"Somewhat like War": The Aesthetics of Segregation, Black Liberation, and "A Raisin in the
Sun"
Author(s): Michelle Gordon
Source: African American Review, Vol. 42, No. 1, Representing Segregation (Spring, 2008), pp.
121-133
Published by: St. Louis University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40301308 .
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ofSegregation,
"SomewhatLikeWar":The Aesthetics
Black Liberation,and A Raisin in theSun
ofAmerica,
becausetheghettos
arekilling
... We mustcomeoutoftheghettos
as Mamasays,butourverybodies.Itis notan abstracus;notonlyourdreams,
offivetoten
tiontous thattheaverageAmerican
Negrohasa lifeexpectancy
anda
yearslessthantheaveragewhite.You see,MissOehler,thatis murder,
that
cannotbe expectedtosharetheplacidviewofthesituation
Negrowriter
be thecasewitha whitewriter.
might
I amgladtheAmerican
nation
"theheartsofindividuals'7As forchanging
slaveownerstoabolishtheslavesysdidnotwaitfortheheartsofindividual
as a slave.
aroundon a plantation
tem-forI suspectthatI shouldstillbe running
Andthatreallywouldnotdo.
Sincerely,
Lorraine
(ToBeYoung117)
Hansberry
MichelleGordonis
Assistant Professor of English
at the Universityof Southern
California. Her research constructs local literaryhistories
of black Chicago's South and
West Sides, and traces the
relationships between the two
cultural movements, as well
as their grassroots connections to local, national, and
transnational freedom
struggles.
earlysummerof1937,a mobarrivedat 6140RhodesAvenue
ofChicagotoabandontheirnew
toconvincetheHansberrys
theirnewwhiteneighinsteadconvinced
home.TheHansberrys
As expected,
theneighborhood
witha shotgun.
borstodisperse,
an
association"
againstthe
sought injunction
"improvement
could
notoccupy
that
blacks
on
the
legally
grounds
Hansberrys,
a
"race
covered
restrictive
in
residence
by
any
neighborhood
any
in the
In theirattempt
tocombatlegalsegregation
covenant."
neededhousingaround
North,and toopenup desperately
and localNAACPattorneys
Chicago'sBlackBelt,theHansberrys
tooktheircasebeforetheUS SupremeCourt.LorraineHansberry
laterrecalledher"desperateand courageousmother,
patrolling
[the]houseall nightwitha loadedGermanluger,doggedly
the
while[her]father
herfourchildren,
fought
guarding
in
the
court"
of
the
battle
(ToBe
Washington
part
respectable
the
on
v.
In
decision
its
1940
Lee,
20).
Hansberry
Supreme
Young
while
favoron a technicality,
CourtruledinCarlHansberry's
ofthecovenants
themtoaddresstheconstitutionality
declining
thatthe
v.Kramer,
selves.Itwouldnotbe until1948,in Shelley
theracerestrictive
North'slegalbulwarkofracialsegregationcovenant-was declaredunconstitutional.1
Comingofage amidthetensionsandviolencesurrounding
lines"fundamentally
shaped
Chicago's"seriesofMason-Dixon
radicalpolitics,
and revself-consciousness,
LorraineHansberry's
art.As a youngplaywright,
Hansberry
shapedheraesolutionary
herfamily
theticpractices
torespondtotheurbansegregation
forso long,and,inthemidstoftheCold War,thecaphad fought
italistsystems
fromwhichsegregation
play,A
grew.Herfirst
in
RaisinintheSun(1959),directly
engagessegregation
struggles
symbolofblackoppressionand resisChicagoas a penultimate
of
tance.In doingso,shebrought
local,individualstruggles
and
Americans-againstsegregation,
African
ghettoization,
AfricanAmericanReview,Volume42, Number1
©2008 MichelleGordon
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121
tothenationalstage."OurSouthside,"
sheoncewrote,
capitalist
exploitation"is a placeapart.Eachpieceofourlivingis a protest"(ToBe Young17).
SetinthatSouthSide "sometime
betweenWorldWarII and thepresent"
in
a
inan over-crowded
Raisin
unfolds
two-bedroom
(Raisin22),
apartment
blackghetto,
thebordersofwhichhad shifted
v.Lee.2InA
littlesinceHansberry
RaisinintheSun,Hansberry
an "aesthetics
togenerate
offers
ofsegregation"
herradically
abouturbanblacklife,torepresent
publictestimony
expansive
antinotionofthereal,and toprovidea prophetic
foranti-racist,
framework
Alludingto "Negroinvasions"and "thembombs and things
[whites]keep settingoff,"A Raisin in theSun engages
boththe rhetoric
and violence ofChicago's housingbattle.
colonialist
movements
gainingforceintheUS and theworld.Withinthecomrealities
of
black
andwhitelife,shedramatizes
peting
Chicago'swhitesupremacistsocialorder,and exposesitsconnections
totheJimCrowSouth,capitalist
and vioand colonialism.
enterprise,
Acutelyawareofthesocialorganization
lenceat thecenterofChicago'snear-absolute
stagesa
Hansberry
segregation,
the
intervention
into
of
proffering
revolutionary
cyclicalsystems ghettoization,
Raisinas a dramatic
preludeand challengetotheracializedritualsofghettoizaand organizedwhiteresistance.
tion,desegregation,
atthegrassroots
Raisin'sforthright
withChicagosegregation
engagement
and
and
denaturalizes
the
urban
of
exposes
segregation
workings mid-century
black
massivewhiteresistance
toblackself-determination.
Likeotherinfluential
urbanwriters-including
RichardWright,
Brooks,
JamesBaldwin,Gwendolyn
AmiriBaraka,and LangstonHughes- Hansberry
ofsegdeploysheraesthetics
and
to
uncover
"not
the
the
true
results
of
but
also
regation
only
[segregation],
itcause
of
which
of
American
course
is
the
of
inescapable
presentorganization
thelimitsoftraditional
movement
freedom
society"("Scars"55).Anticipating
as the
doesnotoffer
emphasison legalsegregation,
desegregation
Hansberry
ultimate
answertosegregation,
butrather
as a necessary
steptowardwhatshe
envisionedas "a socialistorganization
ofsocietyas thenextgreatand dearly
wonuniversalcondition
ofmankind"("Tribute"
17).To theseends,A Raisinin
theSuninsistson localand globalblackrevolution,
contests
theunderpinnings
ofUS segregation,
and assertsthatcivildisobedience,
and ideoarmedstruggle,
areimperatives
forachievingsocialjustice.
logicaland economictransformation
inChicago,Hansberry's
anti-racist
aesByexplicitly
confronting
segregation
theticgivesshapetoa pragmatic
socialvisionand a "genuinerealism."Genuine
realism,
Hansberry
explained,
imposeson a work"notonlywhatis,butwhatis
. . . becausethatis partofreality
too.So thatyougeta muchlarger
possible
ofwhatmancando" (ToBe Young228).Herconception
ofgenuine
potential
realismrendershumanbeingsas activeagents-intheirownliberation
as well
as intheoppressionofothers-and opensa culturalspaceinwhichtoimagine
alternatives
toa truthfully
socialreality.
represented
repressive
Equallyconcernedwithpresenttruth
and future
possibility,
Hansberry's
genuinerealism
hergenuinerealismrelies
rejectsthedeterministic
impulsesofnaturalism;
insteadon whatsheconsidered
an imperative,
butinno waynaive,idealism.
Forinstance,
usesBeneatha'sNigeriansuitor,
Hansberry
Asagai,tochallenge
dominant
ofbothrealismand idealism:"itis veryodd,"he
understandings
muses,"butthosewhosee thechanges-whodream,whowillnotgiveup- are
calledidealists. . . and thosewhosee onlythecirclewe callthem
the'realists'!"
(Raisin3.1).
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"A NegroPlay BeforeItIs Anything
Else" (To Be Young 114)
and intellectual
thatartpossessesthespiritual
"energythatcan
Believing
thatis distinctly
black,
Hansberry
developedan aesthetic
changethings/'
and radical.In thewordsofAmiriBaraka,sheplaces"reallifeunder
egalitarian,
forceofblackeveryday
thelightsand speak[s]withthesharperuptive
every
herown
where"(Baldwinxx;Baraka"SweetLorraine"526).Herartreflects
andherfirm
beliefthat"theworldis politicaland that
"senseoftacticalreality"
in
form
or
willbe theultimate
one
another,
keytotheliberation
politicalpower,
folk
the
black
ofAmerican
indeed,
and,
throughout world"(ToBe
Negroes
Young212,213).Barakaexplainsthatin
Hansberrywe heard . . . the voice of the people . . . describing,analyzing,recreatingthe
world and demanding change. Demanding Democracy,Self Determination.Even revolution and educatingthemselvesand ourselves as to why and how . . . with a thrillinglanIdeology as real life.So thatwhat she
guage of ideas fromthe mouthsof Black people
said was a thrillofmeaningand music.Of explosive revelationalimage. ("Sweet Lorraine"
525,527)
and thought,
inthetraditions
ofradicalblackAmerican
Anchored
art,activism,
social
s "explosiverevelational
image[s]"providenotonlyinstructive
Hansberry'
as
an
inteThis
but
also
inquiryoperates
inquiry. prophetic
prophetic
critique
urgingheraudience,as thetitleA Raisininthe
gralpartofhergenuinerealism,
bothwhathappenstomillionsofdreams
toconsiderseriously
Sunsuggests,
face.
forindependence
that
those
who
and
the
trials
deferred,
fight
in
South
the
Side,
directly
Hansberry
Locating Youngerfamily Chicago's
livingcondiengagescrisesproducedbyghettoeconomiesand dehumanizing
educationalaccess,and explosiveencounters
tions,restricted
alongurbancolor
and
thatresidential
understood
lines.Hansberry
segregation, theviolencethat
intheurbanNorth.
racial
the
backbone
for
it,
inequality
undergirded provided
intheunfilmed
"Not
"Thisis theghettoofChicago,"sheclarified
screenplay.
notlackofambition
and certainly
notindifference,
indolence,
[the
imprisons
around
butvariousenormousquestionsofthesocialorganization
Youngers],
them"(5). Bymid-century,
Chicago'sSouthSidehad becomeoneofthemost
had
ofHansberrys
intheUS,wheretwogenerations
denselycrowdedghettos
waged,withlawyersand guns,localandnationalcampaignsagainstracialsegLiketheYoungers,
64%ofblackwomenand
and injustice.
terrorism,
regation,
LikeMamaYounger,
34%ofblackmeninthecityworkedas domesticservants.
had migrated
toChicagofromthe
interwar
residents
some80%ofBronzeville's
freedom
fromanti-black
the
and
education, vote,
South,seekingemployment,
inthecitydoubled
violence(DrakeandCayton99,227).Butblackunemployment
likeHansberry
ofblacktaxpayers'
thatofwhites;themajority
herself,
children,
andblackvoters
schoolsonhalf-day
under-funded
attended
shifts;
overcrowded,
Machine.3
Democratic
foundthemselves
caughtwithinChicago'sfar-reaching
in
the
and residentially
Themostviolently
nation,
segregated
metropolis
WorldWarII Chicagorockedwithmorebombsin and aroundblackhomes
postAlabama.Hysterical
andbusinessesthanevenBirmingham,
anti-integration
and
mobsofup to10,000whitesfaceddowntheNationalGuardin citystreets,
into
more
on
escorts
of
or
someblackfamilies
1,000
moving
day
requiredpolice
all-white
blocksorhousingprojects(Meyer115-21;Hirsch"MassiveResistance"
ArnoldHirschexplains,more"thanmere
529).As Chicagohousinghistorian
these
ritualized
anti-Black
of
animus,"
campaignsofviolenceand
examples
war"aroundsegregated
housingrevealthepractipsychological
"sophisticated
moveAmerican
African
and politicallimitsofmid-century
cal,ideological,
mentsforequality("MassiveResistance"
523).4
ANDA RAISININ THESUN
BLACKLIBERATION,
THEAESTHETICSOF SEGREGATION,
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123
MostofRaisin'sblackaudiencesand critics
Hansberry's
readilyrecognized
use ofChicagoghettoization
as indicative
nationalfailures.
ofdemocracy's
and StevenCarter
Wilkerson
scholarssuchas Margaret
Hansberry
Important
anti-racist
haveexploredtherelationships
betweenHansberry's
politicsand art;
ofsegregation
thisstudycontinues
thatlineofinquiryintoherrepresentations
ofsegreinChicago.Criticshavenotyetfullyengagedthedynamics
specifically
have
and
therefore
entire
the
which
structures
playgation-around
Hansberry
as a formofsocial
ofsegregation
Raisin'saesthetics
notyetfullyrecognized
that"Walter'sdream
forinstance,
maintains,
J.CharlesWashington
protest.
butbecauseof
intheAmerican
remainsonlythatnotbecauseofdefects
system
the
A.
Lee
basicflawsinhisowncharacter"
Jacobusgeneralizes
(120).Similarly,
it
is
felt
not
dream
as
American
illustrates
the
"This
social
play
play's
analysis:
Ifyouworkhardand saveyour
Americans
butbyall Americans:
justbyAfrican
and
if
to
the
values
hold
hope,thenyoucanbuyyourown
proper
money, you
homeandhavethekindofspaceand privacythatpermitpeopletoliveindignity"(1214).ThoughtheYoungershaveworkedhardall oftheirlives,and fortwo
suitablehousing-untilWalterSr.'s
inChicago,theycannotafford
generations
turnsagaintoAsagaito
check.Hansberry
deathbringsa $10,000lifeinsurance
there
the
"isn't
fundamental
of
confront
wrongina
something
play:
questions
house- ina world- whereall dreams,goodorbad,mustdependon thedeath
ofa man"(3.1)?Here,Asagaibringsthelocaland globaltogether,
suggesting
thatnotonlyshouldtheYoungersquestionthematerial
aspectsoftheirindividthecapitalist
ual ambitions
and values,butthatwe all shouldinterrogate
principleson whichmodernsocietyis structured.
havemeasuredtheplay's"universality"
LikeJacobus,
numerouscritics
describes
whatRobinBernstein
cultural
its
racial
or
specificity,
creating
against
ofblacklifefrom
divorcestheparticulars
as an illusory
paradoxthatultimately
of
Thiswillfulmarginalization
therealmof"universal"-orhuman-experience.
A
of
Raisin
in
and
evaluations
the
blackrealities
enduring widespread
emerged
intheSunas "notreallya Negroplay. . . [but]a playaboutpeople!"5In an interviewwithStudsTerkel,Hansberry
rebutted
suchcritiques:
"Well,I hadn't
that
noticedthecontradiction
becauseI'd alwaysbeenundertheimpression
In
her
white
work
on
are
Be
113;
Negroes people"(To Young originalitalics).
employed
supremacist
suggeststhatwhitecritics
responsestoRaisin,Bernstein
thisuniversality-particularity
theplay'sconfrontations
paradoxtoneutralize
withAmerica'sJimCroworder,refusing
"toengagewith-orevenrecognizethepoliticsoftheplay""inordertostabilizebothwhiteness
and [racial]segregation. . . and thustoproduceand enhancewhitepower"(20,22).James
Baldwinsimilarly
silencesurrounding
Hansberry's
speculatedon thecritical
toher"unmisartistic
treatment
ofsocialprotest
andblackexperience,
pointing
inon himself":
"Is all thistrueor
takablepowerofturning
theviewer'sjudgment
nottrue?[Hansberry's]
playrudelydemands One cannotquiteanswernegaanswerimposesa new
onerisksbeingcaughtina lie.Butan affirmative
tively,
levelofresponsibility,
ofthe
bothforone'sconductand forthefortunes
ofbecoming
American
thedisagreeable
state,and"onerisks,therefore,
necessity
'an insurgent
again' (xix-xx;
originalitalics).
Bothwhiteandblackcritics
orignored-theplay'sracialized
misconstruedand genderedclasspolitics.Famouslydenouncing
theplayas a "glorified
soap
America's
HaroldCruseaccusedHansberry
ofre-inscribing
opera,"forinstance,
classpoliticsbothinChicago'sghettoand on thestage.Crusefalsely
repressive
inthe
that
andherfamily
ownedsome13slumproperties
charged Hansberry
SouthSide,and deemed"obsequious"and "embarrassing"
her"mimicry
ofthe
thatshe
critical
standardsofwhiteCommunists"
andherplay's"assumption
a
knewall abouttheNegroworkingclass,ofwhichshewas notevenremotely
member"(268-70).
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toCruse'sclaims,Hansberry
provedacutelyawareofherghetto's
Contrary
classdivisionsand tensions.
Indeed,Bronzeville's
working-class
youth-partictofight
forthemselves-profoundly
influenced
herlife
ularlytheirwillingness
and art(ToBe Young36,38,45-46).Hansberry
explainedthat,inA Raisininthe
blackfamily,
as opposedtoa
Sun,shecreatedtheYoungersas a working-class
like
her
because
she
believed
the
world's
middle-class
own,
comingfreefamily
fromitslaboringclasses(Speaks
wouldemergemostforcefully
dommovements
Out).In fact,theplaytreatsChicago'sblackeliteclasses- "theonlypeopleinthe
worldwhoaremoresnobbishthanrichwhitepeoplearerichcoloredpeople"withthe
interactions
so thatwealthyGeorgeMurchison's
rather
unkindly
and relationships
cross-class
tensions,
genderconflicts,
Youngersdramatize
betweenraceprideand impulsestowardsassimilation
(1.1).In a 1979
LeroneBennett,
and
Jr.,
specialissuededicatedtoHansberry,
Freedomways
of
evaluate
the
influence
racial
Goss
Chicago's
Burroughs
geogTaylor
Margaret
artand politics:
raphyon Hansberry's
How do you accountforthefactthata youngwomancomesout ofwhat's
Burroughs:
and yetdevelopsa deepunderstanding
oftheprobcalleda blackbourgeois
background
what?
A number
Is
that
that's
to
or
lemsofworking
peculiar
Chicago,
something
people?
ofpeoplehave comeout of Chicago:RichardWright,
MargaretWalker,CharlieWhite,
Brooks Whatis itaboutthistown?
Gwendolyn
Bennett:
Well,firstofall,Chicagois a verybrutalcity.It's a veryrawcity.Chicagowill
to
a blackpersonifthatpersonhasn'tsteeledhim-orherself
destroy
anybody,
particularly
resist.. . . Anotherelement... is thatdespite,or perhapsbecauseof,theraw,brutal
here.
ofblackpeoplein thiscity,therehasbeenand stillis a sortofcommunity
oppression
(227)
In lightofhisownearlydismissalofA RaisinintheSunas a blackbourgeois
theimplications
of
AmiriBarakareconsidered
playaboutintegration,
debut.
hispreviafter
its
He
a
drama
acknowledges
quartercentury
Hansberry's
classconcerns
andher
ofHansberry's
understanding
ouslyunderdeveloped
ofsegregation:
emphasison thesocialconstruction
We thought
Hansberry's
playwas "middleclass,"in thatitsfocusseemedtobe on "movtopaytheirrentin
whenmostblackswerejusttrying
into
white
folks'
neighborhoods"
ing
I once
andtheconcerns
is partoftheblackmajority,
shacks.. . . TheYoungerfamily
ghetto
oftheessenceofblackpeople'sstrivas "middleclass". . . areactuallyreflective
dismissed
Thereis no suchthing
discrimination
and nationaloppression.
ingto defeatsegregation,
to racism.(" A
to
racists
and
those
as a "whitefolks'neighborhood"
submitting
except
WiserPlay"41)
was thealmostabsolute
PartofwhattheyoungerBarakafailedtounderstand
inChicago.UnlikeblacksintheNew Yorkin
segregation
systemofresidential
whichBarakalived,veryfewblackpeoplelivedoutsideChicago'sghettoborcovenants
had madeexceptions
for"janiuntil1948,restrictive
ders-although,
in
in
the
a
barn
or
in
the
basement
or
tors'orChauffeurs'
garage
quarters
rear"-and itoftencostmoreto"rentinghettoshacks"thantoresideoutside
Whilea whitefamily
couldrenta five-room
theBlackBelt(Leev.Hansberry).
a
in
black
SouthSidefamily
of
a
month
for
for
$60
Cicero,
example,
apartment
with
fourcouldpay$56permonthtoliveinonehalfofa two-room
flat,infested
orhotwater
ratsand roaches,and evenwellintothe1960s,without
electricity
(Meyer118;"45ADC Mothers").
renders
1964letter
totheNewYorkTimes,
In an unpublished
Hansberry
as deeplypersonal-and
and democracy
ofintegration
therepeatedfailures
worldoftheSouth
manifest
inthesegregated,
national-tragedies
exploitive
ofracialadvanceSide.Pitting
againstpublicnarratives
personalexperience
as
with
residential
her
she
describes
ment,
integration
family's
experiences
ANDA RAISININ THESUN
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125
formative
inherdevelopingradicalconsciousness,
classcritique,
andvisionfor
socialchange.Hansberry
of
was typicalofa generation
writes,
"Myfather
be madeto ...
Negroeswhobelievedthatthe'American
way' couldsuccessfully
democratize
theUnitedStates.Thus,twenty-five
yearsago,he spenta smallperin
sonalfortune,
and manyyearsofhislifefighting,
hisconsiderable
talents,
inoneof
covenants'
association
withNAACPattorneys,
Chicago's'restrictive
the
thenation'sugliestghettoes"
(ToBe Young20).Theletterdemonstrates
in
cultural
at
work
of
transformation"
Hansberry's
"process representational
whichhistorian
BenKeppeldefinesas "theprocessesofpubliccontest
politics,
thekey
and debatebywhichthemembers
and reconstruct
ofa culturerearrange
and iconsthatconstitute
itsbrickand mortar"
words,symbols,
(2). Throughout
theletter,
Hansberry
employsquotationmarkstocallintoquestiontoolsand
the
nation's
of
way,""restrictive
ideologies
oppressivesocialorder-"American
termsattheheart
"whiteneighborhood."
Sheplacesthesecontested
covenants,"
of
racialdivideintheUS and thehighlyprofitable
ofthetremendous
systems
whitesupremacy.
denaturalizes
thecodedlanguageoftheUS socialorderand sugHansberry
and possibilities
do exist.As inA RaisinintheSun,
that
alternative
realities
gests
and "progress":
social
narratives
ofreality
letter
dominant
questions
Hansberry's
andtheNAACP"won"a SupremeCourtdecision. . . is- ironiThefactthatmyfather
friends
oursatisfied
alludeto whentheypresumeto deride
cally-thesortof"progress"
which
timeandmoney,
themoreradicalmeansofstruggle.
Thecost,inemotional
turmoil,
when
exileina foreign
embittered
led tomyfather's
country
earlydeathas a permanently
as
he saw thataftersuchsacrificial
theNegroesofChicagowereas ghetto-locked
efforts
intheircalculations.
ever,doesnotseemtofigure
Thatis thereality
thatI am facedwithwhenI now readthatsomeNegroesmyown
do whatever
tieup traffic,
age andyounger
saythatwe mustnowlie downin thestreets,
back.Fatuouspeopleremark
we can- taketo thehillswithgunsifnecessary-and fight
thesedaysonour"bitterness."
(ToBeYoung20-21)
Why,ofcoursewe arebitter.
whiteimperviousness
frames
toblackrageas a significant
Here,Hansberry
obstacletosocialchange.Shethenclosestheletter
byquotingLangston
Hughes's"mighty
givesvoiceto
poem,""Harlem."In Raisin,sheprophetically
African
Lee
Americans'
"bitterness"
Walter
(described
byonecriticas
through
"an angryyoungmanwhohappenstobe a Negro"):"Bitter?
Man,I'm a volcano"(Bernstein
16;2.1).
TheAesthetics
inChicago,or"ARat
ofSegregation:
Realismand Revolution
Done BitMySisterNell... andWhitey's
on theMoon"(Heron,"Whitey")
I I ansberry's
combination
and future
ofreality
revolutionary
possibility
JL JLprofoundly
her
aesthetics
of
"Aesthetics
ofsegregashapes
segregation.
tion"broadlydescribesa consciously
black
blackartistic
to
approach
experience
underJimCrowinthepost-Depression
US. Thisaesthetic
appearsinmyriad
fromdramatopoetry,
forms,
fiction,
essayand spokenword,and inurbantexts,
suchas RichardWright's
NativeSon(1940),LangstonHughes'sMontage
ofa
DreamDeferred
from
which
the
her
and
took
title
of
(1951),
Hansberry
play,
Brooks'sIn theMecca(1968).Blackartists'
aesthetics
ofsegregation
Gwendolyn
sharefourprimary
and itshuman
attributes:
evidenceofsystemic
exploitation
ofexplosiveblackrage;demonstration
ofblackresistance
tothe
costs;prophecy
effects
ofsegregation;
and thepresenceorawarenessoftheviodehumanizing
lencethatmaintains
colorlinesand socialinequality.
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and depicts
bothrepresents
s aesthetic
materiality
segregation's
Hansberry'
acrossspaceand time.Becauseindividualscanvariousformsofblackresistance
herartrendersvisiblethe
notfight
againstthatwhichtheydo notunderstand,
intheurbanNorth,whichoftenappear
ofblackoppression
compoundsystems
as the
different
fromthoseoftheJimCrowSouth.Whatshepresents
distinctly
tothisstateof'being"-the rats,roaches,wornfurnicontradictions
"indestructible
and anti-integration
bombs-therefore
notonly
conditions,
ture,over-crowded
actioninA RaisinintheSun,butalso serveas evisetthestageforthedramatic
ofdeliberate
denceofChicago'spoliticaland economicinfrastructures
segregaan important
elementoftheurban
tion(1.1).Ratsand roaches,infact,constitute
intheopenForinstance,
formanyurbanblackartists.
ofsegregation
aesthetics
a
rat
foot
Thomas
kills
black
"over
a
of
Native
scene
Son,
long"inhis
Bigger
ing
uses
Side
kitchenette
South
So,
too,
10).
(Wright
Hansberry
apartment
family's
thebloodydemiseofa "rat Bigas a cat,honest!"toestablisha pervasive
ofghettolifeearlyintheplay(Raisin1.2).Wherethereis littleorno
reality
Such
serviceorlandlordupkeep,ratsand roachesthrive.
municipalsanitation
instito
dominant
run
counter
myths
proppingup pro-segregation
implications
diedofa ratbite,for
Whena blackSouthSideinfant
tutionsand individuals.
thelandlorddeniedculpability,
instance,
saying,"well,theydon'tpickup their
and
it
was
a
theyhavea newoneeveryyear,so
niggerbaby
garbage.Anyway
whatdoesitmatter?"
(Carawanand Carawan283).LikeGilScottHeron'ssong
on theMoon"and ChicagoFreedomMovement
songwriter
Jimmy
"Whitey
Collier's"RentStrikeBlues,"theratinA RaisinintheSunaddressesthiscallous
communities.
Suchsubstandard
ofghettoized
neglectand economicexploitation
in
are
the
artists
and
conditions
criminal,
particularly
suggest,
negligence,
living
whoremainthemostlikelyvictims
ofghettoized
theirendangerment
children,
and Hodgee35).
ratbites(Hirschhorn
ofsuchenvironmental
hazards,including
WithBeneatha"on herkneesspraying[pesticide]undersofawithbehind
withtherodentsignals
Ruth'stortured
responsetoTravis'sencounter
upraised/'
inUS ghettos(1.2).
themoralcrisesfacedbyparentswhoraisetheirchildren
in
a
house
she
has
announces
when
Mama
Park,in
Later,
bought
Clybourne
amid
hostile
at
the
of
distress
Ruth's
of
whites,
Chicago's
prospect living
spite
"aware
she"laughsjoyously"and putsherhandsoverherstomach,
forthefirst
timeperhapsthatthelifetherein
pulseswithhappinessand notdespair"(2.1).
thedangersoftheghettoagainstthoseposedbyanti-black
terrorism,
Weighing
thatshewill"scruball thefloorsinAmerica... ifI havetoRuthdetermines
to
butwe gottoMOVE!We gottogetOUT OF HERE!"(3.1).Theimperative
from
toboththeYoungerfamily's
moverefers
Chicago's
physicaldeparture
toreconstruct
saw as necessary
massmovement
ghettoand towhatHansberry
thesocialorder.WhenBeneathasuggeststhatthe"only"waytoridthemselves
is to "Setfiretothisbuildoftheroachesand ratstheybattleintheirapartment
remedies
toinadequatehousingconnot
rejects onlysuperficial
ing,"Hansberry
of
thatallowsonlya smallpercentage
butanyformofexceptionalism
ditions,
toescapeAmerican
blackfamilies
(1.2).
ghettos
theeconomicexploitation,
ForHansberry,
bombs,and orgaanti-integration
areabsolutely
Association
ParkImprovement
oftheClybourne
nizingactivities
theplay,theYoungers
totheprojectofA RaisinintheSun.Throughout
central
tothe"economic
morethanwhatonecriticdescribesas "sensitivity"
exhibit
"that
deficient
a
of
or
life,
understanding theyareengagedin
pressures" ghetto
racewar"(Lewis35).InbuyingthehouseinClybourne
a sociological
Park,
ofChicago
theeconomicexploitation
Mamaassertsherfamily's
righttorefute
learnswheretheirnewhomeis,no oneis eagerto
Whenthefamily
segregation.
courtthewrathofChicago'swhitehomeowners:
BLACKLIBERATION,
ANDA RAISININ THESUN
THEAESTHETICSOF SEGREGATION,
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127
RUTHWhereis it?
MAMAFrightened
atthistelling
Well-well- it'soutthereinClybourne
Park-. .
Park.
RUTHClybourne
Park?Mama,thereain'tno coloredpeoplelivinginClybourne
hereyes
MAMA(Almost
Well,I guessthere'sgoingtobe somenow
(Raising
idiotically)
tomeet[Walter's]
Son- I justtriedto findthenicestplacefortheleastamountof
finally)
moneyformyfamily.
RUTH(Trying
theshock)
torecover
Well- well- 'courseI ain'toneneverbeen'fraidof
from
no crackers,
mindyou- but- well,wasn'tthereno otherhousesnowhere?
MAMAThemhousestheyputup forcoloredinthemareaswayoutall seemtocosttwice
as muchas otherhouses.I didthebestI could.(2.1)
thecentralroleviolenceplaysinmaintaining
Chicago's
Acknowledging
thatexplicitly
racialgeography,
ofsegregation
Hansberry
deploysan aesthetics
connects
totheJimCrowSouth.In a scenecutfrom
thesenorthern
experiences
thestageand first
bringstheYoungers'
publishedversionoftheplay,Hansberry
Mrs.Johnson,
toreportthelatestanti-integration
bombingin
neighbor,
Park:
Clybourne
JOHNSONYou meanyouain'tread'boutthemcoloredpeoplethatwas bombedouttheir
herein
howbad theseherewhitefolksis getting
placeoutthere?.... Ain'titsomething
and
so youthinkyourightdownin Mississippi!
(witha tremendous
Chicago!Lord,getting
how ourfolkskeepson
rather
insincere
'CourseI thinkit'swonderful
senseofmelodrama)
pushingout. . . . Lord- I betthistimenextmonthy'all's nameswillhave been in the
shecanseeinfront
eachwordoftheheadline
of
papersplenty-(Holding
upherhandstomark
off
her)"NEGROESINVADECLYBOURNEPARK-BOMBED!"
MAMA
We ain'texactly
movingouttheretogetbombed.
JOHNSON.... Butyouhave to thinkoflifelikeit is- and thesehereChicagopeckerwoodsis somebaaaad peckerwoods.
MAMA(wearily)
We donethought
aboutall that,Mis'Johnson.
(2.2)
ofsegregation
socialchange:
tofoment
Here,Hansberry
employsan aesthetics
sheexposestheoppressors,
as wellas theeffects
oftheiroppression,
systems,
and tools.Emphasizing
place- "hereinChicago"-fouryearsafterthebrutal
murderofyoungEmmett
TillinMississippi,
s treatment
ofanti-black
Hansberry'
violenceinChicagooperatesas an instructive
rhetorical
maneuver.
Byoffering
suchstarkparallelstotheviolenceofsouthern
JimCrow,thesecomparisons
worktodemystify
Chicago'scomplexracistpowerstructures.
Collapsingthe
intheNorthand South-whileattending
distinctions
betweenracialoppression
tothespecifics
ofthelocal- Hansberry
fora moreunified,
posesthepotential
nationalblackstruggle.
BlackChicagoactivists
themselves
employedsimilar
rhetorical
tacticsintheirI960's grassroots
campaignsagainstthecity'ssegregated schoolsandneighborhoods.
Blacksoutherners,
too,recognized
important
connections
betweenAfrican
inChicagoand emerging
Americans'
struggles
movements
theSouth:"BlackChicago,"Southern
Christian
throughout
Conference
leader
Bevel
"is
declared,
James
Leadership
Mississippimoveda
fewhundredmilesnorth"(Werner
64).
A RaisinintheSunalso directly
engagesthearrayofracistdiscoursesinthe
urbanNorth,whichfunctioned
intandempubliclytodefendand lobbyforresidentialsegregation
venerealdisease,
violence,miscegenation,
bythreatening
and financial
ruin.Whilewhitesusedblatantly
racistlanguageat thegrassroots-children
forinstance,
totheOscar
sanginMayorDaley'sneighborhood,
wiener
I
I
an
wish
was
Alabama
.
.
.
I
then
couldkill
tune,
"Oh,
Meyer
trooper
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niggerslegally"-theypubliclyreliedon a codeddiscourseofcivicpoliticsfrom
orabsent(Bontemps
and
whichracebecomesconspicuously
marginalized
and
Werner
school
board
officials
335-36;
So,
65).
Chicagopoliticians
Conroy
thecity'ssystems
race-lesslanguagetosafeguard
ofsegregation.
used seemingly
in
that
this
rhetoricthat
effect,
recognized piercing
confirming,
Hansberry
and systemic
in Chicago-wouldprovetobe halfofthe
racismwas deliberate
battlethere.
civilrights
oftheClybourne
Park
employsMr.Linder,thechairman
Hansberry
todemonAssociation
Orientation
Committee,"
"Neighborhood
Improvement
whitesdenyracialdiscriminastratetheseemingly
benignwaysthatnorthern
and repudiate
blackself-determination.
theirownpaternalism,
tion,romanticize
To dissuadetheYoungersfrommovingintoClybourne
Park,Mr.Linderdraws
toprotect
the"hard-working,
honestpeople
on a paternalistic
languageofrights
whodon'treallyhavemuchbutthoselittlehomesand a dreamofthekindof
in":
community
theywanttoraisetheirchildren
he
[Y]ou'vegotto admitthata man. . . has therightto wantto havetheneighborhood
kindofway.... I wantyoutobelievemewhenI tellyouthatraceprejulivesin a certain
...
Parkbelieving
ofthepeopleofClybourne
dicesimplydoesn'tenterintoit.Itis a matter
thatourNegrofamilies
arehappierwhentheylive
thatforthehappinessofall concerned
intheirowncommunities.
(2.3;original
italics)
maneuver
Mr.Linder'sspeechrepresents
bywhich
onlyonerhetorical
intheurbanNorth.Theirpaterdefendedsegregation
associations
improvement
a battlelanguageof
nalismwas accompanied
strategies:
bytwootherrhetorical
on theonehand,and a languageofmiscegenation
and terrorism,
victimization
on theotherhand.Withitstalkof"Negroinvasions"and
and degeneration,
A RaisinintheSunengages
"thembombsand things[whites]keepsetting
off,"
the
violence
of
and
boththelanguage
Chicago'shousingbattle(2.2).
in
urban
centers
associations
organizedaroundideasof"invaImprovement
their
and
"resistance," "hold[ing]theline."Further,
sions,""battlegrounds,"
relations
official
as
one
former
race
the
functioned
beyond metaphoric:
militancy
of
fireand
Detroit
"did
a
lot
cities
like
the
of
Chicago
postwaryears,
explained
in
those
days"(Sugrue560;Meyer89).
fighting
combinedtheirbattlelanguageofpatriotic
associations
rights
Improvement
of"forcedmongrelization"
withan emotiverhetoric
(Hirsch"Massive
understood
Resistance"
that,intheNorth,inspiteofitslan544).Hansberry
defense
and
of
militarism,
"Neighborhood
rights patriotic
guage property
ofwhite
Itwas a battleforthepreservation
forturf.
becamemorethana struggle
womanhood"(Sugrue562).WhileWalter,
Ruth,and BeneathadiscussMr.
fearofintegracutstotheheartofwhiteAmericans'
Linder'svisit,Hansberry
tion:
BENEATHAWhattheythinkwe goingtodo-eat 'em?
'em.(2.3)
RUTHNo,honey,marry
activates
a
thatthespecterofmiscegenation
and Ruthunderstand
Hansberry
northern
Muchliketheirsouthern
matrix
ofviolenceand anxiety.
counterparts,
and absoluteseparawieldeda languageofblackbarbarism
whitesupremacists
"it
won't
be
the
terror
of
tiontoimpose
miscegenation:
longnow,"workers
v. BoardofEducation
claimedinChicagotavernsinthewakeofthe1954Brown
willbe a common
and
whites
"and
Court
decision,
inter-marrying
negroes
Supreme
"Massive
Resistance"
will
downhill"
the
white
race
and
(Hirsch
533).
go
thing
BLACKLIBERATION,
ANDA RAISININ THESUN
THEAESTHETICSOF SEGREGATION,
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129
"Writeabout theWorldAs ItIs and As You ThinkIt Oughtto Be and MustBe" (To
Be Young257)
tothe
and provideimaginedalternatives
todenaturalize
segregation
intended
her
social
realism
order,
shaped
existing
Hansberry's
genuine
profoundly
the
revisionofthefinalscenesofA RaisinintheSun.In itsoriginalconclusion,
intheirnewlivingroominClybourne
satsilently
Park,inthe
Youngerfamily
dark,armedand waitingforthewhitemobtocome(Carter41;Wilkerson
130).
WhileHansberry
madeseveralrevisions
tohermanuscript
to "sanitize"theplay
forproducers
and reducetheplay'slength,
thischangeis perhapsthemostsigtheendnificant
revisionsheneverrestored
tothescript.6
Ratherthanaltering
to
or
a
sense
of
inevitable
racial
assimilation
ing promote
provide reassuring
therevolutionary
thischangeinfactprovescrucialtomaintaining
"progress,"
ofthedrama:EndingtheactionpriortotheYoungers'arrivalin
potential
withtheonlyprospectofkeepingitreal,so
ParksuppliesHansberry
Clybourne
tospeak,whilebreaking
andritualized
whiteviolence.
thecyclesofdesegregation
Whilethisrevisionultimately
ofRaisin's
invitedthewidespreadcelebration
"transcendent"
executor
Robert
Nemiroff
conclusion,
points
Hansberry's
literary
outthateventhisrevisedending"leavestheYoungerson thebrinkofwhatwill
ofuncertainty"
(Raisin10-11;originalitalics).
surelybe ... at besta nightmare
Frustrated
withyetanothercritic's
praiseoftheplay's"acceptedandeverpopularupbeatending,"Hansberry
that'sa
inan interview,
"Ifhe thinks
oncehuffed
wherethe
happyending,I invitehimtocomelivein oneofthecommunities
oftheplay'scon130;Raisin11)Misreadings
Youngersaregoing!"(Wilkerson
theYoungers'decisiontomovebeyond
clusion,especiallythosethatinterpret
distort
fundamental
Chicago'sghettoas "apolitical,"
pointof
Hansberry's
forblack
(Wilkerson
122).Directly
protest
engagedinan organizedmovement
liberation
ornot,theYoungersremainfullyawarethattheirbreechofChicago's
colorlinewilltrigger
and likelyterrorism:
as Mamaherself
hostility
explainsto
theBookerT. Washington-quoting
Mrs.Johnson,
"we donethought
aboutall
that"(2.2).
In thefinalsceneofRaisin,WalterLee rejectstheClybourne
Park
Association's
offer
tobuybacktheYoungers'house,and thefamiImprovement
outforChicago'sembattled
racialfrontier.
Butbeforetheseevents
lystrikes
unfold,Asagaiinsiststhatthisadvanceis nottheendofthedrama.His impassionedspeechtoBeneathaservesas an answertotheallegedlymoderate
Mr.
Linder'smenacing
lastwords:"I hopeyoupeopleknowwhatyouaregetting
into"(3.1).Representative
oftheenlightened
and creintellectual,
revolutionary
blacksand socialmovements
atinga cruciallinkbetweenChicago'sghettoized
theso-calledThirdWorld,Asagaiexhibits
no illusionsaboutthe
throughout
or
costs
of
social
"End?"
he
asks
"Whoeverspoke
Beneatha,
processes
change.
ofan end?"His use ofthefuture
tenseenlargesthecapacityofHansberry's
genuinerealism,
and emphasizestheprofoundly
prophetic
qualityofhersocial
vision:
At timesit willseemthatnothing
changesat all- and thenagain- thesuddendramatic
eventswhichmakehistory
Andthenquietagain.Retrogression,
even.
leapintothefuture.
revolution.
AndI evenwillhavemoments
whenI wonderifthequietwas
Guns,murder,
notbetter
thanall thatdeathand hatred.ButI willlookaboutmyvillageat theilliteracy
anddiseaseandignorance
andI willnotwonderlong.(3.1)
reflects
muchoftheturmoil
thatwould
Asagai's pragmatic
prediction
and New Worldbattlesforself-determination
and socialjustice
plagueAfrican
inthedecadestocome.Muchas Hansberry
had attempted
inRaisin,theChicago
FreedomMovement
ofthe1960sendeavoredto "stagea crisis"around
1 30
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Chicago'ssegregated
housingand schools,thereby
forcing
publicdialogue,
and change.ButinthefaceofMayorRichardJ.Daley'sDemocratic
negotiation,
FBIcounter-intelligence
Machineand itsloyalblackpoliticians,
policebrutality,
white
and
the
the
real
estate
mobs,
industry,
powerful
improvement
operations,
themovements-FreedomSchoolboycotts,
UnionstoEndSlums,
associations,
and
and open-housing
assassinations,
campaigns-collapsedamidrepression,
in
The
over
struggle segregated
housing
fiery
ghettouprisings. protracted
veteranrecalled,"somewhat
likewar"(Hampton
Chicagowas,onemovement
and Fayer314)7
and whiteflight
US residential
Ultimately,
segregation
exposed,inthe
for
wordsofArnoldHirsch,"theshoalsuponwhichthepostwarmovement
racialequalitywouldfounder"
523).The1960'srebellions
("MassiveResistance"
American
inChicagoand otherblackghettos
dangerously
expressedAfrican
white
much
as
had foreand
indifference,
Hansberry
rageagainstsegregation
colorlinesbecameincreasingly
cast.As thedecadepassed,Chicago'sresidential
BlackBeltborwiththeconstruction
ofnewschoolswithinpre-1950
stabilized,
whiteschools),
intoless-crowded
toallowingblackchildren
ders(an alternative
and
black
West
Side
of
the
continued
ghetto, high-rise
publichousing
expansion
Between1960
theghettovertically.
likeDaley'sRobertTaylorHomesextending
itswhitesuburbs
and 1990,Chicago'swhitepopulationdecreasedby800,000,
ofthecity'sfactories
andmorethanone-fourth
grewbynearlytwomillion,
closed.Bythe1990s,blackunemployment
approached23%,and theSouthSide
withupwards
thegreatest
concentration
ofpublichousinginthenation,
contained
assistance.8
on
of92%ofblackfamilies
"Perhapsitis justas
living government
didnotlivetosee withtheoutward
well,"Baldwinmused,"that[Hansberry]
[T]hehorsesand tanksare
eyewhatshesaw so clearlywiththeinwardone
to
indeeduponus,and theendis notinsight.. . . Anditis notat all farfetched
which
killed
for
the
effort
the
strain
contributed
to
what
she
saw
that
her,
suspect
towhichLorrainewas dedicatedis morethanenoughtokilla [wo]man"(xx).
This article is dedicated to the memory of Nellie Y. McKay who helped me to begin this work.
1. See Kamp; Drake and Cayton 182-90; Carter 40-41; Meyer 56-57; Graettinger; Plotkin; and
Keppel 24.
2. In his chapter on housing segregation in the urban North,entitled "A Raisin in the Sun," Meyer
identifiesthis period, fromWorld War II to roughly 1960, as America's most intensely violent period of
upheaval over race and housing. Chicago, Meyer and other scholars note, was the most violent city
of all (115-32). See also Hirsch ("Massive Resistance") and Mohl 16-23.
Except where otherwise noted, throughout this article Raisin refers to the 1959 text of Hansberry's
Notes
play.
3. In one of her last public appearances, Hansberry spoke of segregation's debilitating effects in
personal and broad sociopolitical terms: "I was given, during the grade school years, one-half the
amount of education prescribed by the Board of Education of my city. ... I am a product of
[Chicago's segregated school] system and one result is that-to this day-l cannot count properly . . .
[or] make even simple change in a grocery store. . . . This is what is meant when we speak of the
scars, the marks that the ghettoized child carries through life. To be imprisoned in the ghetto is to be
at best" ("Scars" 54).
forgotten-or deliberately cheated of one's birthright4. on the moving day desegregation experience, see brown z!4-i>yana Meyer ny. Kuonsnea tne
same year as Raisin's Broadway debut, Frank London Brown's only novel, TrumbullPark, picks up
Chicago's desegregation story where Raisin ends, and details complex intersections of race, class,
gender and violence in Chicago's most violently integrated housing project. See Avilez in this issue.
5. See Kaiser and Nemiroff286-87; Bernstein 22-23; Keppel 177-83.
6. On the restoration of scenes, see Wilkerson 123-30.
7. Hansberry more deeply explored the relationships between African and black American freedom
struggles in Les Blancs (1970). See Abell. On Chicago movements of the 1960s, see Rice; Churchill
and Wall 64-77; Anderson and Pickering 208-340; Hampton and Fayer 297-319, 521-38; Meyer 18388; Werner 122-24; Ralph; and Garrow.
8. See Hunt 96-97; Rury 121-23; Cohen and Taylor; Hirsch Making; and Werner 145-46.
THE AESTHETICS OF SEGREGATION, BLACK LIBERATION,AND A RAISIN IN THE SUN
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131
Works
Cited
1 32
"45 ADC Mothers'CAMP IN'-ChildrenJoinProtest."Chicago Defender23-31 Oct. 1969: 1.
LorraineHansberry'sLes Blancs and the AmericanCivilRights
Abell,Joy."African/American:
Movement."AfricanAmericanReview 35 (2001 ): 459-70.
the ColorLine: The BrokenPromiseofthe
Anderson,Alan B., and George W. Pickering.Confronting
CivilRightsMovementin Chicago. Athens:U ofGeorgia P, 1987.
Avilez,GerShun."Housingthe Black Body:Value, DomesticSpace, and SegregationNarratives."
RepresentingSegregation.Eds. BrianNormanand PiperKendrixWilliams.Spec issue ofAfrican
AmericanReview 42 (2008): 135-47.
Baldwin,James. "Sweet Lorraine."1969. Hansberry,To Be Youngxvii-xx.
Baraka, Amiri."AWiser Play Than Some of Us Knew."Los Angeles Times22 Mar. 1987, home ed.
sec: 41.
- . "Sweet Lorraine."The LeRoi Jones/
AmiriBaraka Reader. Ed. WilliamJ. Harris.2nded. New York:
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