.
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Part 1 | Communication Foundations
Chief Executive Officer
V.P. of Operations
Systems
Design
Human
Resources
Marketing
V.P. of Finance
Public
Relations
Accounting
Finance
Stockholder
Relations
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A corporate study by the Ford
Foundation found that productivity is increased in companies
who show concern for employees’ personal lives and needs.
How do you explain this finding?
maintenance goals, respectively, and they co-exist in varying degrees in
most of our daily activities. Most of your communication in business will
occur in various one-to-one relationships. Understanding various behavior
patterns provides supervisors valuable insights that facilitate communication
with today’s employees.
• Group communication occurs among more than two people: a committee, a
club, or all the students enrolled in a class. Groups are formed usually because
the combined efforts of a number of people result in greater output than the
individual efforts of the same number of people. In other words, groups can do
more for the individuals than the individuals can do for themselves.
• Organizational communication arises when groups discover that they are
unable to accomplish their goals without some kind of organization. Thus,
organizations are combinations of groups formed in such a way that large
tasks may be accomplished.
• Mass communication occurs when an organization reaches out to its public to achieve its goals. Utilizing media advertising or a corporate web site are
possible means for reaching a large intended audience.
Despite the differences in size and complexity, each of these levels of communication continues to have task and maintenance goals. The idea of maintenance goals can be divided into two distinct goals—self-maintenance and group
maintenance:
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• A self-maintenance goal describes an individual’s need to maintain his or her
personal worth or psychological well-being. An example of a self-maintenance
goal would be a group member’s striving to be liked by every member of the
team.
• A group maintenance goal describes a group’s need to maintain the nontask relationships they have developed through interacting with one another
as a team. An example would be a team’s effort to promote empathetic listening among all members.
C O M M U N I C AT I O N F L O W I N O R G A N I Z AT I O N S
4
Discuss how information flows in an
organization
(formally and
informally, and
downward, upward,
and horizontally).
ommunication occurs in a variety of ways in an organization; some com|
C munication flow is planned and structured; some is not. Some communication flow can be formally depicted, while some defies description.
Formal and Informal Channels
The flow of communication within an organization follows both formal and
informal channels.
• Formal communication channel. This channel is typified by the formal
organization chart, which is created by management to control individual and
group behavior and to achieve the organization’s goals. Essentially, the formal system is dictated by the technical, political, and economic environment
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
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Company openness with
employees, through both
formal and informal
communication channels,
builds trust and loyalty.
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of the organization. Within this system, people are required to behave in certain ways simply to get the work done.
• Informal communication channel. This channel develops as people interact within the formal, external system, and certain behavior patterns emerge—
patterns that accommodate social and psychological needs. Because the
informal channel undergoes continual changes, it cannot be depicted accurately by any graphic means.
Why do organizations tend to
become more bureaucratic as
they grow in size?
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
12
When employees rely almost entirely on the formal communication system
as a guide to behavior, the system might be identified as a bureaucracy. Procedures manuals, job descriptions, organization charts, and other written materials
dictate the required behavior. Communication channels are followed strictly, and
red tape is abundant. Procedures are generally followed exactly; terms such as
rules and policies serve as sufficient reasons for actions. Even the most formal
organizations, however, cannot function long before an informal communication
system emerges. As people operate within the external system, they must interact on a person-to-person basis and create an environment conducive to satisfying their personal emotions, prejudices, likes, and dislikes.
In the college classroom, for example, the student behavior required to satisfy the formal system is to attend class, take notes, read the text, and pass
examinations. On the first day of class, this behavior probably is typical of
almost all students, particularly if they did not know one another prior to
attending the class. As the class progresses, however, the informal system
emerges and overlaps the formal system. Students become acquainted, sit next
to people they particularly like, talk informally, and may even plan ways to beat
the external system. Cutting class and borrowing notes are examples. Soon,
these behaviors become norms for class behavior. Students who do not engage
in the informal system may be viewed with disdain by the others. Obviously,
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
the informal system benefits people because it is efficient; and it affects the
overall communication of the group in important ways.
The Grapevine as an Informal
Communication System
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Share a personal communication experience that involved
the grapevine as an information
source. How reliable was the
message you sent or received?
How time-efficient was the
message transmission?
The grapevine, often called the rumor mill, is perhaps the best-known informal
communication system. It is actually a component of the informal system. As
people talk casually during coffee breaks and lunch periods, the focus usually
shifts from topic to topic. One of the topics most certainly would be work—job,
company, supervisor, fellow employees. Even though the formal system has definite communication channels, the grapevine tends to develop and operate
within the organization.
As a communication channel, the grapevine has a reputation for being
speedy but inaccurate. In the absence of alarms, the grapevine may be the most
effective way to let occupants know that the building is on fire. It certainly beats
sending a written memorandum or an e-mail. While the grapevine often is
thought of as a channel for inaccurate communication, in reality, it is no more
or less accurate than other channels. Even formal communication may become
inaccurate as it passes from level to level in the organizational hierarchy. The
inaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with the message input than with
the output. For example, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumor, primarily
because it carries informal messages. If the input is rumor, and nothing more,
the output obviously will be inaccurate. But the output may be an accurate
description of the original rumor.
For a college student, the grapevine carries much valuable information. Even
though the names of the choice instructors may not be published, students learn
those names through the grapevine. How best to prepare for certain examinations, instructor attitudes on attendance and homework, and even future faculty
personnel changes are messages that travel over the grapevine. In the business
office, news about promotions, personnel changes, company policy changes,
and annual salary adjustments often is communicated by the grapevine long
before being disseminated by formal channels.
A misconception about the grapevine is that the message passes from person
to person until it finally reaches a person who can’t pass it on—the end of the
line. Actually, the grapevine works as a network channel. Typically, one person
tells two or three others, who each tell two or three others, who each tell two or
three others, and so on. Thus, the message may spread to a huge number of people in a short time. Additionally, the grapevine has no single, consistent source.
Messages may originate anywhere and follow various routes.
Due at least in part to widespread downsizing during the last few years,
employees in many organizations are demanding to be better informed. Some
companies have implemented new formal ways for disseminating information to
their internal constituents, such as newsletters and intranets. Company openness
with employees, including financial information, means more information in the
formal system rather than risking its miscommunication through informal channels. An employee of The Container Store—named the best company to work
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Managers who ignore the
grapevine have difficulty achieving organizational goals. Think
about a situation you have
experienced in which an
instructor/adviser/employer
used the grapevine effectively
or ineffectively. What was the
result?
Team
Environment
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
13
for in America—said that the company’s willingness to divulge what it makes
each year and its financial goals builds trust in her superiors.2
An informal communication system will emerge from even the most carefully
designed formal system. Managers who ignore this fact are attempting to manage blindfolded. Instead of denying or condemning the grapevine, the effective
manager will learn to use the informal communication network. The grapevine,
for instance can be useful in counteracting rumors and false information.
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Directions for Communication Flow
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The direction in which communication flows in an organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal, as shown in Figure 1-5. Because these three terms
are used frequently in communication literature, they deserve clarification.
Although the concept of flow seems simple, direction has meaning for those participating in the communication process.
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What would be an appropriate
“rule of thumb” for a manager
in deciding whether to send a
written message to subordinates?
Downward Communication. Downward communication flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top to
bottom on the organization chart. As messages move downward through successive levels of the organization, they seem to get larger. A simple policy statement from the top of the organization may grow into a formal plan for operation
at lower levels.
Teaching people how to perform their specific tasks is an element of downward communication. Another element is orientation to a company’s rules, practices, procedures, history, and goals. Employees learn about the quality of their
job performance through downward communication.
Downward communication normally involves both written and oral methods
and makes use of the following guidelines:
• People high in the organization usually have greater knowledge of the organization and its goals than do people at lower levels.
• Both oral and written messages tend to become larger as they move downward through organizational levels. This expansion results from attempts to
prevent distortion and is more noticeable in written messages.
• Oral messages are subject to greater changes in meaning than are written
messages.
When a supervisor sends a message to a lower-level employee who then asks
a question or nods assent, the question and the nod are signs of feedback. Feedback may flow both downward and upward in organizational communication.
What do you believe would be
the typical communication patterns of a manager working
under a win/lose philosophy?
Under a win/win philosophy?
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Upward Communication. Upward communication generally is feedback
to downward communication. Although necessary and valuable, upward
communication does contain risks. When management requests information
from lower organizational levels, the resulting information becomes feedback to
that request. Employees talk to supervisors about themselves, their fellow
employees, their work and methods of doing it, and their perceptions of the
organization. These comments are feedback to the downward flow transmitted
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
Policies and procedures
Organizational goals and strategies
Work assignments
Employee development
• Job role/responsibility
• Performance appraisal
(formal and informal)
• Constructive criticism
• Deserved praise and recognition
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Ideas/suggestions
Feelings/attitudes
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Progress reports (oral and written)
• Results/accomplishments
• Problems/clarifications
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
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UPWARD COMMUNICATION
HORIZONTAL OR
LATER AL COMMUNICATION
Coordination of interrelated activities
Problem-solving efforts
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FIGURE 1-5
Flow of information within an organization.
in both oral and written form by group meetings, procedures or operations manuals, company news releases, and the grapevine.
Accurate upward communication keeps management informed about the
feelings of lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employees, helps management identify both difficult and potentially promotable employees, and paves
the way for even more effective downward communication. Employees reporting upward are aware that their communications carry the risk of putting them
on the spot or committing them to something they cannot handle.
Although employees typically appreciate and welcome genuine opportunities
to send information to management, they will likely resent any superficial attempt
to provide an open communication network with management. These factors,
then, are important to consider when upward communication flow is involved.
• Upward communication is primarily feedback to requests and actions of
supervisors.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
15
How can a manager maximize
the effectiveness of horizontal
communication among subordinates?
Horizontal Communication. Horizontal, or lateral, communication describes
interactions between organization units on the same hierarchical level. These
interactions reveal one of the major shortcomings of organizational charts. Charts
do not allow much room for horizontal communication when they depict
authority relationships by placing one box higher than another and define role
functions by placing titles in those boxes. Yet horizontal communication is the
primary means of achieving coordination in a functional organizational structure.
Management must recognize that informal, horizontal communication takes
place in any system or organization where people are available to one another.
Horizontal communication serves a coordinating function in the organization.
Units coordinate their activities to accomplish task goals just as adjacent workers in a production line coordinate their activities.
In an organization divided into cross-functional teams, horizontal communication among the team members is extremely important to achieve individual and
team goals. Total Quality Management experts emphasize that honest, open
communication is the single most important factor in successfully creating a Total
Quality Management environment. According to one TQM author, “if people keep
talking to one another, they can work through their problems, overcome barriers,
and find encouragement and support from others involved in quality efforts.”3
Many companies are realizing that the traditional hierarchy organized around
functional units is inadequate for competing in the increasingly competitive
global markets. Companies are organizing work teams that integrate work-flow
processes rather than having specialists who deal with a single function or product. These cross-functional work teams break down the former communication
barriers between isolated functional departments. Communication patterns take
on varying forms to accommodate team activities.
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Team
Environment
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• Upward communication may be misleading because lower-level employees
often tell the superior what they think the superior wants to hear. Therefore,
their messages might contradict their true observations and perceptions.
• Upward communication is based on trust in the supervisor.
• Upward communication frequently involves risk to an employee.
• Employees will reject superficial attempts by management to obtain feedback
from employees.
5
Explain how legal
and ethical constraints act as a
strategic force to
influence the
process of business
communication.
S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S I N F L U E N C I N G
B U S I N E S S C O M M U N I C AT I O N
How would you rank the four
strategic forces in terms of
magnitude of importance to
business communication?
Why?
16
C|
ommunication is often a complicated process. Furthermore, communication does not take place in a vacuum, but rather is influenced by a number of forces at work in the environment. The effective communicator carefully
considers each of these influences and structures communication responsively.
Four critical forces influence the communication process and help to determine
and define the nature of the communication that occurs, as shown in Figure 1-6.
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
LEGAL
LEGAL AND
AND ETHICAL
ETHICAL
CONSTRAINTS
CONSTRAINTS
Trust
Team Roles
Shared Goals and
Expectations
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Cultural Differences
Language Barriers
Gender Issues
Stakeholder Interests
Ethical Frameworks
Personal Values
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International Laws
Domestic Laws
Codes of Ethics
BUSINESS
TEAM
DIVERSITY
TEAM
COMMUNICATION
ENVIRONMENT
CHALLENGES
ENVIRONMENT
Synergy
Group Reward
Distributed Leadership
Education Levels
Age Factors
Nonverbal Differences
CHANGING
TECHNOLOGY
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Accuracy and
Security Issues
Telecommunication
Software Application Tools
“
“High-touch”
Issues
Telecommuting
Databases
FIGURE 1-6
Strategic forces influencing business communication.
Legal and Ethical Constraints as a Strategic Force Influencing Communication
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
Legal and ethical constraints act as a strategic force on communication in that
they set boundaries in which communication can occur. International, federal,
state, and local laws affect the way that various business activities can be conducted. For instance, legislation controls can and must be stated in letters that
reply to credit applications and those dealing with collection of outstanding
debts. Furthermore, one’s own ethical standards will often influence what he or
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
17
she is willing to say in a message. A system of ethics built on honesty may
require that the message provide full disclosure, for instance, rather than a
shrouding of the truth. Legal responsibilities, then, are the starting point for
appropriate business communication. One’s ethical beliefs, or personal sense of
right and wrong behavior, provides further boundaries for professional activity.
The press is full of examples of unethical conduct in the business and governmental communities. Business leaders, government officials, and citizens frequently
express concern about the apparent erosion of ethical values in society. Even for
those who want to do the right thing, matters of ethics are seldom clear-cut decisions of right versus wrong and often contain many ambiguous elements. In addition, the pressure appears to be felt most strongly by lower-level managers, often
recent business school graduates, who are least experienced doing their jobs.
You can take steps now to prepare for dealing with pressure to compromise
personal values:
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What recent events can you
think of that have ethical
themes?
• Consider your personal value system. Only if you have definite beliefs on a
variety of issues and the courage to practice them will you be able to make
sound ethical judgments. Putting ethical business practices first will also benefit the company for whom you work as its reputation for fairness and good
judgment retains long-term clients or customers and brings in new ones.
• Learn to analyze ethical dilemmas. Knowing how to analyze ethical
dilemmas and identify the consequences of your actions will help you make
decisions that conform to your own value system. Thus, unless you know what
you stand for and how to analyze the ethical issue, you become a puppet, controlled by the motives of others, too weak to make a decision on your own.
The Foundation for Legal and Ethical Behavior. Although ethics is a common
point of discussion, many find defining ethics challenging. Most people immediately associate ethics with standards and rules of conduct, morals, right and
wrong, values, and honesty. Dr. Albert Schweitzer defined ethics as “the name
we give to our concern for good behavior. We feel an obligation to consider not
only our own personal well-being, but also that of others and of human society
as a whole.”4 In other words, ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong
that guide you in making decisions that consider the impact of your actions on
others as well as yourself.
Although the recorded accounts of legal and ethical misconduct would seem
to indicate that businesses are dishonest and unscrupulous, keep in mind that
millions of business transactions are made daily on the basis of honesty and
concern for the welfare of others. Why should a business make ethical decisions? What difference will it make? James E. Perrella, executive vice president
of Ingersoll-Rand Company, gave a powerful reply to these questions:5
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What is your personal definition
of ethics?
Our question of today should be, what’s the right thing to do, the right
way to behave, the right way to conduct business? Don’t just ask, is it legal?
Have you ever considered what business would be like if we all did it? If
every businessman and businesswoman followed the Golden Rule? Many
people, including many business leaders, would argue that such an application of ethics to business would adversely affect bottom-line performance.
18
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
I say nay . . . . Good ethics, simply, is good business. Good ethics will
attract investors. Good ethics will attract good employees.
You can do what’s right. Not because of conduct codes. Not because of
rules or laws. But because you know what’s right.
Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations may be difficult, and
coworkers and superiors may apply pressure for seemingly logical reasons. To
illustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for a possible ethical dilemma:
Changing
Technology
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• Corporate officers deliberately withhold information concerning a planned
sellout to prevent an adverse effect on stock prices.
• A salesperson, who travels extensively, overstates car mileage to cover the
cost of personal telephone calls that the company refuses to reimburse.
• To protect his job, a product engineer decides not to question a design flaw
in a product that could lead to possible injuries and even deaths to consumers because the redesign would cause a delay in product introduction.
• To stay within the departmental budget, a supervisor authorizes that a software program be installed on fifty office computers when only one legal
copy was actually purchased.
• Angry at a superior for an unfavorable performance appraisal, an employee
leaks confidential information (e.g., trade secrets such as a recipe or product design, marketing strategies, or product development plans) to an
acquaintance who works for a competitor.
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What situations have you faced
as a worker or student that
caused ethical dilemmas?
Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for making
ethical decisions. However, as the previous examples imply, even minor concessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individual’s ethical
foundation.
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Causes of Illegal and Unethical Behavior. Understanding the major causes of
illegal and unethical behavior in the workplace will help you become sensitive
to signals of escalating pressure to compromise your values. Unethical corporate
behavior can have a number of causes:
• Excessive emphasis on profits. Business managers are often judged and
paid on their ability to increase business profits. This emphasis on profits
may send a message that the end justifies the means.
• Misplaced corporate loyalty. A misplaced sense of corporate loyalty may
cause an employee to do what seems to be in the best interest of the company, even if the act is illegal or unethical.
• Obsession with personal advancement. Employees who wish to outperform their peers or are working for the next promotion may feel that they
cannot afford to fail. They may do whatever it takes to achieve the objectives
assigned to them.
• Expectation of not getting caught. Employees who believe that the end
justifies the means often believe that the illegal or unethical activity will never
be discovered. Unfortunately, a great deal of improper behavior escapes
detection in the business world. Believing no one will ever find out, employees are tempted to lie, steal, and perform other illegal acts.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
19
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Consider the following saying:
The speed of the leader is the
speed of the pack. What other
adages might be used to
enforce the importance of leading by example?
• Unethical tone set by top management. If top managers are not perceived
as highly ethical, lower-level managers may be less ethical as a result.
Employees have little incentive to act legally and ethically if their superiors
do not set an example and encourage and reward such behavior.
• Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong. Many times, company
personnel are placed in situations in which the line between right and wrong
is not clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the perplexed employee
asks, “How far is too far?”
• Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right. Often employees know
what is right or wrong but are not willing to take the risk of challenging a
wrong action. They may lack the confidence or skill needed to confront others with sensitive legal or ethical issues. They may remain silent and then justify their unwillingness to act.
Framework for Analyzing Ethical Dilemmas. Determining whether an action is
ethical can be difficult. Learning to analyze an ethical dilemma from multiple
perspectives will help you find a solution that conforms to your own personal
values. The flow chart shown in Figure 1-7 represents a framework for making
an ethical decision and for supporting that decision in a written or oral message.
The framework instructs you (the decision maker) to complete the following
four-step process after you have identified a possible course of action:
1. Identify the legal implications of the alternative and determine whether
the alternative adheres to contractual agreements and company policy.
In other words, is the alternative legal? The law specifically outlines the “black”
area—those alternatives that are clearly wrong. Your employer will expect you
to become an expert in the laws that affect your particular area. When you
encounter an unfamiliar area, you must investigate any possible legal implications. Obviously obeying the law is in the best interest of all concerned: you
as an individual, your company, and society. In addition, contractual agreements between the organization and another group provide explicit guidance
in selecting an ethically responsible alternative. If the action is legal, then . . .
2. Determine whether the alternative violates any company or professional codes of ethics. If the alternative is legal and complies with relevant
contractual agreements and company policy, your next step is to consult your
company’s or profession’s code of ethics. This written document summarizes
the company’s or profession’s standards of ethical conduct. Some companies
refer to this document as a credo or standards of ethical conduct. If the
behavior does not violate the code of ethics, then . . .
3. Use ethical principles and theories to assess whether the alternative
judged to be legal (Step 1) and in compliance with codes of ethics (Step
2) is ethical. The final—and extremely important—test your alternative must
satisfy is the test of integrity. Is it ethical? If, after careful analysis, you judge
the alternative to be unethical, you must evaluate another alternative beginning again with Step 1 of this framework. If you feel the alternative is ethical, then . . .
4. Implement the alternative and communicate ethical decisions to
appropriate individuals inside or outside the organization.
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What is meant by the term
“situational ethics?”
20
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
FIGURE 1-7
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Framework for analyzing
ethical issues.
Note the three decision points in the framework shown in Figure 1-7. Any
one of the following criteria could cause the rejection of the alternative being
considered and selection of another one: (1) The alternative is illegal or does not
comply with relevant contractual agreements and company policy, (2) the alternative is not consistent with the company’s and/or the profession’s code of
ethics, or (3) the alternative violates your personal code of ethics.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
21
The Pagano Model offers a straightforward method for determining whether a
proposed action is ethical.6 You must answer the following six questions honestly:
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• Is the proposed action legal—the core starting point?
• What are the benefits and costs to the people involved?
• Would you want this action to be a universal standard, appropriate for
everyone?
• Does the action pass the light-of-day test? That is, if your action appeared on
television or others learned about it, would you be proud?
• Does the action pass the Golden Rule test? That is, would you want the same
to happen to you?
• Does the action pass the ventilation test? Ask the opinion of a wise friend with
no investment in the outcome. Does this friend believe the action is ethical?
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Another framework for examining the correctness of an action is the utilitarian theory. Its basic premise is that in all situations one ought to do that which
provides the greatest balance of good over harm for all parties involved. Thus, an
ethical decision maker must estimate the impact of each alternative action on all
organization stakeholders (the persons or groups who will be affected by the
decision) and then select the one that optimizes the satisfaction of the greatest
number of people. Simply stated, the major stakeholders consist of five groups:
owners, employees, customers, local communities, and society at large.
Ross’s doctrine of prima facie duties includes (1) not harming innocent
people, (2) keeping promises, (3) showing gratitude, (4) acting in a just way,
and (5) providing reparations to those who have been harmed by one’s actions.7
While these duties are not moral absolutes, they are considered highly desirable
moral tenets that should be honored whenever possible. To apply this doctrine,
you must consider the organization’s major stakeholders and determine which
of Ross’s five duties are relevant to the decision under consideration, and of
those, which may be violated for any of the stakeholders.
As these assessments show, applying ethical theories is not an easy task.
Such analytical processes, however, enhance your critical thinking about the
consequences of any action.
Which of the ethical frameworks do you find most appropriate for you personally? Why?
6
Explain how diversity challenges act
as a strategic force
to influence the
process of business
communication.
Diversity
Challenges
22
Diversity Challenges as a Strategic
Force Influencing Communication
Diversity in the workplace is another strategic force influencing communication.
Differences between the sender and the receiver in areas such as culture, age,
gender, and education require a sensitivity on the part of both the sender and
receiver so that the intended message is the one that is received.
Understanding how to communicate effectively with people from other cultures has become more integral to the work environment as many U.S. companies
are increasingly conducting business with international companies or becoming
multinational. Successful communication must often span barriers of language and
requires a person to consider differing world views resulting from societal, religious, or other cultural factors. When a person fails to consider these factors, communication suffers, and the result is often embarrassing and potentially costly.
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
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What is the relationship
between political barriers and
communication barriers?
McDonald’s is an example of a large U.S. company that has expanded its
operations to include most major countries in the world. To be successful on an
international scale, McDonald’s managers had to be aware of cultural differences
and be willing to work to ensure that effective communication occurred despite
these barriers. The results so far have been overwhelmingly positive for McDonald’s; for example, their store in Moscow reports healthy sales despite the ailing
economy in the former Soviet Union.
Occasionally, however, a whopper of an intercultural communication faux
pas occurs. That is what happened when McDonald’s began their promotional
campaign in Britain for the World Cup soccer championship. It seemed like a
clever (and harmless) idea to reproduce the flags of the 24 nations participating
in the event and print them on packaging—two million Happy Meal bags, to be
exact. What marketing personnel failed to consider was that words from the
Koran are printed on the Saudi flag. The idea that sacred words from Islam’s
holy book were mass-printed to sell a product with the knowledge that the packages would be thrown into the trash angered and offended many Muslims, who
immediately complained. McDonald’s apologized for the gaffe and agreed to
cooperate with the Saudis in finding a solution to the problem.8
While NAFTA has created new business opportunities for U.S. and Mexican
entities, unique problems have also occurred. After seven trips to Mexico and
nine months of courtship, a U.S. firm faxed the final contract to the Mexican
CEO. This action was a big mistake, since Mexican protocol calls for more formal finalizing in a face-to-face meeting.9 These errors serve as examples of how
much “homework” is involved in maintaining good relations with customers or
clients from other cultures. The potential barrier of language is obvious; however, successful managers know that much more is involved in communicating
with everyone—across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and other differences.
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Communication Opportunities and Challenges in Diversity. As world markets
expand, U.S. employees at home and abroad will be doing business with more
people from other countries. You may find yourself working abroad for a large
American company, an international company with a plant in the United States,
or a company with an ethnically diverse work force. Regardless of the workplace, your diversity skills, that is, your ability to communicate effectively with
both men and women of all ages and with people of other cultures or minority
groups, will affect your success in today’s culturally diverse, global economy.
• International issues. Worldwide telecommunications and intense international business competition have fueled the movement of many industries
into world markets. During the past four decades, U.S. firms have established
facilities in Europe, Central and South America, and Asia. At many U.S. corporations, such as Dow Chemical, Gillette, and IBM, more than 40 percent of
total sales in recent years has come from international operations. Over the
past decade, Asians (primarily Japanese) and Europeans have built plants in
the United States. Many U.S. workers are now employed in manufacturing
plants and facilities owned and operated by foreign interests. Understanding
a person of another culture who may not speak your language well or understand your culturally based behaviors is a daily challenge faced by many.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
23
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What impact will the “graying
of America” have on the workplace?
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Specific guidelines for writing and speaking with an international audience
are provided in later chapters.
• Intercultural issues. Changing demographics in the United States are requiring businesses to face ethnic diversity in the workplace. Rather than being a
melting pot for people from many countries, the United States has offered an
environment in which people of varying cultures could live and practice their
cultural heritage. People with a common heritage generally formed their own
neighborhoods and worked intently at retaining their traditional customs and
language, while still sharing in the common culture. Consequently, mosaic
seems to be a more accurate term than melting pot to reflect U.S. cultural
diversity.10 As in a mosaic, small, distinct groups combine to form the pattern
or design of the U.S. population and work force. U.S. labor statistics reflect
the declining proportion of white males in the labor force and growing proportions of minorities and women.11 People from different backgrounds
invariably bring different values, attitudes, and perceptions to the workplace.
• Intergenerational issues. While age diversity has always been present in the
workplace, recent trends have made it a more important issue than ever. The
so-called “greying of America” has changed the age distribution in the U.S.
population. The older segment of the population is larger today than at any
time previously. The maturing of the “baby-boomer” generation (those born
between 1946 and 1964), a relatively low birthrate, and increasing life spans
have led to a higher average age in the population. Today’s work force reflects
the advancing age of the general populace. As of the year 2000, for instance,
one in every three workers was 45 or older.12 Figure 1-8 illustrates the continued trend toward an older work force. Because of changes in laws affecting
retirement benefits and better overall health, many older workers will choose
to continue longer in their professional activities than in past years. Because of
the broadening of the age span in the workplace, businesses will be faced with
new challenges related to differences in perceptions, values, and communication styles of the generations. Chapter 3 includes a Strategic Forces focus on
generational differences and their impact on workplace communication.
FIGURE 1-8
Changing work force age
demographics.
1995
2015
Over
60
12%
Over 60
40%
60 and under
88%
13
Source: National Council on Aging
24
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
60 and under
60%
Spotlight Communicator
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toughness—and
sometimes it’s hard
to tell the truth; but
in the end the truth
sets you free.” In offering advice for
women aspiring to positions of power,
Fiorina says: “All people—including
women—need to stay focused on possibilities. I faced lots of doubters in my
career, lots of hurdles and barriers;
there were many people who didn’t
take me seriously, but there were also
enough people who did. I would say
believe in yourself, stay focused on the
possibilities, seek out the people who
will see what you are capable of,
because talent—in whatever package it
comes in—will rise to the top.”16
M
W hen Carly Fiorina was named CEO
of Hewlett-Packard Co. in 1999, she
became the head of the largest public
corporation ever run by a female executive. Thirty years after the advent of the
women’s movement, Fiorina is only the
third woman currently holding the title
of CEO at a Fortune 500 corporation.
As leader of a Fortune top 20 firm,
responsible for more than 123,000
employees and with $47 billion in
annual revenues, she was named the
most powerful woman in American
business by Fortune Magazine.
F iorina came to HP after serving as
head of the Global Service Provider
division of Lucent Technologies. Her
background in management and business technology gives her the ability
to bring creative problem-solving to
the company. Doing so, however, does
not mean an abandonment of the HP
Way. She espouses the long-standing
HP principles of work-life balance and
healthy corporate interaction while
leading the company in its progression
into e-services. “You have to have fun
to be successful. True, this industry
requires hard work—there’s no getting
around that. But if you can’t find joy in
that work, if you can’t take pleasure in
teamwork, if you can’t have fun in solving problems, it’s not worth it.”14
W hile the press has made much of
her gender, Fiorina deflects attention
away from it. When asked how she
feels about being called the most powerful woman in corporate America, she
answers, “I have never thought of
myself as a woman in business; I just
thought of myself as Carly who happens to be a woman who’s focused on
doing the best job I can. It’s not a formula I plan to change. Frankly, the real
challenge for me—and the reason I’m
sensitive to the gender issue—is that
this isn’t about me as a person; this is
about how to effectively and appropriately represent a business.”15
I n terms of her communication style,
Fiorina isn’t afraid of speaking her mind.
“People sometimes interpret candor as
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Gender No Obstacle to
Business Success
Applying What You Have
Learned
1. How does Carly Fiorina’s leadership philosophy relate to the HP
Way?
2. Explain what Fiorina means by
saying that you have to have fun
to be successful.
Carly Fiorina, CEO, Hewlett-Packard Co.
• Gender issues. The flood of women entering the job market has substantially
changed the American work force. Old social patterns of behavior that
defined the appropriate roles for men and women do not fit in a work environment free from discrimination. While civil rights laws prohibiting sex discrimination and pay equity requirements have been in place for more than 30
years, charges continue to be filed by individuals who feel that their rights
have been violated. The number of sexual harassment cases has increased in
recent years, resulting from a broader-based definition of what indeed constitutes sexual harassment. Although a charge of sexual harassment may certainly be based on actions with sexual overtones, it has also been interpreted
to include comments, visual images, or other conditions that create a hostile
working environment. One result of the increased focus on sexual harassment
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
25
in the workplace is the reluctance of some to communicate with other workers for fear that their actions or words might be misconstrued. Both men and
women confront workplace communication challenges.
Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications;
but it also poses opportunities to improve both workers and organizations.
Managers must be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of different nationalities, genders, races, ages, abilities, and so forth.
Managing a diverse work force effectively will require you to communicate
with everyone and to help all employees reach their fullest potential and contribute
to the company’s goals. When miscommunication occurs, both sides are frustrated
and often angry. To avoid such problems, increasing numbers of companies are
providing diversity training seminars to help workers understand and appreciate
gender and age differences and the cultures of coworkers. To prepare for these
communication challenges, commit the time and energy to enhance your diversity
skills while you are attending classes as well as after you enter the workplace.
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What other aspects of diversity
can influence communication?
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Culture and Communication. Managers with the desire and the skill to conduct
business in new international markets and to manage a diverse work force effectively will confront problems created by cultural differences. The way messages
are decoded and encoded is not just a function of the experiences, beliefs, and
assumptions of the person sending or receiving those messages but also are
shaped by the society in which he or she lives.
People learn patterns of behavior from their culture. The culture of a people is the product of their living experiences within their own society. Culture
could be described as “the way of life” of a people and includes a vast array of
behaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect how people perceive the world,
what they value, and how they act. Differing patterns can also create barriers to
communication. Culture has several key characteristics:
What are some examples in
your own community of cultureoriented activities?
26
• Culture is learned by people over time. Individuals are not born knowing
their culture but acquire it through interactions with others. Social institutions
such as religious organizations, clubs, businesses; the family; schools; as well
as the media, all play a part in teaching each member of a society the expectations and norms of behavior.
• Components of culture are interrelated. In the United States, for instance,
the high value placed on material goods is related to the use of economic
well-being as a measure of success and happiness. These values provide support for the approval placed on independence of mind and action, which in
turn is connected to the existence of a relatively fluid class structure.
• Culture is shared. While the various aspects of culture are common to
many individuals, no country has one unified culture. Modern societies are
so large and diverse that many different cultures can exist within them; these
are called subcultures. Although each subculture differs from others, they
often share some traits that derive from the main or dominant culture.
• Culture provides standards for behavior. In providing individuals with
standards for behavior, culture gives them a feeling of identification and
belonging; they feel a part of something larger than themselves. Customs are
the accepted way of interacting as dictated by one’s culture. The North
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Give some examples of words
and phrases that have different
meanings for speakers of
British English than for speakers of American English.
American practice of shaking hands reflects the value that is placed on the
individual. Indians greet each other with a slight bow to honor the divine
spark that they believe resides in each person.
• Culture provides symbolic references. Each culture has certain objects,
gestures, sounds, or images that contain special meaning. The American flag
symbolizes the nation’s independence and strength; a red, white, and blue
package tries to associate itself with those meanings. Advertising, which in
some respects is the use of cultural symbols, requires sensitivity to the specific meanings of the symbols employed and recognizes that these meanings
differ by culture. For example, white, which stands for purity and cleanliness
in much of the Western culture, stands for death in China.17
• Culture shapes communication. How people communicate in speaking
and writing as well as nonverbally is shaped by culture. Culture enables people to acquire a language that they may use in common with others of the
same culture and as a medium for passing culture from one generation to the
next. The language also reflects cultural values and norms. English is the language of Australia, Jamaica, and South Africa, as well as Great Britain,
Canada, and the United States. However, all of these cultures are very different; in fact, even their forms of English differ.
Barriers to Intercultural Communication. Because cultures give different definitions to such basics of interaction as values and norms, people raised in two
different cultures may clash. Some of the main areas in which cultures clash are
explored below:
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• Ethnocentricism. Problems occur between people of different cultures primarily because people tend to assume that their own cultural norms are the
right way to do things. They wrongly believe that the specific patterns of
behavior desired in their own cultures are universally valued. This belief,
known as enthnocentrism, is certainly natural; but learning about other cultures and developing sensitivity will help minimize ethnocentric reactions
when dealing with other cultures.
• Stereotypes. One group often forms a mental picture of the main characteristics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in this
group are like. These pictures, called stereotypes, influence the way members of the first group interact with members of the second. When members
of the first group observe a behavior that conforms to that stereotype, the
validity of the preconceived notion is reinforced. They view the other person
as a representative of a class of people rather than as an individual. All cultures have stereotypes about other cultures they have encountered. These
stereotypes can interfere with communication when people interact on the
basis of the imagined representative and not the real individual.
• Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture perceives time and its
use is called chronemics. In the United States, we have a saying that “time is
money.” North Americans, like some northern Europeans who are also concerned about punctuality, make appointments, keep them, and do not waste
time completing them. In some other cultures, time is the cheapest commodity and an inexhaustible resource; time represents a person’s span on earth,
Give several examples of stereotypes that prevail concerning
certain cultural groups.
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27
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Nike Inc. has overcome
many challenges in creating its global image
through the use of sports
celebrity endorsements.
The use of sports heroes is
a global concept because
the celebrities have become
global brands in and of
themselves.
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which is only part of eternity. To these cultures, long casual conversations
prior to serious discussions or negotiations is time well spent in establishing
and nurturing relationships. On the other hand, the time-efficient American
businessperson, is likely to fret about the waste of precious time.
• Personal space requirements. Space operates as a language just as time
does. The study of cultural space requirements is known as proxemics. In
all cultures, the distance between people functions in communication as
“personal space” or “personal territory.” In the United States, for example, for
intimate conversations with close friends and relatives, individuals are willing to stay within about a foot and a half of each other; for casual conversations, up to two or three feet; for job interviews and personal business,
four to twelve feet; and for public occasions, more than twelve feet. However, in many cultures outside the United States, closer personal contact is
accepted, or greater distance may be the norm.
• Body language. The study of body language is known as kinesics. Body
language is not universal, but instead is learned from one’s culture. Even the
most basic gestures have varying cultural meanings—the familiar North
American symbol for “okay” means zero in France, money in Japan, and an
expression of vulgarity in Brazil. Similarly, eye contact, posture, and facial
expressions carry different meanings throughout the world. Chapter 2 contains an expanded discussion of nonverbal communication.
• Translation limitations. Words in one language do not always have an
equivalent meaning in other languages, and the concepts the words describe
are often different as well. Translators can be helpful, but keep in mind that a
translator is working with a second language and must listen to one language,
Do differences exist in the nonverbal communication of people of different generations?
Justify your answer.
Select a word with various
synonyms. How are the meanings of each word somewhat
different?
28
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
mentally cast the words into another language, then speak them. This process
is difficult and opens the possibility that the translator will fall victim to one
or more cultural barriers. The Internet Investigation following Chapter 3 provides additional opportunity for you to explore translation issues.
• Lack of language training. The following is an anecdote that speaks to the
need for language training:
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What do you call someone who speaks two languages? (Reply: bilingual)
What do you call someone who speaks three languages? (Reply: trilingual)
What do you call someone who speaks one language? (Reply: an American)
7
Changing Technology as a Strategic
Force Influencing Communication
Electronic tools have not eliminated the need for basic communication skills; and
they can, in fact, create new obstacles or barriers to communication that must be
overcome. These tools, however, also create opportunities, which range from the
kinds of communications that are possible to the quality of the messages themselves. Electronic tools can help people in various ways, such as (1) collecting
and analyzing data, (2) shaping messages to be clearer and more effective, and
(3) communicating quickly and efficiently with others over long distances.
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Explain how changing technology acts
as a strategic force
to influence the
process of business
communication.
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This tongue-in-cheek humor reinforces the language illiteracy of most
U.S. citizens. Since familiarity with a second language certainly improves your
competitiveness as a job applicant, be sure to exploit that ability in your
résumé. In some situations, learning a second language may not be feasible—you are completing a short-term assignment, you must leave immediately, or the language is extremely difficult to learn (e.g., Japanese and
Arabic). However, even if you cannot speak their language fluently, people
from other cultures will appreciate simple efforts to learn a few common
phrases. Other suggestions for overcoming language differences are discussed in the accompanying Strategic Forces feature.
Changing
Technology
In your opinion, what communication technology has most
changed the way business is
conducted? Why?
Tools for Data Collection and Analysis. Knowing how to collect information and
communicate in a networked world is critical if you and your company are to be
competitive. The Internet has brought vast amounts of data into our homes and
businesses, and on-line information services provide a wide range of sources to
facilitate our research. Generally, electronic communication provides researchers
with two distinct advantages: (1) electronic searches of organizational databases
and electronic networks can be done in a fraction of the time required to conduct
manual searches of printed sources, and (2) the vast amount of information available allows researchers to develop better solutions to problems.
Internal databases enable decision makers to obtain information from their
own company records quickly and accurately. Databases offer these advantages:
• Data organization, the ability to organize large amounts of data.
• Data integrity, assurance that the data will be accurate and complete.
• Data security, assurance that the data are secure because access to a database is controlled through several built-in data security features.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
29
S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S
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With so many barriers to communication, communicating with people of
another culture is difficult. Communicating between genders, through the generation gap, among races, and through
other differences presents unique challenges as well. Anyone who enters the
business world today must be aware of
these potential trouble spots and of
ways to avoid them. Application of
some common-sense guidelines can
help to overcome intercultural barriers.
• Learn about that person’s culture. Many sources of useful
information are available. University courses in international business communication are
increasing,18 and experienced
businesspeople have written
books recounting some of the
subtle but important ways that
people from other cultures communicate. Networking can generate the names of other businesspeople who have made successful contact with another culture.
A telephone conversation or a
lunch meeting may provide useful pointers on proper and
improper behavior. Large corporations with frequent and extensive
someone you trust who understands that culture. You will have
a resource if you need help.
You will certainly work in a culturally diverse workplace, and perhaps
for a multinational firm. Your success
will likely depend on your ability to
communicate effectively across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and
other differences. Language, values,
attitudes, and other cultural traits
change very slowly. Therefore, communicating interculturally requires you
to recognize the cultural elements that
cause people to view things differently
and thus create barriers to communication. Instead of ignoring cultural factors, workers and employers can
improve communication by recognizing them and by considering people
as individuals rather than as members
of stereotypical groups.
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Viva la Difference!
dealings in other countries often
establish workshops in which
employees receive briefing and
training before accepting overseas assignments. Learning the
language is an invaluable way of
becoming more familiar with
another culture.
• Have patience—with yourself
and the other person. Conversing with someone from another
culture, when one of you is likely
to be unfamiliar with the language
being used, can be difficult and
time consuming. By being patient
with mistakes, making sure that all
questions are answered, and not
hurrying, you are more likely to
make the outcome of the conversation positive. You must also learn
to be patient and tolerant of ambiguity. Being able to react to new,
different, and unpredictable situations with little visible discomfort
or irritation will prove invaluable.
The author Howard Schuman
writes that “a sense of humor is
indispensable for dealing with the
cultural mistakes and faux pas you
will certainly commit.”19
• Get help when you need it. If
you are not sure what is being
said—or why something is being
said in a certain way—ask for
clarification. If you feel uneasy
about conversing with someone
from another culture, bring along
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Diversity
Challenges
Application
Interview a person from a cultural
group other than your own. Include
the following questions:
1. What examples can you give of
times when you experienced discrimination or isolation?
2. What information can you provide
to aid other groups in understanding your cultural uniqueness?
3. What advice would you give for
improving intercultural understanding?
External databases (networks) allow users to access information from remote
locations literally around the world and in an instant transfer that information to
their own computers for further manipulation or storage. The Internet, a loose
collection of millions of computers at thousands of sites around the world, allows
users to access information of all types and share files. While the Internet was
30
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
• send electronic messages and computer files across the world.
• participate in discussion groups (forums) to get answers to questions and to
benefit from the information generated by a group interested in a specific topic.
• browse occasionally through the “network news” generated by other discussion groups to read the latest discussions in these areas.
• download software available on the service.
• access vast amounts of information from a wide range of sources.
Information is available on general news, stocks, financial markets, sports,
travel, weather, and a variety of publications (some of which allow you to retrieve
the full text). An on-line encyclopedia is a standard service that is updated regularly. A clipping service that locates all articles on a specific topic from the various news services is a time-efficient way to stay abreast of important topics.
Using a modem, the appropriate communication software, and an assigned
password, you can obtain information from around the world. However, knowing how to “tunnel” through the vast amount of irrelevant information to find
what you want can be overwhelming. The experience can also be expensive in
terms of human time spent and charges incurred for on-line time. Locating information from electronic sources requires that you know the search procedures
and methods for constructing an effective search strategy. You will develop these
skills when studying the research process in Chapter 9.
For preparing reports containing any analysis of numbers, an electronic
spreadsheet is invaluable. An electronic spreadsheet is a forecasting and
decision-making tool that can manipulate and analyze data easily. The spreadsheet’s forecasting ability allows you to ask, for instance, how profits would change
if costs and sales were reduced by 10 percent or increased by 5 percent. The ability to calculate quickly these variable forecasts—called “what-if” questions—is one
of the main benefits of spreadsheets. Spreadsheets can transform a vast amount of
numerical data into information that can be used in decision making. By condensing data into organized tables, the spreadsheet greatly assists the manager in meaningfully interpreting the data. Once it has been created, a spreadsheet can be
inserted into a word processing file. To depict complex data more clearly, the
manager can also quickly construct a graphic using the prepared spreadsheet.
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How can spreadsheet usage be
abused?
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Lack of Internet access is causing some nations to be classified as information “have-nots.”
What international problems
could result?
first intended to be used for academic and research purposes, the majority of the
networks worldwide are registered to corporations whose primary use is electronic mail.20
Many people as well as organizations subscribe to an on-line service to assist
them in using Internet resources effectively. Through membership with such an
on-line service, subscribers can
Tools for Shaping Messages to Be Clearer and More Effective. Another significant benefit to communication offered by technology is message clarification and
refinement. Documents that took days to produce during the b.c. (before computers) era can now be created in hours. Perhaps the greater benefit, however, is
the advent of whole new possibilities for document preparation and presentation.
Word processing software expedites the production of a document and
also improves the quality of the message. Other features that improve writing
are electronic spell check, thesaurus, and writing analysis software. Using word
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
31
Team
Environment
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In what way has word processing software become more and
more like desktop publishing
software?
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processing, you can draft a document, store it on magnetic medium, and retrieve
and revise it as many times as necessary to produce a clear, understandable document. Word processing software also allows you to format the document using
print features, graphic and layout features, and various typefaces, and then print
a highly professional copy.
Reports and longer documents become less tedious to produce because of
features that facilitate writing and editing. Most full-feature word processing software includes a feature that generates a contents page, index, and document references automatically. This feature saves time in the initial creation of these pages
and in their updating if pagination changes during editing. The mail-merge feature facilitates large-scale mailings of personalized form letters; guidelines for
using this feature to personalize form letters is presented in Chapter 5. See the
Strategic Force feature in Chapter 3 on “Writing Effectively at the Computer.”
Collaborative software assists groups in writing collaboratively. Each author
marks revisions and inserts document comments in much the same way as with
word processing software and then sends the computer file to the coauthor. Some
collaborative software programs allow multiple authors to work on documents at
the same time when they are placed on an electronic whiteboard. Drawings or
information written on its surface can be displayed simultaneously on the computer monitors of others in the work team. The Strategic Force feature in Chapter 4 explores the capabilities of groupware software in greater detail.
Graphics software helps managers and other workers surpass simple word
processing capabilities by using typography and design elements to create communications that are persuasive and professional looking. Using desktop publishing software and a high-quality printer, a person can create important
publications such as prospectuses, annual reports, and newsletters. When printed
on a laser printer, the result can be visually convincing. Presentation software
allows speakers to develop dynamic multimedia presentation visuals that combine text, graphics, animation, sound, and video.
Decision makers who do not have the time to wade through pages of written text searching for key information are among the primary beneficiaries of
graphic presentations. A salesperson might close a deal by incorporating into a
proposal five bar graphs illustrating the superiority of a product over the competition’s version. A manager may win the day by supporting a case for expansion with a highly professional slide show depicting the resulting increase in
profits.
Quality graphics can be produced using a variety of software programs and
are available from several sources:
• Use electronic spreadsheet and presentation graphics software to prepare
charts and drawing software to generate other images such as flowcharts,
pictograms, scaled drawings of products, and so on.
• Integrate clip art (predrawn graphics stored on disk), photos, and sound
available with full-feature software and that can be purchased from commercial sources or imported from online sources.
• Use scanners to convert images (graphics, photos, signatures, letterhead, and
text) to electronic files and digital cameras to capture photographs as electronic files.
32
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
FIGURE 1-9
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An effective Internet presence
is essential for most businesses’ success.
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Web publishing tools facilitate the creation of web pages for posting to the
Internet. Such applications allow for the integration of text and graphic elements
and eliminate the need for extensive knowledge of hypertext markup language,
or HTML. Hyperlinks to other documents and web sites can also be included in
the page design. The formatted web pages may then be viewed using a web
browser. Most organizations realize the importance of having a web presence
and have devised useful web pages to provide information to their various constituents. Figure 1-9 shows Hewlett-Packard’s corporate web site, which offers
eye-appealing access to various types of information.
Will e-mail replace the telephone and postal mail? Justify
your answer.
Tools for Communicating Quickly and Efficiently Over Long Distances. Computer networks have placed the world at our fingertips. To exploit the possibilities,
whole new channels for communication have emerged. The businessperson is
no longer limited to paper-copy letters and memos, the telephone, and face-toface meetings; rather, exciting new methods for sending and receiving messages are available:
• Electronic mail. Electronic mail, or e-mail, as it is often called can be used
to distribute memos, reports, and documents without sending them in a printed
(hard copy) form. E-mail helps solve the problem of “telephone tag.” Approximately 70 percent of business telephone callers do not reach the person they
called on the first try. The result is a game of tag, as the caller and the person
called keep trying to reach the other unsuccessfully. With electronic mail, the
caller simply keys a message and sends it to an electronic mailbox. Receivers
are notified that a message awaits them, and they respond to the caller as soon
as the message is read. When it is delivered and read quickly, electronic mail
can be almost as convenient and articulate as a personal conversation.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
33
•
•
How would telecommuting
affect the social dynamics of
the worker, colleagues, and
family?
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•
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E-mail systems that operate on a company’s existing computer system are
relatively inexpensive. When a single message is sent to several recipients, the
savings are even greater compared to the cost of traditional communication
methods. More advanced corporate applications of e-mail include (a) the
forms definition feature that allows a user to select and complete a form to
be sent to a recipient, who will sign the form electronically and forward
copies of the signed forms to appropriate persons and (b) use of intelligent
agents that will automatically route messages (e.g., claims of more than
$10,000 will be forwarded to a senior bank officer).21 As you study Chapter 6,
you will learn more about the benefits of e-mail and acceptable practices for
writing and using electronic communication appropriately.
Voice mail. Voice mail allows you to use your telephone to dial a voice
mail service and store an oral message. The message is then delivered to the
person or list of persons you are calling. Recipients can retrieve messages
when they return to the office or dial in from remote locations to listen to
their messages. Voice mail provides many of the benefits of e-mail but does
not require a computer.
Facsimile. A facsimile, or fax, is a flexible and inexpensive form of electronic mail. A fax machine reads a document that has been inserted into the
machine and transmits the document (text, pictures, and graphics) over telephone lines to another fax machine that receives the message and prepares
a printed copy of the document. High-speed fax machines can transmit a
high-quality page in a few seconds; and because they can be programmed,
the cost of transmission can be cut by sending a message in evening hours
to take advantage of lower telephone rates. Sending faxes also facilitates
communicating with people in different time zones.
Telecommuting. Telecommuting allows individuals to work in their homes
and transmit work from home to the office electronically. The major advantages of telecommuting are the reduced time and expense of commuting and
the increased flexibility of working hours. Rather than spending two to three
hours a day commuting to work in an urban area, for example, employees
use a modem, telephone lines, and a remote workstation to transmit their
work electronically. Transmitting information and computing from remote
locations have become more prevalent because of the availability of laptop
and notebook computers. These smaller computers give professionals access
to computing power regardless of where they are—hotel room, airplane,
taxi, client’s office, and so on. Such portable systems are battery-operated
and generally contain secondary storage (a hard disk drive, a floppy disk
drive, and/or a CD-ROM), a screen, and a keyboard. Other portable systems
include palmtop computers, tiny hand-held computers that rest on the palm
of the hand, lapbody computers that can drape from the neck, and “wearable” computers (e.g., computers that wrap around the forearm to facilitate
recording inventory).
Cellular telephone. Cellular telephones, often called mobile phones or
cell phones, are cellular radios that transmit messages over airways. Cellular telephones are a powerful communication tool, especially for workers
who spend several hours commuting to and from work, travel from one
•
34
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
Legal and Ethical Implications of Technology. In addition to its many benefits,
technology poses some challenges for the business communicator. For instance,
technology raises issues of ownership, as in the case of difficulties that arise in
protecting the copyright of documents transmitted over the Internet. Technology
poses dilemmas over access, that is, who has the right to certain stored information pertaining to an individual or a company.
Technology threatens our individual privacy, our right to be left alone, free
from surveillance or interference from other individuals or organizations.
Common invasions of privacy caused by technology include collecting excessive amounts of information for decision making and maintaining too many
files, monitoring the exact time employees’ spend on a specific task and
between tasks and the exact number and length of breaks, and supervisors’
or coworkers’ reading of another employee’s electronic mail and computer
files. Integrating computer files containing information collected from more
than one agency without permission is a major threat to privacy. Although an
individual may have authorized the collection of the individual information,
merging the information may reveal things the individual may want to remain
private.22 The privacy issue is explored further in the accompanying Strategic
Forces feature.
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Team
Environment
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In your opinion, what does the
future hold for business travel?
meeting or work site to another, or work at sites with no access to a telephone. The increased productivity resulting from the more efficient use of
time justifies the cost of cellular service. Cellular telephones also help
managers stay in closer contact with coworkers and with current and
prospective clients and customers. Quick, courteous responses build strong
interpersonal relations, which in turn lead to increased customer commitment
and an edge over competitors.
• Electronic conferencing. Electronic conferencing via teleconferencing and
videoconferencing are alternatives to face-to-face meetings that allow several
people at different locations to communicate electronically. Teleconferencing allows several persons in different geographic locations to be on the
same line at the same time. Videoconferencing takes advantage of all
media—audio, graphics, and video. Speakers provide the audio feedback,
facsimile devices send graphics, and cameras transmit the video portion of
the conference in a specially equipped room. Participants engage in group
discussions while observing one another’s facial expressions and gestures.
Using collaborative software with the desktop technology, users in remote
locations can see each other as they “document conference,”that is, share and
annotate computer files and images in real time.
Electronic conferences can eliminate or reduce the high costs of face-toface meetings: travel, hotels, food, and time lost in transit. Videoconferencing restores the nonverbal elements of interpersonal communication that are
lost over the telephone, and thus, is more personal than a “disembodied”
voice on the other end of a telephone line. The availability of less expensive
desktop videoconferencing systems that allows users to hold electronic
meetings across existing local area networks and telephone lines has made
electronic conferences more accessible to businesses of all sizes.
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
Have you personally been
affected by a loss of privacy
because of technology? How?
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
35
S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S
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Despite the passage of federal legislation and additional state laws designed
to enhance and strengthen electronic
privacy, most Americans feel they have
less privacy today than ever. According
to a recent Harris poll, 76 percent of
Americans believe they have lost all
control over personal information, and
67 percent believe that computers
must be restricted in the future to preserve privacy.23 Workplace privacy has
also become an area of concern, as
computer monitoring and surveillance
capabilities expand.
George Orwell, in his classic novel
1984, described what many believe to
be the ultimate in privacy-shattering
totalitarianism as he offered a foreboding look at future society. In his
fictitious account “ . . . there was of
course no way of knowing whether
8
Explain how team
environment acts as
a strategic force to
influence the
process of business
communication.
Team
Environment
36
prior to any query that might violate privacy.
• Methods. An inquiring party
should distinguish between methods of inquiry that are reasonable
and customary and those that are
of questionable ethical grounding.
While technology offers tremendous advantages and endless possibilities for enhancing communication, it
poses challenges for both individuals
and organizations in the maintenance
of a proper degree of privacy. Most of
us are not ready for the all-seeing eye
of Orwell’s “Big Brother.”
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Is Anything Private
Anymore?
you were being watched at any given
moment . . . . It was even conceivable
that they watched everybody all the
time. . . . You had to live—did live—,
from habit that became instinct in the
assumption that every sound you made
was overheard, and, except in darkness,
every movement scrutinized.”24 We
have now advanced technologically to
the point that, if desired, this kind of
surveillance is easily possible.
An important aspect of technology is its seductive power: If a technology exists, it must be used. Where
does this principle leave the individual
regarding privacy needs in a highly
automated world? Experts in the area
of individual privacy have suggested
three key aspects in the ethical management of information and protection
of privacy:25
• Relevance. An inquiring party
should have a clear and valid purpose for delving into the information of an individual.
• Consent. An individual should be
given the right to withhold consent
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Legal and
Ethical
Constraints
Application
Read a book review of George
Orwell’s 1984. In a two-page written
summary, cite instances in which
Orwell described technological capabilities that have been realized in
recent years. How has society’s
response to these capabilities differed
from the fictional plot?
Team Environment as a Strategic
Force Influencing Communication
A team-oriented approach is replacing the traditional top-down management
style in today’s organizations. Firms around the world are facing problems in
decreasing productivity, faltering product quality, and worker dissatisfaction.
Work teams are being examined as a way to help firms remain globally competitive. Although worker involvement in the management process has long
been the hallmark of Japanese business, many U.S. businesses, as well as those
of other countries, are experimenting with self-directed work teams.26 The list of
companies using self-directed work teams is diverse, including such firms as
Hunt-Wesson, the Internal Revenue Service, and the San Diego Zoo. Other companies using the team concept include Hewlett-Packard, Southwest Airlines,
Toyota, Motorola, General Electric, and Corning.
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
Work Team Defined. The terms team, work team, group, work group, crossfunctional team and self-directed team are often used interchangeably.27 Whatever the title, a team is a small number of people with complementary skills
who work together for a common purpose. Team members set their own goals,
in cooperation with management, and plan how to achieve those goals and how
their work is to be accomplished. The central organizing element of a team is
that it has a common purpose and measurable goals for which the team can be
held accountable, independent of its individual members. Employees in a selfdirected work team handle a wide array of functions and work with a minimum
of direct supervision.28 Some major strengths of teams are as follows: 29
• Teams make workers happier by causing them to feel that they are shaping
their own jobs.
• Teams increase efficiency by eliminating layers of managers whose job was
once to pass orders downward.
• Teams enable a company to draw on the skills and imagination of a whole
work force. A key element in team success is the concept of synergy. Synergy is defined as a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of
the parts. Teams provide a depth of expertise that is unavailable at the individual level, as illustrated in the Ziggy cartoon. Teams open lines of communication that then lead to increased interaction among employees and
between employees and management. The result is that teams help companies reach their goals of delivering higher-quality products and services faster
and with more cost-effectiveness.
Explain the significance of
1+1=3.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
©1994 Ziggy and Friends, Inc./Dist. by Universal Press Syndicate
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The concept of synergy is
that the whole is greater
than the sum of the parts.
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Considering the four strategic
forces discussed, how is business communication today different from that of 30 years
ago? In what ways is it easier?
In what ways is it more difficult?
37
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Communication Differences in Work Teams. In the past most businesses were
operated in a hierarchical fashion, with most decisions made at the top. Communication followed a top-down/bottom-up or lateral pattern. Communication
patterns are different in successful team environments as compared to traditional
organizational structures. Trust building is the primary factor that changes the
organization’s communication patterns. Open meetings are an important method
for enhancing communication, as they educate employees about the business
while building bridges of understanding and trust. A second trust-building structure is shared leadership, which involves more direct and effective communication between management and its internal customers. Listening, problem
solving, conflict resolution, negotiation, and consensus become important factors in group communication.
Communication is perhaps the single most important aspect of successful
teamwork. Open lines of communication increase interaction between employees and management. Information must flow vertically up to management and
down to workers, as well as horizontally among team members, other teams,
and supervisors. All affected parties should be kept informed as projects
progress.
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Maximization of Work Team Effectiveness. Grouping employees into a team
structure does not mean that they will automatically function as a team. A group
must go through a developmental process to begin to function as a team. Members need training in such areas as problem solving, goal setting, and conflict
resolution. Teams must be encouraged to establish the “three R’s”—roles, rules,
and relationships.30
The self-directed work team can become the basic organizational building
block to best ensure success in dynamic global competition. Skills for successful participation in team environments are somewhat different from those necessary for success in old-style organizations. Effective communication skills
include the ability to give and take constructive criticism, listen actively, clearly
impart one’s views to others, and provide meaningful feedback. Emotional barriers, such as insecurity or condescension, can limit team effectiveness. Process
barriers, such as prevailing policies and procedures, can also interfere by stifling
effective team functioning. Cultural barriers, such as role assignment and perceived responsibilities, can separate workers from management. Effective team
communication will involve overcoming all of these barriers.31
Perhaps the greatest requirement for successful teams is the ability to understand the feelings and needs of coworkers. Members must feel comfortable stating their opinions and discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the team. The
ability to experience this openness is largely dependent on the level of trust
workers have in one another and in management. Team members must also
develop leadership skills that apply to a dynamic group setting. In dynamic team
leadership, which is referred to as distributed leadership, the role of leader
may alternate among members, and more than one leadership style may be
active at any given time.32
To improve group communication, time needs to be set aside to assess the
quality of interaction. Questions to pose about the group process might include
the following:
Provide other examples of emotional barriers, process barriers,
and cultural barriers that deter
team function.
38
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
3.8 percent of top executive positions
at Fortune 500 companies are held
by women. While Carly Fiorina, CEO
of Hewlett-Packard, deflects attention
from her gender, other observers do
not. “Whether she wants to be or not,
she becomes a poster out there,“ says
Lynn Martin, former U.S. Secretary of
Labor. Despite Fiorina’s credibility,
Martin fears that business critics will
tie her performance to her gender. “If
she fails, it will be ‘a woman executive
failed.’”33
• Visit the Hewlett-Packard web site
at http://www.hp.com. Find out
the company’s philosophy about
diversity.
• Locate the following article that
describes some success factors
for workplace diversity: Diversity:
Less than meets the eye (1997,
June). Getting Results . . . For the
Hands-On Manager, 42(6), 8.
F orm a small group; identify in
what ways the group is diverse. Identify a list of attitudes that promote a
successful diversity initiative within an
organization. Identify a list of behaviors
that promote workplace diversity.
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A 1998 survey revealed that only
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Capitalizing on Workplace Diversity
http://www.hp.com
• What are our common goals?
• What roles are members playing? For instance, is one person dominating
while others contribute little or nothing?
• Is the group dealing with conflict in a positive way?
• What in the group process is going well?
• What about the group process could be improved?
Gender, cultural, and age differences among members of a team can present
barriers to team communication. Knowing what behaviors may limit the group
process is imperative to maximizing results. Team members may need awareness training to assist in recognizing behaviors that may hinder team performance and in overcoming barriers that may limit the effectiveness of their
communication. You can explore the team model versus reward for individual
effort by completing the Internet Investigation at the end of this chapter.
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What do you see as the three
major challenges to the success of work teams?
Diversity
Challenges
SUMMARY
1. Define communication and describe the
main purposes for communication in
business. Communication is the process of exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, and
behavior. Managers spend most of their time in communication activities.
2. Explain the communication process model
and the ultimate objective of the communication process. People engaged in communication
encode and decode messages while simultaneously serving
as both senders and receivers. In the communication
process, feedback helps people resolve possible misunderstandings and thus improve communication effectiveness.
Feedback and the opportunity to observe nonverbal signs
are always present in face-to-face communication, the most
complete of the three communication levels.
3. Identify the five levels of communication. Communication takes place at five levels: intrapersonal (communication within one person), interpersonal
(communication between two people), group (communication among more than two people), organizational (communication among combinations of groups), and mass
(communication from one entity to the greater public).
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
39
7. Explain how technology acts as a strategic force to influence the process of
business communication. Communication occurs
within an environment of strategic forces that includes
changing technology. Significant strides have occurred in the
development of tools for data collection and analysis, tools
for shaping messages to be clearer and more effective, and
tools for communicating quickly and efficiently over long distances. The use of technology also raises various legal and
ethical concerns in regard to ownership, access, and privacy.
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exist in every organization. The formal system exists to
accomplish tasks, and the informal system serves a personal
maintenance purpose that results in people feeling better
about themselves and others. Communication flows upward,
downward, and horizontally or laterally. These flows often defy
formal graphic description, yet each is a necessary part of the
overall communication activity of the organization.
other factors. Such diversity offers challenges for the business communicator in interpretation of time, personal space
requirements, body language, language translation, and lack
of language training. Through diversity, the organization and
the individual are provided with tremendous opportunities to
maximize talent, ideas, and productivity.
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4. Discuss how information flows within an
organization (formally and informally,
and downward, upward, and horizontally). Both formal and informal communication systems
5. Explain how legal and ethical constraints act as a strategic force to
influence the process of business communication. Communication occurs within an environ-
ment of strategic forces that includes legal and ethical
constraints. Pressures to succeed often place individuals in
difficult legal and ethical dilemmas. International, federal,
state, and local laws impose legal boundaries for business
activity. Ethical boundaries are determined by personal
analysis that can be assisted by application of various frameworks for decision making.
6. Explain how diversity challenges act as
a strategic force to influence the
process of business communication. Com-
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munication occurs within an environment of strategic forces
that includes diversity in nationality, culture, age, gender, and
8. Explain how team environment acts as a
strategic force to influence the process
of business communication. Communication
occurs within an environment of strategic forces that
includes team environment. Communicating in teams differs
from communication in traditional organizational structures.
Team orientation focuses on group synergy rather than on
individual effort. The result of effective teams is better decisions, more creative solutions to problems, and higher
worker morale.
REFERENCES
1 The
challenges facing workers in the future. (1999, August).
HR Focus, 6.
2 Roth, D. (2000, January 10). My job at the Container Store.
Fortune, 74–78.
3 Hunt, V. D. (1993). Managing for quality: Integrating quality and business strategy. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin.
[p. 37].
4 Slayton, M. (1980). Common sense & everyday ethics.
Washington, DC: Ethics Resource Center.
5 Slayton, M. (1991, May–June). Perspectives. Ethics Journal.
Washington, DC: Ethics Resource Center.
6 Mathison, D. L. (1988). Business ethics cases and decision
models: A call for relevancy in the classroom. Journal of Business
Ethics, 10 (7), 781.
7 Freeman, R. E., & Gilvert, D. R. (1988). Corporate strategy
and the search for ethics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
8McGarry, M. J. (1994, June 9). Short cuts. Newsday, p. A50.
9 Allen, M. (1996). NAFTA can’t undo mistakes: Small businesses still find it hard to sell into Mexico, sidestep goofs. Dallas
Business Journal, 1.
10 Solomon, J. (1990, September 12). Learning to accept cultural diversity. The Wall Street Journal, p. B1.
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11 Miller,
W. H. (1991, May 6). A new perspective for tomorrow’s work force. Industry Week, 6.
12 Marshall-Mims, P. (1999, July 26). Aging work force creates
new challenges for restaurant industry. Nation’s Restaurant
News, 33 (30), 82.
13 Bisio J. (1999. February). The age boom. Risk Management, 46 (2), 22–27.
14 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorina’s fun formula for
success. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.
15 Zesiger, S. (1999, August 16). Fortune cover girls storm valley. Fortune, 29.
16 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorina’s fun formula for
success. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.
17 Fitzgerald, N . (1996). Transcultural faux pas. World Trade,
9 (9), 92–93.
18 Green, D. J., & Scott, J. C. (1996). The status of international business communication courses in schools accredited by
the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. The
Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 39(1), 43–62.
19 Marquardt, M. J., & Engel, D. W. (1993). HRD competencies
for a shrinking world. Training & Development, 47(5), 59–64.
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28 Ray, D., & Bronstein, H. (1995). Teaming up. New York:
McGraw Hill.
29 The trouble with teams. (1995, January 14). Economist,
61.
30 Frohman, M. A. (1995, April 3). Do teams . . . but do them
right. Industry Week, 21–24.
31 Zuidema, K. R., & Kleiner, B. H. (1994). New developments
in developing self-directed work groups. Management Decision,
32 (8), 57–63.
32 Barry, D. (1991). Managing the baseless team: Lessons in
distributed leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 20 (1), 31–47.
33 Marchetti, M. (1999, September). A sales pro tries to energize HP. Sales & Marketing Management, 151(9), 15.
34 Pounds, M. H. (1996, April 12). New breed of executive is
ruthless, highly paid. Sun-Sentinel (Fort Lauderdale), p. 1F.
Note: Selected portions of the discussion of ethical constraints were adapted with permission from Spencer, B. A., &
Lehman C. M. (1990). Analyzing ethical issues: Essential ingredient in the business communication course. Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, 53 (3), 7–16.
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20 Grant, G. (1996). Emerging platforms for commerce over
the Internet. In Cronin, M. J. (Ed.), The Internet strategy handbook. (1996) Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
21 Shannon, J. H., & Rosenthal, D. A. (1993). Electronic mail
and privacy: Can the conflicts be resolved? Business Forum,
18 (1,2), 31–34.
22 Mason, R. O. (1986). Four ethical issues of the information
age. In Dejoie, R., Fowler, G., & Paradice, D. (1991). Ethical issues
in information systems (pp. 46–55). Boston: Boyd & Fraser.
23Equifax report on consumers in the information age, a
national survey. (1992). In Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (1994).
Management information systems: Organization and technology, (3rd ed.). New York: MacMillan.
24 Orwell, G. (1949). 1984. New York: Signet Classics. [6–7].
25 Brown, W. S. (1996). Technology, workplace privacy, and
personhood. Journal of Business Ethics, 15 (11), 1237–1248.
26 Felts, C. (1995). Taking the mystery out of self-directed
work teams. Industrial Management, 37 (2), 21–26.
27 Miller, B. K., & Butler, J. B. (1996, November/December).
Teams in the workplace. New Accountant, 18–24.
CHAPTER REVIEW
8. What are some common causes of unethical behavior in the
workplace? (Obj. 5)
2. Describe the five stages in the communication process
using the following terms: (a) sender, (b) encode, (c) channel, (d) receiver, (e) decode, (f) feedback, and (g) interferences or barriers. (Obj. 2)
10. Describe several intercultural communication barriers and
how they might be overcome. (Obj. 6)
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1. What are the three purposes for which people communicate? What percentage of a manager’s time is spent communicating? Give examples of the types of communication
managers use. (Obj. 1)
3. What types of differences between sender and receiver create barriers to communication? (Obj. 2)
4. What is the difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication? (Obj. 3)
5. How is the formal flow of communication different from the
informal flow of communication? (Obj. 4)
6. Discuss four strategic forces that influence business communication. (Objs. 5, 6, 7, 8)
9. What are some aspects of diversity that pose communication challenges? (Obj. 6)
11. Describe several ways that communication technology can
assist individuals and organizations. (Obj. 7)
12. What concerns are raised over the use of technology?
(Obj. 7)
13. Explain the concept of synergy. (Obj. 8)
14. How does communication in work teams differ from that of
traditional organizations? (Obj. 8)
15. Why has communication been identified as perhaps the single most important aspect of team work? (Obj. 8)
7. Give two definitions for ethics. (Obj. 5)
ACTIVITIES
1. Communication Activities (Obj. 1)
Shadow a business manager for a day. Keep a log of
his/her communication activities for the time period you
are observing. Divide the communication activities into
the following categories: (1) attending meetings; (2) presenting information to groups; (3) explaining and clarifying
management procedures and work assignments; (4) coordinating the work of various employees, departments, and
other work groups; (5) evaluating and counseling employees; (6) promoting the company’s products/services and
image; (7) other activities. Calculate the percentage of
time spent in each activity.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
41
Teams
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In groups of three, develop a list of 12 to 15 annoying habits
of yours or of others that create barriers (verbal and nonverbal) to effective communication. Classify each according to
the portion of the communication it affects. For each, give
at least one suggestions for improvement.
Stages of Communication
Point in Model (Encoding,
Channel, Decoding, FeedSuggestions for
Barrier
back, Noise, Interferences)
Improvement
_________
_______________________
________________
_________
_______________________
________________
3. Communication Activities (Obj. 2)
Oral
increased at an annual rate of four percent, and dividends
have increased only seven percent.
A stockholder has submitted a proposal to eliminate all
management bonuses if the company does not achieve a
10 percent growth rate. You are an assistant manager of a
stock mutual fund that owns 100,000 shares of Golden
Value stock. You have been asked to determine how the
mutual fund should cast its votes on the proposal.
Use the ethical framework in Figure 1-6 to analyze
whether the following action demonstrates ethical behavior.
Consider the costs and benefits of the action on each of the
company’s stakeholders (persons who will be affected by
the decision): Golden Value Stores, management, stockholders, and employees. Consider which of Ross’s five
duties are relevant and which may be violated for any of the
stakeholders. Use the following table as a guide for your
analysis.
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2. Communication Barriers (Obj. 2)
Prepare a record of your listening, speaking, reading, and
writing activities and time spent in each during the hours
of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. for the next two days. You should
attempt to record the time spent doing each activity for
each one-hour time block in such a way that you obtain a
total time for each activity. Be prepared to share your distribution with the class.
Decision: Restrict Management Compensation
Stakeholder
Cost
Benefit
Golden Value
Stores
Proposal (restricting
compensation) could
encourage managers to
take risks or unethical
actions to achieve goals.
Will relate compensation costs
more directly to
company operating results.
4. Organizational Communication Flows (Objs. 3, 4)
Critical Thinking
Draw an organizational chart to depict the formal system of
communication within an organization with which you are
familiar. How is the informal system different from the organization chart? How are the five levels of communication
achieved in the organization?
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5. Legal and Ethical Constraints as a Strategic Force
(Obj. 5)
Critical Thinking
6. Identifying Ethical Dilemmas (Obj. 5)
Technology
Using an on-line index, locate a current newspaper or magazine article that describes an illegal or unethical act by a business organization or its employee(s). Choose an incident as
closely related as possible to your intended profession. Prepare a written summary of the article.
7. Analyzing an Ethical Dilemma (Obj. 5)
Critical Thinking
Legal/Ethical
Over the past two years, the salaries and bonuses of top
management at Golden Value Stores have increased over
50 percent—an increase consistent with management compensation levels of similar companies. Much of this increase
resulted from management’s achieving a variety of nonincome-related goals such as the number of retail outlets
opened during the year. During the same period, however,
Golden Value Stores’ stock and company earnings have
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Stakeholder
Obligation
Stockholders
Meets obligation to provide a fair return on
their investment in the short term. Restricting
salary could have a long-term negative impact
on the company’s ability to attract and retain
quality managers.
Legal/Ethical
Read The Power of Ethical Management by Kenneth Blanchard and Norman Vincent Peale, a short, engaging story
about a sales manager’s attempt to make an ethical decision. Write a brief report summarizing the ethical principles
presented in the book.
Legal/Ethical
Attaining 10 percent growth
would improve
market position.
8. Diversity Challenges as a Strategic Force (Obj. 6)
Oral
Diversity
Technology
Conduct an on-line search to locate examples of intercultural communication mistakes made by U.S. companies
doing business in another country. How can an organization
improve its diversity awareness to avoid such problems?
Share your results with the class.
9. Understanding Diversity Issues (Obj. 6)
Oral
Diversity
Teams
In groups of three, interview an international student at your
institution and generate a list of English words that have no
equivalents in his/her language. Share your findings in a
short oral presentation to the class.
10. Using E-Mail to Communicate Effectively (Obj. 7)
Technology
Read an article from a current magazine or journal about
how technology is impacting communication or another
topic assigned by your instructor. Send your instructor a brief
e-mail message discussing the major theme of the article.
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
I N T E R N E T I N V E S T I G AT I O N
Internet sites
http://www.againtech.com/products/studies.html
http://www.tpcorp.com/fed/library/articles/scholtes.html
http://www.gainshare.com/define.html
You may link to these URLs or other updated sites from the
text web site.
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A basic element of the fabric of U.S. entrepreneurship is the
faith in the ingenuity of the individual person’s ability to conceive, develop, and profit from a business endeavor. The frontier spirit and triumph of the individual over looming odds
have been a predominant force in the development of the
United States. Such individualism has also been recognized
by organizations, with reward going to those who contribute
winning ideas and efforts.
The recent shift in organizational structures toward team
design has caused management to reassess reward systems
that focus on individual recognition and to consider rewards
that are based on team performance. Some fear that removing individual incentive will lead to mediocrity and a reduction
in personal effort. They argue that while the team model
might work in other cultures, it is inconsistent with the U.S.
way of thinking and living. According to Madelyn Hoshstein,
president of DYG Inc., a New York firm that researches corporate trends, America is moving away from the model of team
building in which everyone is expected to do everything and
toward focusing on employees who are the best at what they
do. She describes this change as a shift toward social Darwinism and away from egalitarianism, in which everyone has
equal economic, political, and social rights.34
Team advocates say that teams are here to stay and liken
those who deny that reality to the proverbial ostrich with its
head in the sand. Thy stress the need for newly structured
incentive plans to reward group effort.
Visit the following Internet sites for information on the
issue and respond to one or more of the following activities
as directed by your instructor.
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Can the United States Succeed Without
Rewarding Rugged Individuality?
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Include a complete bibliographic entry so the instructor
could locate the article (refer to Appendix B for examples
for formatting references). Your instructor will provide directions for setting up an e-mail account and composing and
sending an e-mail message.
11. Changing Technology as a Strategic Force (Objs. 2, 7)
Technology
Indicate which of the following communication mediums
would be most appropriate for sending the following messages: e-mail, fax, telephone, or face-to-face communication. Justify your answer.
a. The company is expecting a visit from members of a
committee evaluating your bid for this year’s Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award. All employees must
be notified of the visit.
b. After careful deliberation, the management of a midsized pharmaceutical company is convinced the only
way to continue its current level of research is to sell the
company to a larger one. The employees must be
informed of this decision.
c. Lincoln Enterprises is eager to receive the results of a drug
test on a certain employee. The drug testing company has
been asked to send the results as quickly as possible.
Activities
1.
How would you respond to those with concerns about loss of individual incentive? Argue for or
against the increased emphasis on team reward, using
either personal examples or examples from business.
2. Structure a reward system that would recognize both
individual and team performance.You may use an organization of your choice to illustrate.
3. Select a specific corporation or nation that has implemented the team model. Describe the transition away
from a hierarchical structure and the consequences that
have resulted from the shift, both positive and negative.
d.
e.
The shipping department has located the common carrier currently holding a customer’s shipment that should
have been delivered yesterday. Inform the customer that
the carrier has promised delivery by tomorrow morning.
An employee in another division office has requested
you send a spreadsheet you have prepared so he can
manipulate the data to produce a report.
12. Exploring Use of Teams in the Workplace (Obj. 8)
Teams
Technology
Using the Internet, locate an article that covers how a company or organization is using teams in its operation. Write a
one-page abstract of the article.
13. Importance of Communication in Your Career Field
(Objs. 1–8)
Critical Thinking
Technology
Conduct an on-line search related to communication in your
chosen career field. Write a brief paper providing information such as (a) evidence of the value of communication in
the profession, (b) major audiences to whom you will communicate, (c) examples of how each of the strategic forces
influences communication in the field, and (d) typical communication requirements. Be prepared to share your results
with the class.
Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication
43
VIDEO CONNECTION
3. To what extent is courtesy a universal concept?
4. How does the “salad bowl” concept of culture differ from
the traditional “melting pot” idea?
5. Jan Birkelbach discusses the wide array of behavior within
cultural groups and cautions against generalizing that all
members of a specific group fit a certain stereotype. Give
examples of several such stereotypes.
Application
You must make a short presentation to your company’s staff concerning the cultural diversity of your community and the importance of effective intercultural communication.
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The United States is a nation of
cultural diversity. Each wave of
immigration, whether prompted
by religious, political, or economic reasons, has added new
facets to our distinct culture.
The term eclectic has been
used to describe this diversity;
it refers to that which is made
up of components from various sources and implies that the
result is the sum of many perspectives.
As businesses attempt to serve the diverse needs of an
eclectic community, recognizing and respecting cultural differences becomes increasingly important. The management of
Pacific Bell Directory discusses this vital concept in terms of the
unique characteristics of the Southern California intercultural
environment. While the particular cultural components may vary,
the same communication challenges exist.
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Pacific Bell Directory
Discussion Questions
1. Stephanie Dollschnieder refers to an important ingredient in
successful intercultural communication as “cutting each
other slack.” What does she mean? Give examples of how
this strategy can be accomplished.
1. Determine what cultural groups are present in your community and in what proportions. (Your chamber of commerce or city offices may be of help.)
2. Interview one or more persons from each of the major cultural groups in your community. Identify what is unique
about their language, nonverbal communication, perception
of time, customs, family life, and so on.
3. Prepare an outline for your talk, emphasizing the importance of intercultural communication and including several
suggestions for improving intercultural communication in
your community.
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2. What part do respect and trust play in intercultural communication? How are they related concepts?
14. OfficeTeam Survey Outlines Future Worker Trends
(Objs. 1–8)
Critical Thinking
Teams
Technology
Locate the following article through an on-line index: The
challenges facing workers in the future (1999, August). HR
Focus, 76 (8), 6.
In small groups, discuss the following:
2. Which trends are likely to impact your chosen career
field most significantly? In what ways?
3. How do the predicted trends relate to the four strategic
forces presented in Chapter 1?
4. What did the author mean in saying “employees’ interpersonal or ‘people’ skills will be subject to their severest test“ during the new millennium?
1. What communication trends are revealed from the survey results? Are any of these surprising? Why?
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Part 1 | Communication Foundations
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