Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management
MERCURY EMISSIONS
FROM COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
The Case for Regulatory Action
October 2003
Northeast States for
Coordinated Air Use Management
101 Merrimac Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02114
Phone: (617) 367-8540
http://www.nescaum.org
Founded in 1967, NESCAUM is a non-profit association of the state air quality divisions of the
state departments of environmental protection of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island and Vermont. NESCAUM provides scientific,
technical, and policy support to its member states in developing regionally consistent and costeffective strategies to achieve clean air goals.
Project Manager
Praveen Amar, Ph.D., P.E.
Director, Science and Policy
Copyright NESCAUM  2003
Contents
Executive Summary
Chapter 1. Human Health and Wildlife Impacts of Mercury Exposure
Human Health................................................................................................................... 1-1
Government Standards and Guidance for Methylmercury Exposure................................ 1-3
Methylmercury Exposure in the U.S.................................................................................. 1-6
Wildlife Impacts................................................................................................................. 1-7
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 1-8
Chapter 2. Mercury Emissions and Deposition in the U.S.
Mercury Emissions by Industrial Sector.............................................................................2-1
Industrial Sources in the Global Context............................................................................2-2
Fate and Transport of Mercury in the Atmosphere ............................................................2-4
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................2-7
Chapter 3. Legal Requirements to Regulate Mercury Emissions from Power Plants
Federal Requirements ...................................................................................................... 3-1
State Requirements .......................................................................................................... 3-3
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 3-4
Chapter 4. Status of Technology to Control Mercury Emissions from Power Plants
Co-Benefit Technologies....................................................................................................4-2
Mercury-Specific Control Technologies .............................................................................4-3
Demonstrations and Results..............................................................................................4-4
Federal and State Mercury Controls on Waste Combustors..............................................4-8
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................4-9
Chapter 5. Effect of Regulatory Drivers on Technology Development and Costs
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................5-2
Conclusion
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Chapter 1
Human Health and Wildlife
Impacts of Mercury Exposure
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Methylmercury Bioaccumulation
After mercury is deposited from the atmosphere, its greatest adverse impact occurs in the
a
aquatic ecosystem. In a series of chemical reactions, mercury can be converted by bacteria in
the sediments to methylmercury, a form that is especially toxic to humans and wildlife. Fish
absorb methylmercury from the water as it passes over their gills and as they feed on other
organisms. As larger fish eat smaller ones, methylmercury concentrations increase in the
bigger fish, a process known as bioaccumulation. Consequently, larger predator fish usually
have higher concentrations of methylmercury from eating contaminated prey. Humans, birds
and other wildlife that eat fish are exposed to methylmercury in this way.
a
U.S. EPA, 1997b. Mercury Study Report to Congress, Volume III: Fate and Transport of Mercury in the Environment.
EPA-452/R-97-005.
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Table 1.1 Methylmercury Health Standards
Population Group
Highest acceptable
level of mercury in
maternal hair
(parts per million)
Uncertainty
Factor
Amount of
methylmercury that can
safely be consumed
every day over a
lifetime without effect
12
10
0.1 µg/kg/d
ATSDR Minimal Risk Level (MRL)
15.3
4.5
0.3 µg/kg/d
Canada Provisional Tolerable Daily
Intake (pTDI)
10
5
0.2 µg/kg/d
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee
on Food Additives
14
6.4
0.23 µg/kg/d
d
NA
NA
0.47 µg/kg/d
e
Women of Reproductive Age, Pregnant Women and Children
U.S. EPA Reference Dose (RfD)
a
b
c
Adults
FDA TDI
a
Based on Faroe Islands study to protect fetal brain development.
Based on no observed effects in Seychelles study of infants up to 66 months of age.
c
Based on no effect level in maternal hair from Iraq, New Zealand, Seychelles and Faroe Islands studies.
d
Based on no effect level in umbilical cord blood and maternal hair from Iraq, New Zealand, Seychelles
and Faroe Islands studies.
e
Based on tolerable daily intake with a reasonable certainty of no harm to adults.
b
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Fish Consumption Advisories
Widespread methylmercury contamination, primarily as a result the deposition of mercury from
the atmosphere, has resulted in elevated levels of mercury in fish. In fact, methylmercury
contamination of fish is so pervasive in the U.S. that health departments in 45 states and
a
American Samoa have issued freshwater fish consumption advisories. A consumption advisory
may include recommendations to limit or avoid eating certain fish species caught from specific
water bodies. In most cases, sensitive individuals – which may include pregnant women, nursing
women, women of child-bearing age, children (typically under age 14) and consumers of large
quantities of fish – are specifically targeted by the advisories. Eleven states have consumption
advisories for every inland water body for at least one fish species; 10 states have consumption
advisories for canned tuna; and eight southern states have statewide coastal marine advisories
for king mackerel. Limitations on fish intake have public health impacts of their own, in light of
the fact that fish is in most respects a healthful food source.
The amount of methylmercury in different fish varies considerably. High intake of methylmercury
can occur from frequent consumption of fish with relatively low methylmercury levels, and/or
b
infrequent consumption of fish species with high levels of methylmercury. EPA has issued a fish consumption advisory for women who are pregnant or may become
pregnant, nursing mothers and young children. These populations are advised to limit
consumption of fish from non-commercial sources to one meal per week. Consumers are also
advised to check with their state and local health department for local information.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not have jurisdiction over freshwater bodies
within state borders and its advisories are therefore limited to marine species. The FDA has
issued a consumer advisory for pregnant women, women of childbearing age, nursing mothers
and young children. These groups are advised not to eat swordfish, tilefish, shark and king
c
mackerel because of high methylmercury levels. In July 2002, an independent committee of
food safety advisors convened by the FDA recommended that consumption advisories be issued
d
for canned tuna, but the Agency has not yet acted on the recommendation.
Health Canada and the British Food Standards Agency have also provided guidance to
consumers about mercury exposure from fish consumption. Health Canada advises consumers
to limit their consumption of swordfish, shark and fresh and frozen tuna to one meal per week.
For young children and women of childbearing age, the recommended limit for swordfish, shark
e
and fresh or frozen tuna is one meal per month. The advisory does not apply to canned tuna.
The British Food Standards Agency advises pregnant and breastfeeding women and women
who intend to become pregnant to limit their consumption of tuna to no more than two mediumsized cans or one fresh tuna steak per week. These women are also advised to avoid eating
shark, swordfish and marlin. Infants and children under 16 are advised to avoid eating shark,
f
swordfish and marlin.
a
U.S. EPA. Fish Advisories Website. http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish
b
U.S. EPA. An Assessment of Exposure to Mercury in the United States. Volume IV of Mercury Study Report to
Congress. 1997e. (EPA-452/R-97-006).
c
FDA Consumer Advisory for Pregnant Women and Women of Child-bearing Age who may become Pregnant about the
Risks of Mercury in Fish. March 2001. http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg.html
d
Mercury Policy Project, 2003. Can the Tuna. http://www.mercurypolicy.org
e
Canada Food Inspection Fact Sheet. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/corpaffr/foodfacts/mercurye.shtml
f
Food Standards Agency. Agency updates advice to pregnant and breastfeeding women on eating certain fish. February
17, 2003. http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/news/pressreleases/tuna_mercury
MERCURY EMISSIONS FROM COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS
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Figure 1.1 Mercury Fish Advisories in the U.S. (2002)
Source: U.S. EPA. Fish Advisories Website. http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish
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Table 2.1 1999 National Emissions Inventory for Mercury by Source Type
Source Category
Utility Boilers
1999 Estimated
Emissions
(tons/year)
48.7
Percent of Total U.S.
Inventory (%)
41.6
Coal
47.8
40.8
Oil
0.50
0.4
Natural gas
0.44
0.4
Municipal waste combustors
5.1
4.3
Commercial/Industrial boilers
9.73
8.3
Medical waste incinerators
2.84
2.4
Hazardous waste combustors
2.94
2.5
Residential boilers
1.23
1.1
Coal
0.08
0.1
Oil
1.15
1.0
Wood-fired boilers
0.69
0.6
Crematories
0.13
0.1
Chlorine manufacturing
6.53
5.6
Portland cement
2.36
2.0
Pulp and paper
1.69
1.4
All Other
35.36
30
TOTAL
117.3
100
Source: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. 1999 National Emissions
Inventory for Hazardous Air Pollutants.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/1999inventory.html#final3haps.
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Figure 2.1 Spatial Distribution of Global Mercury Emissions
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Table 3.1 Determination of MACT Floor Based on Percent Reduction in Mercury
7
8
9
:
Top 12% (10 Plants) from EPA 1999 ICR Data
Plant Name
1 Scrubgrass Generating Company, L.P.
Calculated Hg Reduction
(% from coal)
99
2 Clover Plant Station
97
3 Mecklenburg Cogeneration Facility
96
4 Logan Generating Plant
96
5 Dwayne Collier Battle Cogeneration Facility
92
6 Stockton Cogen Company
90
7 SEI - Birchwood Power Facility
87
8 Clay Boswell
86
9 Intermountain
84
10 Big Bend
84
Average of Top 12%
91.1%
Source: Memo to the Utility MACT Workgroup from the Ranking Subgroup. February 5, 2002.
Online. Available: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/combust/utiltox/feb5memo.pdf.
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Chapter 4
Status of Technology to Control
Mercury Emissions from Power Plants
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The Fate of Mercury in Combustion Waste
Though not the focus of this report, it is also important to acknowledge the fate of mercury in coal
combustion systems. Because mercury is a metal, it is not destroyed. When captured by the air
pollution control device it is transferred to other waste streams. There is need for additional
research on the fate of mercury in combustion waste (i.e., in terms of its potential for leaching or
re-emission). Both current coal combustion waste containing mercury and the added waste that
will be created after controls are installed must be appropriately managed to ensure the mercury
they contain is not released to the environment.
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Figure 4.1 Activated Carbon Injection System
Source: Michael Durham, ADA-Environmental Solutions
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Figure 4.2 Percent Mercury Removal vs. Activated Carbon Injection Rate
100
FF Bitum
Mercury Removal (%)
90
FF PRB
1
ESP Bituminous
ESP PRB
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70
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50
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Sorbent Injection Rate (lb/Macf)
“FF” stands for fabric filter, which is the same as a baghouse; “PRB” refers to Powder River
Basin, which is a subbituminous coal; and “Macf” stands for million actual cubic feet.
1
Includes EPRI data on small-scale PRB/FF tests
Source: Durham, M. “Tools for Planning and Implementing Mercury Control Technology”,
American Coal Council. 2003. pp. 43-46.
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Table 4.1 Comparison of Mercury Control Costs with NOx Control Costs
Control Type
Total Annual Cost
(mills/kWh)
Mercury Controls
0.18 – 1.15
Low-NOx Burners
0.21 – 0.83
Selective Catalytic Reduction
1.85 – 3.62
Source: Srivastava, R.K., C.B. Sedman, and J.D. Kilgroe. “Preliminary Performance and Cost
Estimates of Mercury Emission Control Options for Electric Utility Boilers.” AWMA 93rd Annual
Conference & Exhibition, Salt Lake City, UT, 2000.
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