GREENWITHENVY:HOWENVYEVOKEDTHROUGHSELF-DISCLOSUREON
FACEBOOKINFLUENCESLIFESATISFACTION,SELF-ESTEEM,TIMESPENTON
FACEBOOKANDCOPINGSTRATEGIES
AThesis
Presentedto
TheGraduateFacultyofTheUniversityofAkron
InPartialFulfillment
oftheRequirementfortheDegree
MasterofArts
FionaHughes
May,2016
GREENWITHENVY:HOWENVYEVOKEDTHROUGHSELF-DISCLOSUREON
FACEBOOKINFLUENCESLIFESATISFACTION,SELF-ESTEEM,TIMESPENTON
FACEBOOKANDCOPINGSTRATEGIES
FionaHughes
Thesis
Approved:
Accepted:
___________________________________________________________________________________
Advisor
InterimDeanoftheCollege
Dr.ElizabethGraham
JohnGreen
__________________________________________
_________________________________________
FacultyReaderDeanoftheGraduateSchool
Dr.TangTang
Dr.ChandMidha
___________________________________________________________________________________
FacultyReader
Date
Dr.AndrewRancer
__________________________________________
InterimSchoolDirector
Dr.ThomasDukes
ii
ABSTRACT
ThepursposeofthisstudywastoexaminetherelationshipbetweenpositiveselfdisclosurepostsonFacebook,episodicenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtime
spentonFacebook.Inadditionthisstudyexaminediffeelingsofenvy,leveloflife
satisfactionself-esteemandtimespentonFacebookpredicttheuseofcoping
strategiesusedonFacebook.ParticipantsviewedaFacebookpage,developedfor
thestudy,thencompletedasurveywithaseriesofquestionsregardingepisodic
envy,lifesatisfaction,copingwithenvy,self-esteemanddemographicinformation.
Overall,thisstudyfoundthatwhenindividualsarefacedwithfeelingsofenvyasa
resultofpositiveself-disclosurepostsonFacebook,heorshealsofeelslesssatisfied
withlife.Envywasalsofoundtobeapredictorofdeactivatingones’Facebook
profiletoeliminatethestressor.
Keywords:Self-Disclosure,Envy,Facebook,LifeSatisfaction,CopingStrategies
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
LISTOFTABLES…………………………..………………………………………………………..……..vi
CHAPTER
I.INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
II.REVIEWOFLITERATURE...........................................................................5
SocialComparisonTheory...........................................................5
Facebook..............................................................................................7
TimeSpentonFacebook..............................................9
Self-DisclosureonFacebook………………………….10
Envy....................................................................................................13
Self-Esteem……………………………………………………………...18
LifeSatisfaction.............................................................................20
CopingwithEnvy..........................................................................21
III.METHOD.........................................................................................................26
Overview..........................................................................................26
Participants.....................................................................................26
Procedures.......................................................................................29
Measurement..................................................................................29
EpisodicEnvy……….………………………………...…...29
iv
LifeSatisfactionScale…………………………………...30
Self-Esteem………………………………………………….30
CopingwithEnvy………………………………………....31
StatisticalAnalysis.................................................................……32
IV.RESULTS........................................................................................................34
V.DISCUSSION..................................................................................................39
LimitationsandFutureResearch………………………………45
ENDNOTES..................................................................................................................48
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................49
APPENDICES................................................................................................................59
APPENDIXA.FACEBOOKPROFILE…………………………….60
APPENDIXB.EPISODICENVYSCALE…….…………………...64
APPENDIXC.LIFESATISFACTIONSCALE……………….…..65
APPENDIXD.COPINGWITHENVY……………………………...66
v
LISTOFTABLES
Table
Page
1DemographicInformation………………………………………………………………...….......28
2Descriptivestatisticsforenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteem…..…………..……..…35
3Correlationsbetweenenvy,lifesatisfactionandotherfactors………………...….36
4SummaryofRegressionsanalysisofenvy(feelingcomponent)
asapredictorofdeactivatingcopingstrategy………………………….……….37
5SummaryofRegressionanalysisofself-esteemasa
predictorofhidingcopingstrategy…………………...………………….……….…37
6SummaryofRegressionanalysisofenvyasapredictor
ofcopingstrategiescombined………………………………………………………....38
vi
CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTION
Envyisoneofthesevendeadlysins.However,fewpeopleknowexactlywhat
envyisorhowitisexperienced.Infact,envyisoftenconfusedwithjealousy
(DelPriore,Hill&Buss,2012;Okholm,2008;Parrott&Smith,1993).Envyinvolves
atleasttwopeopleandischaracterizedbyanunpleasantemotionthathappens
whenonepersonwantsanadvantagethatanotherindividualpossesses(Smith,
Parrott,Diener,Hoyle&Kim,1999).Envyoftenoccurswhenanindividual
compareshimorherselftoanotherindividualtheyviewassuperior(Debbané,
2011;Maijala,Munnukka,&Nikkonen,2000).Unlikeenvy,jealousyinvolvesatleast
threepeopleorobjects,thejealousindividual,theindividualheorshefearslosing,
andtheindividualorobjecttheyfearlosingsaidpersonto(Smithetal.,1999).
Consequently,jealousyischaracterizedasanemotionalreactiontothethoughtof
losingsomeoneorsomething(Utz&Beukeboom,2011).Envyconcernswanting
somethinganotherpossesses.
Envyisdescribedasanemotionalandbehavioralresponsetoasocial
comparison(Duffy,Scott,Shaw,Tepper,&Aquino,2012).Tai,Narayanan,and
McAllister(2012)suggestthatfeelingsofenvyupsetanindividual’spsychological
balance.Anindividualcannotbeenviousofsomeonetheydonotknow(Okholm,
1
2008).Inthepast,priortotheprevalenceofsocialmedia,onecouldonlytrulybe
enviousofclosefriends,family,andcoworkers.However,duetosocialmediasites,
suchasFacebook,individualsnowhavetheabilitytomakesocialcomparisonswith
acquaintancesandstrangers.Thepossibilityforsocialcomparisonstooccurhas
increaseddramatically.
SinceFacebook’sreleasein2004(Bumgarner,2007)ithasbecomeapartof
manyindividuals’dailyroutine.Infact,70percentofFacebookuserslogintotheir
accounteveryday(Duggan,Ellison,Lampe,Lenhart&Madden,2015)andspendan
averageof20-145minutesperdayonFacebook(Junco,2012,2013).Dentietal.
(2012)foundthatspendingtimeonFacebookallowsindividualstomaintaintheir
existingsocialcontacts.Researchrevealsthatindividualsaremorelikelytodisclose
personalinformationinacomputer-mediatedcommunicationsettingthaninafaceto-facesetting(Trepte&Reinecke,2013).TrepteandReinecke(2013)foundthat
disclosurethroughsocialnetworkingsites,suchasFacebook,offersuserssocial
capitalsuchastheabilitytosharethoughtsandideaswithmanypeopleatanytime.
OneofthereasonsusersenjoyFacebookisthatitprovidesthechoicetoshareor
restricttheviewingofpersonalinformation(Wang,2012).Therefore,onlineselfdisclosuresarebeingreinforcedbytherewardsFacebookusersreceivethrough
onlinesocialinteractions.However,individualswhofrequentsocialnetworking
sitessuchasFacebookmayhavemoreopportunitiestobeinvolvedinsocial
comparisonsthatcouldultimatelyleadtofeelingsofenvy.
Muchofthepastenvyresearchhasbeentheoreticallydrivenbysocial
comparisontheory.Basedontheideathatindividualsoftenmakesocialself-
2
comparisonswiththosearoundthem,Duffyetal.(2012)conceptualizedenvyin
threeways:situational,dispositionalandepisodic.Situationalenvyisafeelingof
envytowardalargerenvironment,typicallyinagroupsettingwherethereare
manysocialcomparisonshappeningatonce.Forexample,situationalenvyoften
occursatworkorschool,especiallyinthecontextofgroupprojects.Thiscouldbe
duetothenatureofagroupprovidingeasieraccesstoinformationabouttheother
individuals,therefore,providingchancesformoresocialcomparisons.However,
feelingenvytowardsawholegroupoftenredirectstheenergyawayfromthework
taskandmayleadtoadecreaseofgroupeffectiveness(Duffy&Shaw,2000).
Dispositionalenvyisatrait,apredispositiontorespondinaconsistentfashion,
regardlessofthesituation.Finally,Duffyetal.(2012)characterizedepisodicenvyas
feelingsofenvytowardsoneparticularindividualoreventduetoonespecificsocial
comparison.Researchers,vandeVen,ZeelenbergandPieters(2012)examinedenvy
applyingsocialcomparisontheoryandfoundthattheappraisalofdeservingness,or
howdeservinganindividualisperceivedtobeofagivenoutcome,wasanimportant
influenceontheemotionalexperienceofenvy.Forexample,ifastudentstudied
hardandgotagoodgradeonemayseeheorsheasmoredeservingthanastudent
whocheatedandgotagoodgrade(vandeVenetal.,2012).
Envyisanimportantemotiontounderstand,asresearchersbelievefeelings
ofenvycouldbearesultoflowself-esteemordepression(Krizan&Johar,2012;
Smithetal.,1999).Smithetal.(1999)revealedthatrepeatedsocialcomparisons,
withindividuals,perceivedassuperior,ultimatelydiminishtheindividual’sselfesteemorself-perceptions.Thesenseofinferiorityassociatedwithenvycancause
3
individualstofocusonsocialcomparisonsandputaspotlightonwhatonelacks
comparedtootherindividuals(Smithetal.,1999),whichcouldtheninturnleadtoa
decreaseinlifesatisfaction(Krasnova,Wenninger,Widjaja,&Buxmann,2013).
Therefore,theliteraturesuggeststhatsocialcomparisonscanresultin
enviousthoughtsanddiminishedlifesatisfaction,whichmaypromptFacebook
userstoemploycopingstrategiestomanagetheseunpleasantfeelings(Krasnovaet
al.,2013).Possiblecopingstrategiesinclude:deactivateones’ownFacebookpage,
unfriendaspecificindividual,hideanindividual’sFacebookpage,andengagein
self-presentation(Krasnovaetal.,2013).Self-presentationreferstotheactof
developingpoststhatmakehimorherselflookbetter(Krasnovaetal.,2013).
Therefore,thepurposeofthisstudyistounderstandtherelationshipbetween
positiveself-disclosurepostsonFacebook,episodicenvy,lifesatisfaction,selfesteemandtimespentonfacebook.Inaddition,thisstudywillexamineiffeelingsof
envy,leveloflifesatisfactionself-esteemandtimespentonFacebookpredictthe
useofcopingstrategiesusedonFacebook.
4
CHAPTERII
REVIEWOFLITERATURE
SocialComparisonTheory
Socialcomparisontheorywillserveasaframeworktostudyhowpositive
self-disclosurepostsonFacebookevokeenvy,therelationshipbetweenenvy,life
satisfaction,self-esteem,timespentonFacebookandcopingstrategiesusedto
manageenvy.Socialcomparisontheory(Festinger,1954)suggeststhat,inorderto
determinetheirprogressandplacementinlife,peoplewillcomparethemselvesto
others(Argo,White,&Dahl,2006;Hoorens&VanDamme,2012;Lubbers,Kuyper,
&VanDerWerf,2009;Nabi&Keblusek,2014)Thistheorycanbebrokendowninto
twodifferenttypesofcomparison,upwardsocialcomparisonanddownwardsocial
comparison.Upwardsocialcomparisoniswhenanindividualcompareshimselfor
herselftosomeonetheyperceiveasbetterthanthem(Buunk,Groothof,&Siero,
2007;Myers&Crowther,2009;Tiggemann&Polivy,2010).Whereas,downward
socialcomparisoniswhenanindividualcompareshimselforherselftosomeone
theyperceiveaslessfortunate(Buunketal.,2007).
Researchersbelievethatupwardsocialcomparisonsarelikelytoresultin
negativefeelingssuchasenvy(Dentietal.,2012;Krasnovaetal.,2013;Nabi&
Keblusek,2014).Smithetal.,(1999)statethatenvyasaresultofanupward
5
comparisonsuggeststhattheenviousindividualisinferior.Understandinghow
upwardsocialcomparisonsmayevokeenvyisimportantbecausesocial
comparisonsarepresentinalmosteveryinteraction(Johnson,2012).Todayoneof
themostcommonplacesforinteractionswithothersisontheInternet(Lee,2014)
andsocialnetworkingsitessuchasFacebook.
Researchonsocialcomparisonhasfoundthatindividualsmayengagein
differentkindofcomparisonswithafriendversusanon-friend.Lubbersetal.
(2009)examinedsocialcomparisonprocessesandhowtheydifferbasedonthe
individualsrelationshipwiththecomparisontarget.Theresearchrevealedthat
50%ofthe9000studentsthatparticipatedinthestudymadecomparisonswithhis
orherfriends,42%ofthestudentsmadecomparisonswithclassmatestheyliked,
and8%ofthestudentsmadecomparisonswithstudentswhowerenon-friends.
WhenapplyingthefindingsofLubbersetal.(2009)tothecontextofFacebookitis
importanttorememberthatevenifsomeoneisa“friend”onFacebookthatdoesnot
automaticallymeanheorsheisafriendintheface-to-facecontext.
Facebookcomparisonscanbeproblematicduetothefactthatmanysocial
comparisonsonFacebookthatevokeenvyarebasedonincompleteorinaccurate
information(Fox,2013).Informationreceivedthroughanindividual’sFacebook
pagemaybeinaccurateorincompleteduetotheabilityforFacebookuserstobe
selectiveabouttheinformationsharedonthissocialmediaplatform(Wang,2012).
EnvyhasrarelybeenstudiedthroughthecommunicationplatformofFacebook
(Krasnovaetal.,2013),despitethefactthattherearemorethan860millionactive
6
users(Marcial,2015).Therefore,firstitisimportanttounderstandthehistoryand
functionofFacebookandhowitisused.
Facebook
Facebook,createdbyMarkZuckerburgin2004,beganasasocialnetworking
siteatHarvardUniversity(Bumgarner,2007).AfteronemonthatHarvard,
Facebookwassopopularthatitwasopenedupforuseatotheruniversities.Today,
Facebookispartofmanyindividual’sdailyroutine.Researchfoundthat70%of
userslogontotheirFacebookaccounteveryday(Dugganetal.,2015).Since
Facebook’sreleasein2004ithasproventobeoneoftheworld’smostrecognizable
socialnetworkingsites,makingitaleaderincomputer-mediatedcommunication
(Elphinston&Noller,2011;Hampton,Goulet,Marlow&Rainie,2012;Kim&Lee,
2011;Ledbetter,Mazer,DeGroot,Meyer,Mao,&Swafford,2011;Stewart,Dainton,&
Goodboy,2014).
JosephWalther(1992)hasbeenstudyingcomputer-mediated
communicationlongbeforeFacebookwasdeveloped.Muchofhisresearchisguided
bysocialinformationprocessingtheory,whichexplainsandpredictsthedifferences
betweencomputer-mediatedcommunicationandcommunicationthattakesplace
offline(Walther,2011).WhenWalther(1992)beganhisresearchoncomputermediatedcommunicationhefoundthatduetothelackofnonverbalcuesofferedin
anonlinesettingitmightbeunsuitableformanycommunicationpurposes.Walther
(1992)suggeststhatbecauseoftheimpersonalcommunicationqualitiesassociated
withcomputer-mediatedcommunicationthatitisnotsuitableforrelational
development.Researchrevealsthatpeopleusetheinformationthatisprovidedto
7
themonlinebyotherindividualstomakejudgmentsaboutthatindividual(Walther,
VanDerHeide,Kim,Westerman,&Tong,2008). Facebookprovidesuserswith
manyfeatures,including,friendfunctions,accesstopersonalandpractical
information,regulatoryfunctions,groups,eventsandothermiscellaneousfeatures
(Special&Li-Barber,2012).Friendfunctionincludes,acceptingnewfriends,
browsingfriend’sprofiles,andseeingwhomourfriendsarefriendswith.Personal
informationincludes,readingtheinformationfriendschoosetodisclose,lookingat
photosandreadingothers’walls.Practicalinformationincludestheabilitytoaccess
friend’scontactinformation.Regulatoryfunctionsinclude,editingyourprofile,
updatingphotosandmanagingtheprivacysettings.Thegroupfeatureallowsusers
toview,createorjoinaFacebookgroup.Theeventfeatureallowsuserstofind,
create,orjoinaneventonFacebook.Finallymiscellaneousfeaturesincludethe
abilityto“poke”anotheruser,or“like”contentthatanotheruserhasposted.
“Poking”onFacebookreferstotheabilitytoclickabuttononafriend’sFacebook
page,whichwillthenalertthatpersonthatyouhave“poked”them.Itisimportant
tounderstandthatthetermfriendisbroadlydefined.Ledbetteretal.(2011)state
thatinpastresearchthetermfriendisusedtodescribe“nonfamilialplatonicties”
(p.29).However,onFacebookthetermfriendisusedtodescribeanyconnectionon
thesite.Waltheretal.(2008)foundthatoutof150onlinefriends,only10-20of
themarecloserelationships.
DespitethemanyfeaturesofFacebookthemostvaluedistheabilitytoshare
personallifeupdates(Al-Saggaf&Nielsen,2014).Additionally,usersaregiventhe
abilitytochoosepersonalinformationtheywishtopost,essentiallyconstructinga
8
desiredonlineidentity(Bevan,Gomez,&Sparks,2014;Bond,2009;Special&LiBarber,2012;Wang,2012).Wang(2012)lookedatsocialmediafromayoung
consumerperspectiveanddevelopedaframeworktounderstandthetypesofposts
usersmakeonFacebook.Thisframeworkwasdevelopedthroughobservationand
variousinformalconversationsanddiscussionswithyoungconsumersabouthow
theyandtheirpeersutilizesocialmedia.
Wang(2012)foundthattherearefivemaintypesofpostsindividualsmake
onFacebook:expressionposts,informationalposts,impressionposts,intimacy
indicatorsandreciprocityposts.Expressionpostsexpresscertainfeelingsor
currentsituationintheuser’slife.Informationalpostsarecreatedwiththeintention
ofsharingorspreadingvarioustypesofinformation.Impressionpostsaremeantto
impressotherusers,andtendtobecreatedinanefforttoimproveperceived
popularityorsocialstatus.Intimacyindicatorsarepostsdevelopedtoshowthe
levelofintimacyorfriendshipbetweenusers.Finally,reciprocitypoststendtobe
viewedasshowingmutualsupport(e.g.,likingapostonauser’spagebecausethey
havedonesointhepastforyou).Thesefivetypesofpostsareemblematicofselfdisclosure.Inadditiontoexaminingthetypesofpostsanindividualcreateson
Facebook,researchersexaminedtheamountoftimeanindividualspendson
FacebookandthereasonsforusingFacebook(Dentietal.,2012).
TimeSpentonFacebook
Dentietal.(2012)foundthattheprimaryreasonindividualsspendtimeon
Facebookwastomaintaintheirexistingsocialcontactsandstayupdatedonthe
livesoffamilyandfriends(oldandnew).InastudycompletedbyDentietal.(2012)
9
inSweden,itwasfoundthattheaverageInternetuserself-reportedheorshespent
atotalof75.2minutesperdayloggedintoFacebook.Ingeneral,researchabout
FacebookreportsawiderangeofaveragetimespentonFacebook,Junco(2012)
statesthatparticipantsself-reportedanaverageof101.9minutesonFacebookper
day,andOrretal.(2009)statesthatparticipantsself-reportedanaverageof30
minutesonFacebookperday.However,inanotherstudybyJunco(2013)itwas
foundthatwhentheparticipantsself-reportedtheirdailyFacebookusagethe
averagewas145minutesperdayonFacebook,butwhenmonitoringsoftwarewas
putontheirinternetdevicesitwasfoundthattheparticipantsactuallyspentonly
26minutesperdayonFacebook.MorerecentresearchonFacebookfoundthatthe
averageuserinAmericaspendsandaverageof40minutesperdayonthesocial
mediaplatform(D’Onfro,2015).Regardlessoftheaveragetimeindividualsspend
onFacebook,researchersagreethatFacebookallowstheusertopickandchoose
theinformationonemayself-disclosetohisorherFacebookfriends(Chou&Edge,
2012;Orretal.,2009).
Self-DisclosureonFacebook
Self-disclosurewaspreviouslyconsideredintimateandprivate(Waters&
Ackerman,2011),meaningthatitwasreservedforadyadorsmallgroupand
happenedinaface-to-facesetting.However,researchersbelievecomputermediated-communicationchangedtheintimatenatureofself-disclosure(Bazarova
&Choi,2014;Fogel,2011;Livingstone,2008;Trepte&Reinecke,2013).Waters&
Ackerman(2011)defineself-disclosureas“thetellingofthepreviouslyunknownso
thatitbecomessharedknowledge”(p.105).HollenbaughandFerris(2014)state
10
that,“Facebookischaracterizedbyhighamountsofself-disclosurebecauseitiswell
establishedthatself-disclosureisacrucialelementinrelationshipdevelopment”(p.
50).
Facebookprovidesuserswiththeabilitytodevelopanonlineidentity
throughtheself-disclosureofpersonalinformation(Taddicken,2014),including,
basicinformation(e.g.,name,sex,birthday,relationshipstatus),personal
information(i.e.,favoriteactivities,interests,hobbies),contactinformationand
work/educationalinformation.DisclosuresmadeonFacebookmaybeofferedto
constructaspecificoridealimagetheuserwantstopresenttotheirfollowers
(Bevanetal.,2014;Kim&Lee,2011).However,itisimportanttonotethatnot
everythingonepostsonFacebookisalwaysameaningfulpositiveself-disclosure.
Valenceisatermthatreferstothepositivenessversusnegativenesscontrastofa
message(Hill,AhYun,&Lindsey,2008).Positiveself-disclosuresincludeaffirming
statements,happystatements,oragreeingstatements;whereasnegativeselfdisclosuresincludedisagreeingstatementsorstatementsthatarecritical(Walton&
Rice,2013).Researchstatesthatitispositiveself-disclosurepoststhatevokeenvy
onFacebook(Krasnovaetal.,2013).
Computer-mediated-communicationproducesmoreself-disclosurethan
face-to-facecommunication(Jiang,Bazarova,Hancock,2013;Tian,2011)because
thereisalackofnonverbalcues,suchasbodylanguageandfacialexpressions,
whichcanhelpreducetherisksassociatedwithself-disclosure.Additionally,Tian
(2011)foundthatthereisapositiverelationshipbetweensocialanxietyandselfdisclosure,meaningthatthemoreanxiousoneisinasocialsetting,themorelikely
11
theyaretochoosetoself-discloseonline.TheliteraturesuggeststhattheInternet
willfacilitateself-disclosure(Tian,2011).
Researchonself-disclosurethroughsocialmediasites,suchasFacebook,
havefoundthatwomenself-discloseonlinemoreoftenthanmen(Bond,2006).
Theseself-disclosuresincludebothvisual(pictures)andwritten(statusupdates)
postsrelatingtofriends,family,andothersignificantrelationships.However,
regardlessofgender,researchersfoundthatsomeindividualsself-discloseinorder
toseekhelporgainsocialsupport,whileothersfeltthatself-disclosureisan
obligationthatcomeswithrelationships(Derlega,Winstead,Mathews,&Braitman,
2008).Therefore,whenstudyingself-disclosureonFacebookitisimportantto
understandthemotivationalfactorsbehindvoluntaryonlinedisclosure.
Lee,Im,andTaylor(2008)reportedthattherearesevenmainmotivationsto
disclosepersonalinformationonline.ThesemotivationalfactorsreflectFacebook
userswillingnesstopostprivatethoughtsandinformation(Hollenbaugh&Ferris,
2014).Thefirstmotivationalfactor,self-presentation,concernsindividuals
purposefulpresentationofthemselves(Lee,etal.,2008;Waters&Ackerman,2011).
Thesecondfactor,relationshipmanagement,iswhenpeoplevoluntarilydisclose
informationonlinetopeopletheyareclosetoinordertodevelopormaintain
relationships.Thethirdmotivation,keepingupwithtrends,referstoanindividual’s
desiretostayup-to-datewithcurrenttopics.Thefourthmotivation,information
storage,iswhenpeoplearemotivatedtodiscloseonlineasamethodofrecording
personalinformation.Informationsharingisthefifthmotivationalfactor;itrefersto
themotivationtosharepersonalinformationwithothers.Entertainmentisthesixth
12
motivationfordisclosingonlineandcanofferpersonalpleasure.Finally,showingoff
istheseventhmotivationfordisclosinginformationonline.
WatersandAckerman(2011)usedthemotivationalfactorsfromLeeetal.
(2008)tocreateaqualitativesurveyinwhichindividualswereaskedabouttheir
motivationsforvoluntaryself-disclosureonsocialmedia.Whileallofthe
motivationsfordisclosureareimportant,theirstudyfoundthatshowingoffwasthe
primarymotivationforonlineself-disclosure(Waters&Ackerman,2011).Selfdisclosureiscomplexasitfulfillstheneedforbelonginginsociety,howeverit
requiresbeingvulnerableandreleasingcontroloverprivateinformation(Bazarova
&Choi,2014).Pastresearchhasfoundthatpositiveself-disclosurepostsallowthe
usertoconstructanidealimagetheuserwantstopresenttoFacebookfollowers
(Kim&Lee,2011),whichcouldresultinupwardsocialcomparisons.When
Facebookusersmakeupwardsocialcomparisonsitmayresultinnegativefeelings
suchasenvyandadecreaseinself-esteem.
Envy
Envyisapainfulemotionthatoftenoccurswhenanindividualcompareshim
orherselftosomeonetheyviewassuperiorintermsofpossessions,characteristics
orachievements(Cohen-Charash,2007;Crusius&Lange,2014;Debbané,2011;
Duffyetal.,2012;Kahn,Quratulain,&Bell,2014;Klein,2001).Morespecifically,
envyisdefinedbySmithandKim(2007)as,“anunpleasant,oftenpainfulemotion
characterizedbyfeelingsofinferiority,hostilityandresentment”(p.47).These
feelingsofenvyareoftenaresultofanotherpersonhavingapossession(object,
socialstatus,attributeorquality)thatonedesiresforhimorherself.Individualsare
13
typicallyenviousofotherswhoaresimilarlypositionedinsociety(Krizan&Johar,
2012).Animportantcharacteristicofenvyisthatitinvolvesatleasttwopeople,the
enviousindividualandtheenviedindividual(Smithetal.,1999).Thereislimited
researchthatexaminesenvyevokedthroughsocialnetworkingsites,eventhough
thenatureofsocialnetworkingsitesarefraughtwithmanyenvy-evokingsituations
(Krasnovaetal.,2013).ItisimportanttounderstandtheroleofenvyinFacebook
communicationbecauseresearchersbelievethatenvyisauniversalpsychological
trait(Hughes,2007;Klein,2001;Krizan&Johar,2012)andsocialnetworkingsites
areubiquitous.
Envyishistoricallyrecognizedasasinfulemotion(Hughes,2007;Okholm,
2008;Quintanilla&JensendeLopez,2012;Smith&Kim,2007;Stenstrom&Curtis,
2012).Researchfoundthateventhoughenvyisconsideredoneofthesevendeadly
sinsitisfoundtobetheleast“deadly”(Capps&Haupt,2011).CappsandHaupt
(2011)believeenvyistheleastdeadlybecauseitdoesnotcausepainordiscomfort
fortheindividualofwhomoneisenvious,butinsteadonlyfortheindividualwho
feelsenvious.Therearetwomaintypesofenvy,benignenvyandmaliciousenvy.
Benignenvyisviewedaspositiveenvy(Taietal.,2012).Benignenvycan
motivateonetoimproveinanefforttoreducethegapbetweenapersonandthose
theyenvy(Milovic&Dingus,2014;Taietal.,2012;vandeVenetal.,2012).Benign
envyischaracterizedbyapositiveattitudetowardtheotherperson(Crusius&
Lange,2014).Infact,anindividualwhoisfeelingbenignenvymightbemorewilling
toopenlystatethatheorshefeelsenvious(Quintanilla&JensendeLopez,2012).
14
Therefore,someresearchersbelievethatbenignenvyisnotrealenvy(Hughes,
2007;Quintanilla&JensendeLopez,2012).
Thesecondtypeofenvy,maliciousenvy,isviewedasmoredestructiveandis
aimedatunderminingtheenviedperson(Crusius&Lange,2014;Milovic&Dingus,
2014;vandeVenetal.,2012).Forexample,youmaywantsomethinganotherhas,
maliciousenvywouldsuggestthatinadditiontowantingtheenvieditemfor
yourself,youalsowantthatindividualtonolongerhavetheitemthatevokedenvy.
CrusiusandLange(2014)statethatmaliciousenvyoftenhappenswhentheenvious
individualviewstheenviedasundeservingofgoodfortune.Feelingsofmalicious
envycanleadtolowerself-esteemandcounterproductivepersonalbehavior
(Milovic&Dingus,2014).Despitethedifferencesbetweeneachtypeofenvy,both
involvepainfortheindividualwhofeelsenvious(Taietal.,2012).
Whileenvyandjealousyprovokesimilaremotionstheyaretwoseparate
termsthatshouldnotbeusedinterchangeably.Whilethisstudyisfocusing
specificallyonenvy,itisimportanttounderstandhowjealousyhasbeenstudiedin
ordertoshowhowitdiffersfromenvy.Jealousyrelatestofearoflosingan
importantrelationshiptoanotherindividualorcircumstance(Smith&Kim,2007).
Forexample,onecouldfearlosingasignificantothertoanotherindividual,oreven
toajob,orahobby.Therefore,jealousyinvolvesatleastthreecomponents:the
jealousindividual,theindividualheorshefearslosing,andtheindividual/object
theyfearlosingsaidpersonto(Smithetal.,1999).Thestudyofjealousyisoften
appliedinthecontextofromanticrelationshipsbecausejealousyoccurswhenthere
isathreatoflosingsomeoneimportanttoanotherindividual(Cayanus&Booth-
15
Butterfield,2004;Guerrero&Afifi,1998;Parrott&Smith,1993;Utz&Beukeboom,
2011).However,jealousyinanyformofrelationshiphasbeenfoundtoresultin
counterproductivebehaviorssuchassurveillance,negativecommunication,and
conflict(Deutz,Lansu,&Cillessen,2015).
Researchonjealousystatesthatindividualswithlowself-esteemexperience
morerelationshipjealousyasaresultofviewingsocialnetworkingsites,suchas
Facebook,comparedtoindividualswithhigherself-esteem(Utz&Beukeboom,
2011).Additionally,UtzandBeukeboomhypothesizedthatrelationshipsatisfaction
isnegativelyrelatedtojealousyonsocialnetworkingsites.Researchersbelievethis
isduetotheabilityforpublicdemonstrationsofaffectionandrelationship
commitment(Utz&Beukeboom,2011).Additionally,researchsuggeststhatthe
moretimeanindividualspendsengagedin“surveillance”orobservationtype
behavioronFacebook,thelowertheirrelationshipsatisfactionwillbe(Elphinston&
Noller,2011).Researchershaveexaminedjealousyfromafriendshipperspective
andfoundthatjealousyinfriendspredictednegativeoutcomesregardingconflict,
balanceofpower,qualityofinteractions,anddisconnectedness(Deutzetal.,2015).
Researchonjealousytendstofocusonthepsychologicalexperiencessuchas
feelingsandemotionsratherthanthecommunicativeresponses(Guerrero,
Hannawa,&Babin,2011;Utz&Beukeboom,2011).However,GuerreroandAfifi
(1998)statethatthereareelevenmaintypesofcommunicationresponsesto
feelingsofjealousy,rangingfromtryingtoimprove/fixtherelationshiptotryingto
getrevengeonthepartner.Guerreroetal(2011)statethatavoidancecopingisa
commonwayjealousyisdealtwith.Whenfeelingjealousitisnaturaltowithdrawor
16
remainsilentwhileprocessingthefeelingsanddecidingthebestwaytoreacttothe
situationthatevokedthejealousy.
Asstatedpreviously,envyandjealousyareoftentermsthatpeopleuse
interchangeably,however,theliteratureshowsthatwhileenvyandjealousymay
resultinsimilaremotionalresponsestheyaredifferentconcepts.Itisimportantto
keepinmindthatfeelingsofenvyandjealousycanhappenatthesametime
(Quintanilla&JensendeLopez,2012).Forexample,acouple,JackandJane,couldgo
toakaraokebarwiththeirclosefriendMark,whohasanamazingvoice.Jackcould
becomejealousofMarkbecausehesingssowell,andthatcausesJanetobe
attractedtoMark,whichmakesJackworrythathewillloseJanetoMark.Jackcould
alsobeenviousofMark’ssingingability,wishinghehadsuchagoodvoice.Despite
thefactthatthefeelingsofenvyandjealousymayhappenatthesametimetheyare
separateemotions.Ultimately,envyisanemotionalresponsethatoccurswhenan
individualwantssomething,suchasapossession,characteristicorachievement,
thatanotherindividualhas(Cohen-Charash,2007)whilejealousyisanemotional
responsetofearoflosinganimportantrelationshiptoanotherindividualor
circumstance(Smith&Kim,2007).Thisstudyquestionsifpositivepostson
Facebookevokeenvyandifso,howdothosefeelingsofenvyrelatetolife
satisfaction,self-esteemandtimespentonFacebook.Thenfromtherethisstudy
examinesifanyofthesevariablesprompttheuseofcopingstrategies.
ThestudyofFacebookandenvyisnotwithoutprecedent.Krasnovaetal.
(2013)examinedFacebooktodiscoverwhattypesofpoststriggerenvyon
Facebook.Byaskingaseriesofclosedandopen-endedquestions,Krasnovaetal.
17
(2013)foundthatpostsabouttravel,socialinteractionsandhappinesswerethe
threemostcommonenvy-evokingtopicsonFacebook.Krasnovaetal.(2013)then
developeda9-itemscaletomeasuretheeffectsofenvyinthecontextofFacebook
andlifesatisfaction.TheyfoundthatenvyevokedthroughFacebookdecreasesthe
leveloflifesatisfactiononefeelsabouthisorherownlife(Krasnovaetal.,2013).It
wasimportanttoreplicateKrasnovaetal.findingsastheycompletedtheirstudyin
Germanyandcommunicationstylescandiffergreatlybetweencountries.Second,
theirstudyisalmostfouryearsoldnowanditwasimportanttomakesurethatthe
findingsremainedvalidintheever-changinglandscapeofsocialnetworking
websites.
Therefore,thefollowingresearchquestionandhypothesisareoffered:
RQ1:Doesexposuretoothers’positiveself-disclosurepostsonFacebookevoke
feelingsofenvyfortheFacebookuser?
H1:Envyisnegativelycorrelatedwithlifesatisfaction.
Additionally,Krasnovaetal.(2013)suggeststhatindividualswithhigherlevelsof
self-esteemwillreactlessnegativelywhenfacedwithfeelingsofenvywhen
comparedtothoseindividualswithlowlevelsofself-esteem.
Self-Esteem
Researchonself-esteemsuggeststhatsocialnetworkingsites,suchas
Facebook,couldhelpindividualswithlowself-esteemdevelopmorefulfillingsocial
lives(Forest&Wood,2012;Pettijohn,LaPiene,Pettijohn,&Horting,2012).Forest
andWood(2012)believethattheopportunityforself-disclosureonFacebookhelps
aidinthedevelopmentofintimacyinarelationship.However,studieshaveshown
18
that,basedonthevalenceofandindividual’sself-disclosure,Facebookcanhave
eitherapositiveandnegativeeffectonself-esteem(Forest&Wood,2012;Skues,
Williams,Wise,2012).ForestandWood(2013)suggestthatindividualswithlow
self-esteemwillbemorelikelytoengageinnegativedisclosurebehaviorson
Facebook,whichasaresult,hindersthedevelopmentofintimacyintheonline
relationship.However,Skues,WilliamsandWise(2012)believetheoppositewill
actuallyhappen.Meaning,thatindividualswithlowself-esteemwillbeabletopick
andchoosewhattodiscloseonFacebook,andinturnwilldevelopmoreintimate
relationships.TheincreaseinpositiveinteractionsonFacebookcouldpotentially
increasehisorherself-esteem.
InastudyconductedbyDentietal.(2012)itwasfoundthatthereisa
negativecorrelationbetweenFacebookusageandself-esteem.Therefore,
individual’swhospendmoretimeonFacebookarelikelytohavelowerself-esteem.
ResearchersbelievethattimespentonFacebookleadstoengaginginmoresocial
comparisonswithotherfacebookusers(Dentietal.,2012),andasaresultalower
leveloflifesatisfactionandself-esteem(Dentietal.,2012;deVries&Kuhne,2015;
Krasnovaetal.,2013).Itisimportanttorecognizethatmuchofthecurrent
researchsurroundingself-esteemandFacebookexaminehowindividualsposting
habitsimpactself-esteem(Dentietal.,2012;deVries&Kuhne,2015;Ellison,
Steinfield&Lampe,2007;Forest&Wood,2012;Pettijohnetal.,2012;Skues,
WilliamsandWise,2012;Valkenburg,Peter,&Schouten,2006).Thisstudyseeksto
gaininsightontheeffectsofviewingpositiveFacebookpostsandthesubsequent
19
impactonself-esteem,lifesatisfaction,andthecopingstrategiesusedtomaintain
lifesatisfaction.
LifeSatisfaction
Facebookcanhaveaneffectontwomajorcomponentsofoverallwell-being.
First,Facebookinfluencesfeelingaboutones’ownlifeandsecondFacebook
influenceshowsatisfiedoneiswithlife(Ellisonetal.,2007;Krossetal.,2013;Park
&Lee,2014).Krossetal.(2013)performedalaggedanalysisofdata,collectedover
a14-dayperiodfrom82differentparticipants,andfoundthatovertime
participant’slifesatisfactiondecreasedwithFacebookuse.Lifesatisfactionrelates
tohappinessandpersonalcontentment(Valenzuela,Park,&Kee,2009)andrelies
heavilyonone’sownjudgment(Diener,Emmons,Larsen&Griffin,1985).
ResearchstatesthattherelationshipbetweenFacebookandlifesatisfaction
iscomplexandinfluencedbymultiplefactorssuchas,copingstyle(Liu&Larose,
2006)numberofFacebookfriends,supportivenessofonlinenetwork,loneliness,
depressivesymptoms,andself-esteem(Ellisonetal.,2007;Krossetal.,2013;
Valenzuelaetal.,2009).WhenFacebookusersreceiveadequatesupportfromtheir
socialnetworkitcanhelpincreasetheirlifesatisfaction(Kim&Lee,2011).
However,inastudyconductedbyKrasnovaetal.(2013)inGermany,itwasfound
thatenvyevokedthroughFacebookpostsdecreasedlifesatisfaction. Usingtheknowledgethatunfavorablesocialcomparisonsleadtofeelingsof
envy,andthatfeelingsofenvycanleadtonegativeemotions,Krasnovaetal.(2013)
foundthatenvyonFacebookisnegativelyassociatedwithlifesatisfaction.
Krasnovaetal.(2013)conductedthisstudyinGermanyusingacombinationof
20
open-endedquestions,a9-itemenvyscaleandalifesatisfactionscale.Envyis
pervasiveandcentraltothehumanconditionsuggestingthatmoreresearchis
neededtoconfirmKrasnovaetal.(2013)results.Itisimportanttoquestion
whetherAmericanFacebookusersexperienceenvythesamewaythatGerman
subjectsdoandwhethertheyaresubjecttoadecreaseinlifesatisfactionasaresult
ofenvyevokedthroughFacebook.Therefore,thisstudyseekstoreplicateKrasnova
etal.(2013)researchwithanAmericansample.Anotherpurposeofthisstudyisto
determineifpeopleengageincopingstrategiestodealwiththefeelingsofenvy
evokedbypositivepostsonFacebook.
CopingwithEnvy
Lifesatisfactionisanimportantoutcomevariableinmanystudiesbecauseit
canpredictarangeofconsequentialbehaviors(Krossetal.,2013).Suchbehaviors
couldincludevariouscopingstrategiesusedtodealwithenvy.Copingisdefinedby
LazarusandFolkman(1984)as,“constantlychangingcognitiveandbehavioral
effortstomanagespecificexternaland/orinternaldemandsthatareappraisedas
taxingorexceedingtheresourcesoftheperson”(p.178).Muchoftheresearchon
copingstylesisrootedinthefieldofpsychology,andisdescribedasabehavioral
responsetoaspecificsituation(Anshel,Kang,&Miesner,2010;Clark,Michel,Early,
&Baltes,2014;Hassan,2014;Roth&Cohen,1986).Copingbehaviorsareimportant
becausetheycanpotentiallyserveasamediatorbetweenastressfulevent,inthis
casefeelingenvious,andtheoutcome,inthiscase,lifesatisfaction(Clarketal.,
2014).
21
Copingprovidestwomainfunctions,managingoralteringtheproblemwith
theenvironmentcausingthedistressandregulatingtheemotionalresponsetothe
distress(Kassing,2011;Knobloch-Westerwick,Hastall,&Rossmann,2009).
Additionally,inthecontextofsocialmedia,therearethreemaintypesofcoping:
approach,avoidance,andself-presentation(Kim&Lee,2011;Knobloch-Westerwick
etal.,2009;Krasnovaetal.,2013).Approachcopingreferstostrategiesinwhichthe
maingoalistoreduceoreliminatethestressor(Knobloch-Westerwicketal.,2009).
Avoidancecopingiswhenthegoalistojustignorethestressor(Wright,1999).Selfpresentationreferstoselectivelyrevealingpostsandphotosthatarehighinsocial
desirability;thesepostsaregenerallyinresponsetoother’spoststhatevokeenvy
(Kim&Lee,2011).
Theapproachcopingstylesuggeststhattheindividualwillattempttodeal
withthesituationbyapproachingthestressorheadon(Finset,Steine,Haugli,Steen,
&Laerum,2002;Hassan,2014).Approachcopingincludes,seekingsocialsupport,
planningahead,orattemptingtosolveoreliminatetheproblem.Individualswho
useanapproachcopingstylehaveanovertactioninresponsetothestressor
(Ansheletal.,2010).InthecontextofFacebook,approachcopingstylescould
includedeactivatingonesFacebookaccountandunfriendingtheenviedindividual.
DeactivatingiswhenanindividualremovesthemselvescompletelyfromFacebook,
meaningthatifsearchedfortheywillnotshowupandanyactivityorpostson
othersFacebookprofilewillalsoberemoved.Unfriendingiswhenyouremovean
individualfromyour“friendlist,”thus,removingthatindividual’sabilitytoview
yourprofile.ItisimportanttonotethatwhenanindividualdeactivatesaFacebook
22
accountalloftheinformationfromthataccountwillbestoredbyFacebookincase
heorshedecidestoreactivatetheFacebookaccount.
Theavoidancecopingstylehastwodimensions,firstitisapassiveor
disengagedwaytodealwithstressfulevents,andseconditisanactivemoveaway
fromthestressor,suchasdenialordiversion(Finsetetal.,2002).Individualswho
useavoidingasacopingstylemakeaconsciousdecisiontofilteroutinformationor
turnawayfromstressinducingsituations(Ansheletal.,2010).Inthecontextof
Facebook,Krasnovaetal.(2013)suggestthatapossibleavoidancecopingstyle
wouldbehidingtheenviedindividualsprofile.Hidingiswhenyouchooseto
“unfollow”ornolongerreceivenotificationsaboutanotherindividualsFacebook
activity.
Finally,self-presentationisacopingstrategythatsuggestsindividualswill
reacttofeelingsofenvyonFacebookbydevelopingpoststomakehimorherself
lookbetter.Krasnovaetal.(2013)statesthat,“overstatementofpersonal
accomplishmentisacommonreactiontoenvyfeelings”(p.12).Self-presentation
involvesnotonlypostingpositivepostsforotherstosee,butresearchhasshown
thatwhenanindividualself-presentsitcanactuallyalterhowtheyviewthemselves
(Gonzales&Hancock,2011).ParkandLee(2014)suggestthatself-presentation
allowsuserstofeelmorecompetentwhenexpressingthemselvestoothersonline.
Facebookisaplatformthatismainlyaboutself-presentation(Waltheretal.,2008).
However,thiscouldcauseaproblemlabeledasthe“self-promotion–envyspiral”,a
termthatsuggeststhatFacebookusersmayreacttotheself-presentationofothers,
withevenmoreself-presentation(Krasnovaetal.,2013).Whenindividualsengage
23
inself-presentationtocopewithfeelingsofenvyitcouldresultintheproductionof
evenmoreenvyevokingsituationsinsteadoffacingoreliminatingtheoriginal
stressor.
Researcherssuggestthebestwaytocopewithastressfulsituationbothon
orofflineistoeliminate,orremovecompletelyfromoneslife,thestressoritself
(Knobloch-Westerwicketal.,2009).However,itmaybeeasiertoeliminatea
stressorfromanonlinesituation,suchasFacebookduetothelevelofanonymity
provided.LitmanandLunsford(2009)examinedhowindividualscopedwithpast
stressfulsituationsandhowthestrategyusedimpactedwell-being.Theresearchers
foundthatwhenindividualsusedavoidancecopingstrategiestherewasahigher
levelofpsychologicaldistresspresentwhencomparedtoindividualswhouse
approachcoping.However,moreresearchisneededtounderstandhowpeople
choosetocopewithenvyevokingsituationsonsocialmedia.Thisstudywillrelyon
theresearchoncopingstrategies(Kim&Lee,2011;Knobloch-Westerwicketal.,
2009)andapplyittothecontextofsocialmediatoexaminetherelationship
betweenenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteem,timespentonFacebook,andthefour
copingstrategiesdiscussed.
Therefore,
RQ2:Whatistherelationshipbetweenfeelingsofenvyandthelikelihoodan
individualwilldeactivatehisorherfacebook,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hide
theenviedindividual’sFacebookprofile,orengageinself-presentation?
24
RQ3:Whatistherelationshipbetweenlife-satisfactionandthelikelihoodan
individualwilldeactivatehisorherfacebook,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hide
theenviedindividual’sFacebookprofile,orengageinself-presentation?
RQ4:Whatistherelationshipbetweenself-esteemandthelikelihoodanindividual
willdeactivatehisorherfacebook,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidetheenvied
individual’sFacebookprofile,orengageinself-presentation?
RQ5:WhatistherelationshipbetweentimespentonFacebookandthelikelihoodan
individualwilldeactivatehisorherfacebook,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hide
theenviedindividual’sFacebookprofile,orengageinself-presentation?
25
CHAPTERIII
METHOD
Overview
Socialcomparisontheoryservesastheframeworktoexamineiffeelingsof
envyareevokedwhenanindividualengagesinsocialcomparisonswiththoseon
Facebook.Duffyetal.(2012)conceptualizedenvyinthreeways:situational,
dispositionalandepisodic.Thisstudyexaminedtheaverageamountofepisodic
envyexperiencedwhenviewingpositiveself-disclosurepostsonFacebookand
confirmspriorresearchconductedbyKrasnovaetal.(2013)inGermanybyasking
whatistherelationshipbetweenepisodicenvyandlifesatisfaction.Then,thisstudy
examinesiffeelingsofenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtimespentonfacebook
predicttheuseofthedeactivating,unfriending,hidingandself-presentingcoping
strategies.
Participants
TheparticipantsincludestudentsenrolledatalargepublicMidwestern
Universitylocatedinametropolitanarea.Participantswererecruitedfrom
IntroductiontoPublicSpeaking,ArgumentationandInterpersonalCommunication
courses,whicharecomprisedofcommunicationmajorsandnon-communication
majors.Therewereatotalof130participants,andafterremovingparticipantsthat
26
thatdidnotcompletethesurveyproperly(n=22)therewasatotalof108
participants(47men,56women,5noanswer).Manyofthesurveyscompleted
incorrectlywereduetothefactthattheparticipantbeganthesurveywithoutfirst
readingtheexplanationofthestudystatingthatparticipantsmustbeaFacebook
user.Amongthe108participants,thirty-nineparticipants(30%)identifiedas
freshman,17(13.1%)identifiedassophomore,24(18.5%)identifiedasjunior,24
(18.5%)identifiedassenior,and3(2.3%)identifiedasbeingatthegraduatelevel.
Participant’sagerangedfrom18to56years(M=22.2,SD=7.3,Median=20)and
themajority(56.9%)ofparticipantsreportedtheirethnicityaswhite,2.3%
reportedtheirethnicityasHispanicorLatino,16.2%reportedtheirethnicityas
AfricanAmerican,3.1%reportedtheirethnicityasAsianorPacificIslanderand
3.1%reportedtheirethnicityasother.Additionally,17.7%ofparticipantsreported
ahouseholdincomeoflessthan$20,000peryear,5.4%reported$20,000-$34,999,
14.6%reported$35,000-$49,999,16.2%reported$50,000-$74,999,13.1%
reported$75,000-$99,999and12.3%reported$100,000orhigher,20.8%didnot
provideananswerforhouseholdincome.Thedatawasreviewedtobetter
understandwhy20.8%oftheparticipantsdidnotreportahouseholdincomeandit
couldbearesultofthehighnumberofparticipantsthatidentifiedasfreshman.A
traditionalcollegefreshmanlivesinadormroomandperhapsunemployed,
therefore,therewouldbenoactualhouseholdincome.Participantsreporteda
rangeof.25hoursto18hoursperdayspentlookingatFacebook.Howeverthe
participantreporting18hoursperdaywasremovedduetothelikelihoodthatit
wasaresponseerror.Withthatparticipantremovedfromthedatatherangeoftime
27
spentonFacebookbecame.25hoursto8hoursperday(M=1.21,SD=1.4)(See
Table1).
Table1:DemographicInformation
Gender
Female
Male
Other
Total
Ethnicity
White
Hispanic/Latino
AfricanAmerican
Asian/PacificIslander
Other
NoAnswer
Total
Income
Lessthan20,000
20,000-34,999
35,000-49,999
50,000-74,999
75,000-99,999
100,000orhigher
NoAnswer
Total
PositionattheUniversity
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
GraduateStudent
NoAnswer
Total
N
%
56
47
5
108
52%
44%
4%
100%
74
3
21
4
4
2
108
68.5%
2.8%
19.4%
3.7%
3.7%
1.9%
100%
23
7
19
21
17
16
5
108
21.3%
6.5%
17.6%
19.4%
15.7%
14.8%
4.7%
100%
39
17
24
24
3
1
108
36.1%
15.7%
22.2%
22.2%
2.8%
1.0%
100%
28
Procedures
WiththepermissionoftheInstitutionalReviewBoardandwiththe
permissionofcourseinstructors,studentswererecruitedtoparticipateinthisstudy
viaemail.TheemailincludedalinktoasecuresurveythroughQualtricsanda
statementintroducingmyselfasagraduatestudentconductingresearchforathesis
project.Thestatementalsostatedthattoparticipateinthisstudytheyneededtobe
aFacebookuser.Uponqualifyingtoparticipateinthestudy,participantswere
askedtofollowalink,whichwouldtakethemtoviewaFacebookpagecreatedfor
thepurposeofthisstudy.Thisresearchdidnotpromptindividualstoimaginethat
theFacebookpagebelongedtosomeonewithaspecifictypeofrelationshiptothe
participant.BasedonKrasnovaetal.(2013)research,whichfoundthatpostsabout
travel,socialinteractionsandhappinessevokedthemostenvy,theFacebookpage
featuredluxuriousvacations,funtimeswithfriendsandfamily,aloving
relationship,expensivepurchases,adreamhomeandoverallextremehappiness
withlife(SeeAppendixA).AfterviewingtheFacebookpageparticipantsanswereda
seriesofquestionsregardingepisodicenvy,lifesatisfaction,copingwithenvy,selfesteemanddemographicinformation.Onthefinalpageofthesurveywasasheet
thatstudentscouldprintoutandsubmittoreceiveextracreditforcompletingthe
survey.
EpisodicEnvy
Episodicenvyisdefinedasthefeelingofnegativeemotionsresultingfroma
specificsocialcomparison(Cohen-Charash,2009).Episodicenvyevokedthrougha
FacebookpagewasmeasuredbyascaledevelopedbyCohen-Charash(2009).This
29
9-itemLikertscalewaschosenbecauseitistwo-dimensionalwithbothafeeling
componentandacomparisoncomponent.Thefeelingcomponenthasareported
reliabilityof.86andthecomparisoncomponenthasareportedreliabilityof.65,and
whenthecomponentsarecombinedtheyhaveareliabilityof.79(Cohen-Charash,
2009).Theitemsthatcomprisethefeelingcomponentincludestatementssuchas,“I
feelenvioustowardsX,”“Ifeelbitter,”“IhavearesentmentagainstX,”“Ifeel
annoyed,”IfeelsomehatredtowardX,”and“Ifeelrancor(illwill)towardX.”The
itemsthatcomprisethecomparisoncomponentincludestatementssuchas,“Ilack
someofthethingsthatXhas,”“IwanttohavewhatXhas,”and“Xhasthingsgoing
betterforhim/herthanIdo.”Theresponseoptionsrangefromone(strongly
disagree)tofive(stronglyagree).(SeeAppendixBforcopyofscale)
LifeSatisfactionScale
Tomeasurelifesatisfaction,thisstudyusedtheLifeSatisfactionScale.This5-
itemLikertscalewascreatedandtestedbyDieneretal.(1985)andhasareliability
of.87.TheLifeSatisfactionScaleisaunidimensionalscalethatmeasuresoverall
satisfactionwithlife.Johnson(2012)foundthatindividualslifesatisfactionisoften
developedbasedonvarioussocialcomparisons.TheLifeSatisfactionScalefeatures
questionssuchas,“Ihaveagoodlife,”“Ilikethewaythingsaregoingforme,”and
“mylifeisbetterthanmostofmypeers.”Theresponseoptionsrangefromone
(stronglydisagree)tofive(stronglyagree).(SeeAppendixCforcopyofscale)
SelfEsteem
Tomeasureself-esteemthisstudyusedtheRosenbergSelf-EsteemScale.
This10-itemLikertscalewascreatedbyRosenberg(1965)andmeasuresan
30
individualsoverallfeelingofself-worth.TheRosenbergSelf-EsteemScaleisunidimensionalwithareliabilityof.91.Thisscaleiswidelyusedasaself-report
instrumenttomeasureself-esteem(Ciarrochi,Heaven,&Davies,2007;Gray-Little,
Williams,&Hancock,1997;Rosenberg,1965).Thisscalefeaturesquestionssuchas,
“Onthewhole,Iamsatisfiedwithmyself”,“AttimesIthinkIamnogoodatall”,“I
feelthatIamapersonofworth,atleastonanequalplanewithothers”and“IfeelI
donothavemuchtobeproudof.”Theratingscalerangedfromone(strongly
disagree)tofive(stronglyagree).(SeeAppendixDforcopyofscale)
CopingwithEnvy
Tomeasurecopingstrategiesusedasaresultofenvyevokedthrough
Facebook,participantswereaskedtorateonaLikert-typescaleofonetofive,one
beingnotlikelyand5beinglikely,thelikelihoodheorshewill:deactivatehisorher
ownFacebookaccount,unfriendindividualsheorsheisparticularlyenviousof,
hideaprofileofanindividualheorsheisparticularlyenviousof,orincreasethe
amountofpositivepostsonemakesonhisorherownFacebookprofile.Thisscale
wasconstructedforthisstudyusingthecopingstrategiesthatemergedfromthe
reviewofliterature(Kim&Lee,2011;Knobloch-Westerwicketal.,2009;Krasnova
etal.,2013).
Researcharticlesrelatingtocopingstrategiesandcomputer-mediated-
communicationwereexaminedtouncoverthemesandcommunalitiesbetweenthe
studies.Itwasfoundthatapproachandavoidancewerethetwomaincategoriesof
copingstrategies(Knobloch-Westerwicketal.,2009).Approachsuggeststhe
individualwilldealwiththeproblemheadonandeliminateit,whereasavoidance
31
suggeststheindividualwilltrytocreateadiversionandnotdealwiththeissue.
WhenyouapplytheseconceptstofunctionsofFacebookthefourcopingstrategies
emerged,deactivate(approachcategory),unfriend(approachcategory),hide
individual(avoidancecategory)andself-present(avoidancecategory).
StatisticalAnalysis
Thedatawasexaminedusingthestatisticalanalysisprogram,Statistical
PackagefortheSocialSciences(SPSS#23).ToanalyzeRQ1,whichasksaboutthe
amountofenvyoneexperienceswhenexposedtopositivepostsonFacebook,
frequencydatawasusedtodeterminetheaverageamountofenvyreported.To
analyzeH1,whichhypothesizesabouttherelationshipbetweenepisodicenvyand
lifesatisfaction,PearsonCorrelationwasconducted.
ToanalyzeRQ2,whichasksabouttherelationshipbetweenenvyandthe
copingstrategies(deactivateonesownFacebookprofile,unfriendtheenvied
individual,hidetheenviedindividualsFacebookprofileandself-presentation),
logisticregressionwithforwardmodelanalysiswasused.ToanalyzeRQ3,which
asksabouttherelationshipbetweenlifesatisfactionandthecopingstrategies
(deactivateonesownFacebookprofile,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidethe
enviedindividualsFacebookprofileandself-presentation),logisticregressionwith
forwardmodelanalysiswasused.ToanalyzeRQ4,whichasksaboutthe
relationshipbetweenself-esteemandthecopingstrategies(deactivateonesown
Facebookprofile,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidetheenviedindividuals
Facebookprofileandself-presentation),logisticregressionwithforwardmodel
analysiswasused.Finally,toanswerRQ5,whichasksabouttherelationship
32
betweentheamountoftimespentonFacebookandthecopingstrategies
(deactivateonesownFacebookprofile,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidethe
enviedindividualsFacebookprofileandself-presentation),logisticregressionwith
forwardmodelanalysiswasused.
33
CHAPTERIV
RESULTS
Table2reportsthedescriptivestatisticsfortheparticipant’slevelofenvy,
lifesatisfaction,self-esteem,timespentonFacebookandthecopingstrategies.
Beforethemainanalysisthedatawasinspectedforoutliers.Overall,104
participantscompletedtheepisodicenvyscale(M=2.26,SD=.70,Range=25).The
episodicenvyscaleistwodimensionalwithafeelingcomponent(Cronbach’salpha
=.80)andacomparisoncomponent(Cronbach’salpha=.90).TheLifeSatisfaction
Scalewascompletedby107participants(M=3.5,SD=.80,Range=20),thisscaleis
unidimensional(Cronbach’salpha=.85).Theself-esteemscalewascompletedby
106participants(M=3.7,SD=.76,Range=40),thisscaleisuni-dimensional
(Cronbach’salpha=.91).Thecopingstrategiesscalewascompletedby106
participants;forthecopingstrategiesscaleparticipantswereaskedthelikelihood
heorshewoulddeactivatetheirFacebookpage(M=1.82,SD=.95,Range=4),
unfriendtheenviedindividual(M=2.14,SD=1.2,Range=4),hidetheenvied
individual’sFacebookprofile(M=2.25,SD=1.16,Range=4),andself-present(M=
2.56,SD=1.25,Range=4).
34
Table2:Descriptivestatisticsforenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteem
Variables
Envy
LifeSatisfaction
Self-Esteem
TimeSpentonFacebook
Deactivate
Unfriend
Hiding
Self-Presentation
N
Mean
104
107
105
106
106
105
106
106
2.26
3.5
3.7
1.21
1.82
2.14
2.25
2.56
Standard
Deviation
.70
.80
.76
1.3
.95
1.2
1.16
1.25
Range
25
20
40
8
4
4
4
4
RQ1oneasksifexposuretoFacebookprofileswithpositiveself-
disclosurepostsevokesenvy.ParticipantsviewedaFacebookpageconstructedfor
thestudyandansweredquestionsrelatedtoenvy.Resultsrevealedthat
participantsreportedmoderatelevelsofenvy(M=2.26,SD=.70).H1predicted
thatenvywouldbenegativelyrelatedtolifesatisfaction.ResultsofthePearson
CorrelationsprovidesupportforH1.Envywasnegativelycorrelatedwithlife
satisfaction(r=-.21,p<.05).Thesefindingsareconsistentwiththeresearchby
Krasnovaetal.(2013),whichreplicatestheassociationbetweenenvyandlife
satisfaction(SeeTable3).Pearsoncorrelationsalsorevealthatenvywasnegatively
correlatedwithself-esteem(r=-.53,p<.01)andhoursspentonFacebookperday
(r=-.20,p<.05)andpositivelycorrelatedwithdeactivatingonesFacebookpage(r=
.26,p<.01),hidingtheFacebookprofileoftheenviedindividual(r=.25,p<.05)
andself-presenting(r=.19,p<.05).PearsonCorrelationsalsoshowedthatlife
satisfactionwaspositivelycorrelatedwithself-esteem(r=.55,p<.01)and
negativelycorrelatedwithtimespentonFacebook(r=-.25,p<.01).Finally,results
35
revealedthatself-esteemwaspositivelycorrelatedwiththehidecopingstrategy(r
=.24,p<.05).(SeeTable3)
Table3:Correlationsbetweenenvy,lifesatisfactionandotherfactors
Variables
1.Envy
2.LifeSatisfaction
3.Self-Esteem
4.TimeonFacebook
5.Deactivate
6.Unfriend
7.Hide
8.Self-Present
Note:Two-tailedTests
*p<.05,**p<.01
1
2
-
-.21*
-
-.53** .55**
-.20* -.25*
.26**
.05
.12
.16
.25**
-.02
.19*
.12
3
-
.01
-.17
.01
.24*
-.06
4
-
-.11
-.09
.01
-.02
5
6
7
-
.42**
-
.41** .68**
-
.20* .36** .49**
8
-
RQ2,RQ3,RQ4,andRQ5wereanalyzedusingforwardregressionanalysisto
determineiffeelingsofenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtimespenton
Facebookpredictthelikelihoodthat,whenfeelingsofenvywereevokedbypositive
postsonFacebook,anindividualwoulddeactivateones’ownFacebookprofile,
unfriendtheindividualheorsheisenviousofonFacebook,hidetheFacebook
profileoftheenviedindividual,andfinallyengageinself-presentation.
RQ2askedabouttherelationshipbetweenenvyandthelikelihoodan
individualwillengageinanyofthefourcopingstrategies,deactivateone’sown
Facebookprofile,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidetheenviedindividual’s
Facebookprofileandself-present.Theresultsrevealthatthefeelingcomponentof
envywasasignificantpredictor(R2=.06,F=6.7,p=.01**,β=.25)thatan
individualwilldeactivateone’sownFacebookprofile(SeeTable4).
36
Table4:SummaryofRegressionanalysisofenvy(feelingcomponent)asa
significantpredictorofthedeactivatecopingstrategy
Variable
R2 F(1,100)
p
β
Envy(FeelingComponent)
.06
6.7
.01**
.25
p<.05*,p<.01**
RQ3askedabouttherelationshipbetweenlifesatisfactionandthelikelihood
anindividualwillengageinanyofthefourcopingstrategies,deactivatingowns’
ownFacebookprofile,unfriendingtheenviedindividual,hidingtheenvied
individual’sFacebookprofileandself-present.Theresultsshowedthatlife
satisfactionwasnotasignificantpredictorofanyofthefourcopingstrategies.
RQ4questionstherelationshipbetweenself-esteemandthelikelihoodan
individualwillengageinanyofthefourcopingstrategies,deactivateones’own
Facebookprofile,unfriendtheenviedindividual,hidetheenviedindividual’s
Facebookprofileandself-present.Theresultsrevealthatself-esteemwasa
significantpredictor(R2=.06,F=6.9,p=.01**,β=.26)thatanindividualwillhide
theFacebookprofileoftheenviedindividual(SeeTable5).
Table5:SummaryofRegressionanalysisofself-esteemasapredictorofthehiding
copingstrategy
Variable
R2 F(1,100)
p
β
Self-Esteem
.06
6.9
.01**
.26
p<.05*,p<.01**
RQ5askedabouttherelationshipbetweentheamountoftimeanindividual
spendsonFacebookandthelikelihoodanindividualwillengageinthefourcoping
37
strategies,deactivateowns’ownFacebookprofile,unfriendingtheenvied
individual,hidingtheenviedindividual’sFacebookprofileandself-present.The
resultsshowedthattheamountoftimespentonFacebookwasnotasignificant
predictorthatanindividualwoulduseanyofthefourcopingstrategies.
Additionally,aforwardregressionanalysiswasdonetoseeifanyofthe
variables(envy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtimespentonFacebook)would
predictthelikelihoodofcopingwhenallfourofthecopingstrategiesweregrouped.
Theresultsrevealthatwhencopingstrategiesareusedasonevariable,envyisa
significantpredictor(R2=.07,F=7.52,p=.01**,β=.27)ofcoping(SeeTable6).
Table6:SummaryofRegressionanalysisforenvyasapredictorofcopingstrategies
combined
Variable
R2 F(1,100)
p
β
Envy
.07
7.52
.01**
.27
p<.05*,p<.01**
38
CHAPTERV
DISCUSSION
Thisstudyutilizedsocialcomparisontheorytoexaminetheassociations
betweenenvyevokedthroughself-disclosureonFacebook,lifesatisfaction,selfesteem,timespentonFacebookandcopingstrategies.Thisstudyaskedparticipants
toviewaFacebookpagethatwasconstructedforthisstudy.Thepagewasgender
neutraland,basedonthefindingsofKrasnovaetal.(2013),theFacebookprofile
containedpostsabouttravel,socialinteractionsandgeneralhappinesswithlife.
WhenviewingtheFacebookprofile,theparticipantwasnotpromptedtoimagine
thattheFacebookprofilebelongedtoaspecificpersonorspecifictypeof
relationship.AfterviewingtheFacebookpageparticipantswereaskedtocompletea
survey.Thesurveyincludedmeasuresofepisodicenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteem,
copingstrategiesandamountoftimespentonFacebookaswellasdemographic
variables(i.e.gender,age,income,andethnicity).
Thefirstquestion(RQ1)soughttodetermineifpositiveself-
disclosureonFacebookevokesenvy.Theresultsrevealedthatparticipantswere
envious.H1concernswhetherenvywouldbenegativelycorrelatedwithlife
satisfaction.ThishypothesiswassupportedandreplicatedKrasnovaetal.(2013)
findings.Resultsconfirmedthathigherlevelsofenvyareassociatedwithlower
39
levelsoflifesatisfaction.ItwasimportanttoreplicateKrasnovaetal.findingsas
theycompletedtheirstudyinGermanyandcommunicationstylescandiffergreatly
betweencountries.Envywasnegativelycorrelatedwithself-esteemandtimespent
onFacebook.Thisresearchsuggeststhatself-esteemisassociatedwithlessenvy
andthemoretimeandspentonFacebookisalsoassociatedwithlessenvy.
However,thefindingsregardingtimespentonFacebookareabitmoresurprising.
Initialthoughtswerethatduetothehighlevelsofenvy,anindividualwouldchoose
tolimitFacebookusage.PerhapstimespentonFacebookdesensitizesonetothe
positiveself-disclosurepostsandsubsequentlyoneexperienceslessenvy.
Regardless,moreresearchneedstobedonetoexamineexactlywhytimespenton
Facebookisnegativelycorrelatedwithenvy.
Next,thisstudyexaminedtherelationshipbetweenfeelingsofenvy(RQ2),
lifesatisfaction(RQ3),self-esteem(RQ4),timespentonFacebook(RQ5)andthe
fourcopingstrategies(deactivateones’ownFacebookpage,unfriendtheenvied
individual,hideheenviedindividualsFacebookprofile,andself-presentation).For
RQ2itisimportanttonotethattheepisodicenvyscalehastwocomponentstoit,a
feelingcomponentandacomparisoncomponent.Thefindingsshowthatfeeling
componentofenvypredicteddeactivationofaFacebookprofile.Thisfindingis
importanttothestudyofsocialcomparison,envyandFacebookbecauseitshows
thatwhenanindividualisenviousasaresultoftheirFacebookusetheymaychoose
toleavethesocialmediaplatform.ThisistroublingasmanypeopleuseFacebook
forthepurposeofsharinginformationwiththeirsocialcircle(Al-Saggaf&Nielsen,
2014).However,ifthissharingfunctionisalsocausingpeopletofeelthedesireto
40
leavethewebsiteitcouldcauseissuesforFacebook.Moreresearchisneededto
examinetheexacthabitsofthosewhodeactivatetheirFacebookpage.
Researchquestionthree,whichconcernedtherelationshipamonglife
satisfactionandthefourcopingstrategies,didnotyieldanysignificantfindings,
howevertheseresultscanbeexplainedbyKrossetal.(2013).Krossetal.
recognizedthatFacebookhadrevolutionizedhowpeopleinteractonline,but
wantedtounderstandhowFacebookusewouldeffectlifesatisfactionovertime.To
examinetheeffectsofFacebookonlifesatisfactionovertimetheresearchersuseda
laggedanalysisovera14-dayperiod.WhenKrossetal.(2013)examinedifaffect
well-being/lifesatisfactionpredictedFacebookuseitwasfoundthatpeopledonot
useFacebookmoreorlessbasedonlifesatisfaction.Therefore,anindividualwho
maybelesssatisfiedwithhisorherlifewillgenerallynotchangehowheorsheuses
Facebookbasedonleveloflifesatisfactionalone.ThefindingsofKrossetal.(2012)
helpexplainthefindingsofRQ3asperhapslifesatisfactionaloneisnotenoughto
influenceindividuals’decisiontoengageinoneofthefourcopingstrategies
discussedinthisresearch(Deactivateone’sownFacebookprofile,unfriendenvied
individual,hideenviedindividual’sFacebookprofile,andself-present).
Researchquestionfourexaminedtherelationshipbetweenself-esteemand
thelikelihoodanindividualwillengageinanyofthefourcopingstrategies.The
resultsrevealedthatself-esteemwasapredictorofhidinganindividualon
Facebook.Theseresultsareconsistentwithresearchconcerningself-esteemand
socialcomparisons.Lee(2014)suggeststhatsocialcomparisonswithindividuals
viewedonFacebookasdesirableleadtoadecreaseinself-esteem.Social
41
comparisonsarepresentinalmosteveryinteraction(Johnson,2012)andFacebook
hasmadeiteasiertointeractmorefrequently,withmorepeople(Lee,2012).The
findingfromRQ3supporttheliteratureonsocialcomparisonsandself-esteem,asit
wouldbenefitanindividualtotrytoeliminatethesituationsinwhichtheyare
comparingthemselveswithindividualstheyperceiveas“better”ormoredesirable.
InthecontextofFacebookasimplewaytoeliminatethosesocialcomparisons
wouldbetohidetheFacebookprofileofthatenviedindividual.
Researchquestionfiveexaminedtherelationshipbetweentimespenton
Facebookandthelikelihoodanindividualwillengageinanyofthefourcoping
strategies.ResultsrevealedthattheamountoftimespentonFacebookdoesnot
predictanyofthefourcopingstrategies.Thiscouldbeduetosocialdesirabilityand
theself-reportnatureofhowmanyhoursanindividualspendsonFacebook.Social
desirabilitystatesthatapersonwilldeliberatelymanipulatetheirpublicpersonain
ordertohidefaultsandexaggeratepositivequalities(Helmes&Holden,2003).The
issueofsocialdesirabilityistricky,asresearchhasfoundthatpeoplemayreport
inaccurateinformationwithoutbeingawareofitsinaccuracy(DeAndrea,Tong,
Liang,Levine,&Walther,2012;Miller,2012).Therefore,inthecontextofthis
research,participantswereaskedtoidentifyhowmanyhoursperdaytheyspenton
Facebook,andperhapsparticipantsalteredthenumberofhoursreportedbecause
theywantedtolookbetter.Itisalsopossiblethatparticipantssimplyreported
inaccurateinformationduetorecallerror.Thisstudyalsolookedatwhatvariable
orvariableswouldbeapredictorofthecopingstrategiesifallfourofthestrategies
werecombinedandexaminedcollectivelyasonevariable.Whenallofthecoping
42
strategiesaregroupedtogetheritwasfoundthatenvywastheonlypredictorof
copingstrategies.Thisresultconfirmedthatenvyisastrongpredictorofcoping
strategies.
Althoughpastresearchhasexaminedself-disclosure,socialcomparison,
envy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtheamountoftimespentonFacebook,this
researchisuniqueforacouplereasons.First,thisstudyisexaminingthesevariables
inthecontextofFacebookandnotinface-to-faceinteractions.Lookingatthese
variablesinthecontextofFacebookisimportantbecausethesocialnetworking
platformhasbecomeoneofthemostcommonplacesforindividualstointeractwith
others(Lee,2014).Secondallofthesevariableshavenotbeenstudiedcollectively
tofullyunderstandtherelationshiptheysharewitheachother.
UsingthefoundationthatKrasnovaetal.(2013)provided,thisstudy
contributestotheliteraturebyexamininghowenvyandself-esteemcontributeto
individuals’decisiontouseoneofthefourcopingstrategies.Theresultsofthis
studyareimportanttothefieldofcommunicationasthisstudyconfirmed,foran
Americansample,thatfeelingsofenvyevokedasaresultofviewingothers’positive
postsonFacebookisassociatedwithadecreaseinlifesatisfaction.Thisfindingis
importantbecausepriortothisstudytheknowledgesurroundingenvyonFacebook
andlifesatisfactionwasfromastudyconductedinGermany(Krasnovaetal.,2013).
However,duetoculturaldifferences,wecannotassumethatindividualsinGermany
feelthesamewayasindividualsinAmerica.ByconfirmingthatanAmericansample
alsoexperiencesadecreaseinlifesatisfactionitprovidesafoundationforthisstudy
andanyfutureresearchcompletedonthetopicofenvyandFacebook.
43
Thisstudyfillsafewgapsinthecurrentresearchonenvy,lifesatisfaction,
self-esteem,timespentonFacebookandcopingstrategies.Whiletherehasbeen
researchoncopingstrategiesinthefieldofcommunicationtherewasagapinthe
researchofhowpeoplecopedwiththestressorsofFacebook,specificallyenvy.
Therefore,thisstudyexaminedspecificcopingstrategiesthatanindividualmay
choosetousewhendealingwithnegativefeelings,suchasenvy,asaresultofusing
Facebook.Overall,fourcopingstrategieswereidentifiedandstudiedforthefirst
timeasoutcomevariables.
Second,thisstudyusedthelensofsocialcomparisontheorytoexaminethe
relationshipbetweenenvy,lifesatisfaction,self-esteemandtimespentonFacebook.
Understandinghowthesevariablesarerelatedtoeachotherwillhelpresearchers
betterunderstandtheissuesthatunderliehowindividualschoosetouseFacebook.
Theresultsforthisstudyareimportantfordevelopersandeditorsofsocialmedia
platforms.Theknowledgeofhowpeoplereacttosocialmediainformsusabouthow
farindividualsarewillingtogotoeliminatethosenegativefeelingsfromhisorher
life.DeactivatingFacebookmaybeenviewedasdrastic,however,thisstudyshows
thatpeoplearewillingtogotothesedrasticstepstoalleviatethestressthatenvy
cancause.
Overall,thisstudyfoundthatwhenindividualsarefacedwithfeelingsof
envyasaresultofpositiveself-disclosurepostsonFacebook,heorshealsofeels
lesssatisfiedwithlife.Envywasfoundtobeapredictorofdeactivatingones’
Facebookprofiletoeliminatethestressor.Additionallyitwasfoundthatenvywas
alsonegativelycorrelatedwithself-esteem.Further,self-esteemprovedtobea
44
predictorthatanindividualislikelytohidetheFacebookprofileoftheenvied
individual.Therefore,avoidingthestressor.Together,thefindingshighlightthe
importanceofexaminingtheeffectenvyevokedbysocialmediacanhaveon
individualsandhowheorshecopesinordertomaintainlifesatisfactionandselfesteem.
LimitationsandFutureResearch
Aswithanyresearchstudy,inadditiontothestrengthstherearealsosome
limitations.First,thisstudysampledmostlyundergraduatestudentsinintroductory
Communicationcourses.WhileFacebookisanimportanttoolforcollegestudents,
Facebookusersarecomprisedofallages.Therefore,itwouldbebeneficialto
replicatethisstudywithasamplethatbetterrepresentsthegeneralpopulationof
Facebookusers.Also,thissamplewascollectedfromaconvenientsampleof
studentsatthesameuniversityanditwouldbehelpfultoexaminethesevariables
witharandomsampleacrossdifferentuniversities.Thisstudycouldhavebeen
improvedbygatheringalargersampletoproducefindingsthataremore
generalizable.
Second,thisstudyexaminestherelationshipbetweenenvy,lifesatisfaction,
self-esteem,andtimespentusingthesocialnetworkingplatformofFacebook.
However,therearemanysocialnetworkingsitesthatcouldalsoevokeenvy(e.g.,
Twitter,Instagram,Snapchat,Pinterest,etc.).Therefore,whilethisstudyanswers
somequestionsitalsoraisesthequestionofgeneralizabilitytoothersocial
networkingplatforms.Therefore,futureresearchcouldusethisstudyasaguideline
toexamineifthefindingsaresimilaronothersocialmediaplatforms.Thisstudy
45
utilizedaFacebookpagedevelopedforthepurposeofthisstudyandwasgender
neutraltocontrolforgenderdifferences.However,futureresearchcouldbenefit
fromanexperimentthatincorporatesgender.Inadditiontonotidentifyinggender,
thisstudydoesnotidentifyiftheFacebookprofileviewedbelongedtoaclose
friend,familymember,lover,acquaintance,orstranger.Futureresearchshouldseek
todetermineifthereisdifferencesinhowenvyisexperiencedonlinerelatingtothe
variouscategoriesofrelationships.
Additionally,thisstudyreliedontheself-reportresponsesofthe
participants.Self-reportinghasbeenalimitationinmanyresearchstudies,
however,thereisoftennoalternativewaytogaintheinformationotherthansimply
askingtheparticipant.ForresearchonFacebookusingself-reportcanbe
particularlyproblematicasimprecisemeasurementcanskewhowFacebookuseis
relatedtotheoutcomes(Junco,2013).Specificallywhenexamininghowtheamount
oftimespentonFacebookitisimportanttocollectthemostpreciseinformation
possible.InastudybyJunco(2013)itwasshownexactlyhowdifferentthe
informationcanbebasedonself-reportandactualmonitoring.Studentsweregiven
asurveyinwhichtheywereaskedtheiraverageamountoftimespentonFacebook
daily.ParticipantsreportedanaverageFacebookusageof145minutesdaily,
however,afterthesurveyJuncoinstalledmonitoringsoftwareonalloftheir
Internetdevicesandfoundthatparticipantsspentonly26minutesperdayon
Facebook.Whileparticipantscouldhavechangedtheirbehaviorduetosocial
desirability,ortheknowledgetheywerebeingmonitored,theseresultsstillshow
thatthereisadiscrepancybetweenself-reportmeasuresandactualdata.Therefore,
46
inanexperimentalversionofthisstudystepsshouldbetakentoeliminateselfreporting,thiscouldbedonewithmonitoringsoftwareorotherobservation
techniques.
Finally,thisstudyonlyfocusesonepisodicenvy,whichisdescribedasa
feelingofenvytowardsoneparticularindividualoreventduetoonespecificsocial
comparison.Howeverenvycanalsobedispositional.Dispositionalenvyisdescribed
asatrait,orapredispositiontorespondinaconsistentfashion,regardlessofthe
situation(Duffyetal.,2012).Therefore,futureresearchshouldlookathowtrait
envycouldpotentiallyinfluencefeelingsofenvythatareevokedfromFacebook.
Additionally,thisraisesthequestion,“doindividualswhoexperienceepisodicenvy
asaresultofpositiveFacebookpostsengagesinasimilarstyleofcopingcompared
toindividualswhoexperiencedispositionalenvyandutilizesocialmediaplatforms
suchasFacebook?”Futureresearchshouldexaminethesimilaritiesanddifferences
betweenenvyevokedfromsocialmediaandthecopingstrategiesofindividuals
whoexperienceepisodicenvyversusdispositionalenvy.
47
ENDNOTES
1. Originaluseoftheepisodicenvyscaleusedratingscalesthatrangedfrom“not
characteristicatall”to“extremelycharacteristic”(Johar,2011;Khanetal.,2014).
2. OriginaluseoftheRosenbergSelf-EsteemScaleuseda4-pointratingscalethat
rangedfrom“stronglydisagree”to“stronglyagree”(Rosenberg,1965).
48
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APPENDICIES
59
APPENDIXA
FACEBOOKPROFILE
6
0
60
61
62
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APPENDIXB
EPISODICENVYSCALE
Usingthescale1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree),pleaseindicatehowyou
feeltowardtheindividualinthestatementabovethatyoujustread.
1. Ilacksomeofthethingsthatindividualhas.
2. Ifeelbitter.
3. Ifeelenvious.
4. Ihaveagrudge(resentment,bitterness)againstthatindividual.
5. Iwanttohavewhatthatindividualhas.
6. Thatindividualhasthingsgoingbetterforhim/herthanIdo.
7. Ifeelannoyed.
8. Ifeelsomehatredtowardthatindividual.
9. Ifeelrancor(illwill)towardthatindividual.
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APPENDIXC
LIFESATISFACTIONSCALE
Beloware5statementswithwhichyoumayagreeordisagree.Usingthescale1
(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree)indicateyouragreementwitheachofthe
followingitems.
1. Inmostwaysmylifeisclosetoideal.
2. Theconditionsofmylifeareexcellent.
3. Iamsatisfiedwithmylife.
4. SofarIhavegottentheimportantthingsIwantinlife.
5. IfIcouldlivemylifeover,Iwouldchangealmostnothing.
65
APPENDIXD
COPINGWITHENVY
WhenfacedwithfeelingsofenvyonFacebookevokedfromviewingpositiveposts
pleaseindicatedusingthescale1(notlikely)to5(verylikely),thelikelihoodthat
youwill:
1. DeactivateyourFacebookaccount.
2. UnfriendtheindividualonFacebook.
3. HidetheFacebookprofileoftheindividualsharingthepositiveposts.
4. IncreasetheamountofpositivepostsyoumakeonyourownFacebook
profile.
5. Other,pleaseexplain____________________________________________________________
66