FIRST EDITION
Writing
FOR ALL
ELLEN HERNANDEZ
Camden County College
Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher
Kassie Graves, Director of Acquisitions
Jamie Giganti, Senior Managing Editor
Jess Estrella, Senior Graphic Designer
Mieka Porter, Senior Acquisitions Editor
Sean Adams, Project Editor
Luiz Ferreira, Senior Licensing Specialist
Claire Yee, Interior Designer
Copyright © 2017 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted,
reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Cover image copyright© Depositphotos/Wavebreakmedia.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 978-1-63487-741-1 (pbk) / 978-1-63487-742-8 (br)
Contents
UNIT 1. Planning And Drafting Essays Chapter 1. Purpose, Audience, and Voice
2
5
Chapter 2. Writing as a Process
13
Chapter 3. Essay Structure and Thesis Statements
21
Chapter 4. Introductions, Support, and Conclusions
33
Chapter 5. Organization and Connection
45
UNIT 2. Developing, Organizing,
And Revising Essays PART 1. WRITING TO SHARE AN EXPERIENCE
54
58
Chapter 6. Sharing an Experience through Narration
61
Chapter 7. Sharing an Experience through Description
69
PART 2. WRITING TO INFORM
78
Chapter 8. Informing through Exemplification
81
Chapter 9. Informing through Process 89
Chapter 10. Informing through Definition
97
PART 3. WRITING TO ANALYZE
Chapter 11. Analyzing Causes and Effects
106
107
Chapter 12. Analyzing with Comparison and Contrast
117
Chapter 13. Analyzing through Classification
127
PART 4. WRITING TO ARGUE AND PERSUADE
Chapter 14. Argument
UNIT 3. Editing Essays
136
139
148
PART 1. SENTENCES152
Chapter 15. Sentence Structure
153
Chapter 16. Sentence Variety 159
Chapter 17. Parallelism 167
Chapter 18. Fragments
171
Chapter 19. Run-ons
177
PART 2. USAGE184
Chapter 20. Verb Tense 185
Chapter 21. Verb Agreement
193
Chapter 22. Pronoun Usage
197
Chapter 23. Pronoun Agreement 203
Chapter 24. Modifiers
207
Chapter 25. Word Choice
215
PART 3. MECHANICS222
Chapter 26. Spelling
223
Chapter 27. Capitalization, Numbers, and Abbreviations
235
Chapter 28. Punctuation
241
UNIT 4. Presenting Essays250
Chapter 29. Timed Writing
253
Chapter 30. Research Writing
265
Chapter 31. Portfolio Writing
285
Acknowledgments
This textbook was created with the help and support of so many, without whom
I would not have been able to complete the work while also teaching full time.
First, I must acknowledge my students who allowed me to contribute their writing; their generosity was much appreciated. To all my thousands of students
over the past thirty years, I extend my gratitude for all they’ve taught me.
I also acknowledge and thank my colleagues at Camden County College,
whose teaching has inspired me over these many years and whose support
on this particular endeavor was essential. I especially offer my thanks to Dr.
Donna Armstrong, Dr. Kelly Jackson, and Dr. John Pesda, all of whom gave me
insights that allowed me to puzzle through writing problems and each of whom
lifted my spirits and cheered me on.
Finally, I offer my sincere appreciation to my friends and family, for whom
words are inadequate to express what their love and support has meant to
me, to my life, and to my career. They all helped me continue to write past
exhaustion with their words of encouragement. Most of all, my daughter, Mia,
reminded me of what it is like to be a student, and my husband, Richard, never
failed to believe in me. Lastly, my parents, Peter and Mary Ann Popolizio, who
had the good sense to send me to college, gave me unconditional love and
praise in all that I have ever done. I dedicate this book to them.
Unit 1
PLANNING
AND
DRAFTING
ESSAYS
STARTING POINT:
WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW
• Thousands of English words and basic sentence components
• How to communicate using spoken English
• How to make an oral statement and support it with examples
A
ll of us have felt frustrated at one time or another about a
writing assignment. Maybe you have had more than one
experience of submitting a less-than-satisfactory paper
and getting it back with a less-than-satisfactory grade. Enough
of these types of experiences can undermine your confidence.
Maybe you think of yourself as someone who is “not good at writing,” or you have said that English is not your best subject.
On the other hand, you might be the kind of student who loves
to read and likes to write for personal pleasure but who has not
been able to write the “A paper” you desire for school. For you,
that high grade seems elusive, and you have yet to learn what to
do to earn it.
This book will show you how to become a better writer, step by
step. In this unit, you will be introduced to some basic ideas and
strategies that will help build your confidence with college writing
assignments and show you how to write a basic, multi-paragraph
response to a topic.
3
Chapter 1
PURPOSE, AUDIENCE,
AND VOICE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand what will be expected of you in college writing
• Recognize the difference between informal and academic
versions of English
• Understand the relationship between purpose and audience
in your writing
5
6 Writing for All
Knowing What to Expect in College Writing
Effective written communication is one of the most important skills to master in college. Beyond that, the ability to clearly express your ideas in writing is essential for
most jobs. For a few people, writing feels natural and easy. Everyone else, though,
develops this skill over time.
The kind of writing you are expected to do in college might not be something
you are accustomed to. The language styles used in academic writing are unlike the
informal styles people use in spoken and casual communications (such as e-mail,
Twitter, and text messages). But, if you learn some basic techniques of stating and
organizing ideas and practice “switching” from an informal version of English into
the formal version needed for college writing assignments (see Figure 1.1), you will
produce strong papers.
FIGURE 1.1: Expectations for College Writing
State your
ideas
Organize your
statements
Use formal
language
Finding Your Academic Voice
You have your own way of speaking that has developed over time. You use different versions of English depending on your situation. You might use one version
with your friends, a different one with your parents, and another one with your
teachers or boss. If you express yourself clearly to your listener, then the version
you use is appropriate, but more formal versions will tend to impress a person in
authority.
Generally, when you communicate with your peers, you use what is known as
informal language—in other words, casual speech. “See ya!” or “How’s it goin’?” are
7
Purpose, Audience, and Voice examples of informal language (see Table 1.1). Several factors—including the way
people in your family, your neighborhood, and your region speak; the way you hear
people speak on television, on the radio, and in films; and the way we communicate
when we text, tweet, or post comments online—contribute to the development of
informal language. These factors affect our word choice, phrasing, and sentence
construction both when we speak and when we write.
TABLE 1.1: Examples of Informal English
Examples of
Informal
English
c u in bio @ 10 (text message)
Let’s get together for lunch, when are you free? (email)
Whatcha get on the test? I aced it. (casual conversation)
As a student or a professional, you will be expected to use more formal language
in your writing. Using formal language requires that you:
• Use accepted conventions of capitalization, spelling, and punctuation;
• Complete your sentences and vary your sentence construction;
• Use correct forms of sentence parts (parts of speech, such as verbs).
Almost all college writing requires some version of formal language—referred
to as Academic English: lab reports, critical essays, research papers, to name a
few (see example below). Not only will your readers expect you to use it, but they
will also want you to clarify technical words about a topic with which they may be
unfamiliar. For example, while many people are familiar with smart phones, not all
people know the way one works. Therefore, if writing about the advantages of one,
make sure you define terms like apps and pixels.
Academic writing changes over time, too; what was once considered unacceptable may now be considered acceptable—for instance, using personal experiences
in your writing. However, words commonly used in casual speech (such as, see
ya or gonna) are still not considered formal enough for most academic papers.
Likewise, the second-person pronoun point of view (you, your, yours) is considered only appropriate for papers that give directions or instructions or for letters.
Practice “switching” to an academic version of English when you write. For
example, instead of writing, “C u in bio @ 10,” you could write, “I will see you in
biology class at 10:00 Monday morning.” Do you see the difference? The more you
practice writing formally, the more comfortable you will feel writing this way and
developing your academic voice, meaning your formal manner of speaking and
writing.
8 Writing for All
Example of Academic English
I chose to attend a community college rather than a private university based on
several factors. Community college costs substantially less than a university.
Costs at a community college can usually be covered completely with the right
amount of financial assistance, whereas universities require student loans that
might take a person many years to pay back. Before students apply to schools,
they must first assess the costs they will incur …
(Michael Z., Essay Excerpt)
Practice 1.1—Using Academic English
Directions: Rewrite the sentence below using more formal words. If you need help
finding new words, use a thesaurus (in a book, in MS Word, or in a dictionary app).
• I hate to break it to you, but you got to read tons of books in college.
What Are Purpose and Audience?
Most of your college writing assignments will require that you submit formal
papers for a grade. Many instructors will choose the topic for you, or they might
ask that you submit your own for their approval. Make sure you understand what
your instructor expects of you in terms of length and content before you begin.
It also helps to know your audience (to whom you are writing) and your purpose
(why you are writing). As you begin to write, ask some fundamental questions to
determine these:
• Who will read this? What do I want that reader to know or think about?
• What do I know about my readers? What is their point of view on my topic?
• What information do my readers need, and how should I present it to them?
Understand Your Purpose in Academic Writing. Every piece of writing has a purpose, the writer’s reason or intention for creating it. The purpose is what the piece
will be used for and what the writer wants the reader to get from it. Regardless of
whether we write for ourselves or others, informally or formally, we should always
be mindful of why we are writing. For example, let’s say you were scheduled to
meet your friend for lunch at 12:30 p.m., but you got caught in traffic or the train
broke down. You would send your friend a message to inform him or her that you
9
Purpose, Audience, and Voice are running late. Your purpose would be to inform. Here are four common purposes
for college writing:
• To share an experience—tell a story or help to visualize a scene or object.
• To inform—illustrate with examples, explain a process, or define qualities of
an item.
• To analyze—examine the similarities or differences between items, the reasons
leading up to an event, the results of an action, or how something functions
and why.
• To argue—defend a point of view on an issue or urge people to act.
Once you determine your purpose, you will decide what information you need to
include, what point you want to get across to your readers, and how you want your
readers to respond. This will help you organize your writing to achieve your purpose
and convey your message clearly. The following sample was written in response to
an assignment to define the character traits of responsible workers. Its purpose is to
inform the reader about responsibility in the work place.
Sample Writing for a Specific Purpose: Responsible Employees
Responsible employees should be good team workers. A lot of businesses
have a lot of team projects. If each employee does not do his or her part on
a team project, it will prevent other members of the team from completing
their jobs. In most all projects for software engineers, for example, employees
must function as a team. They might have the task of creating a billing system
for cell phones, which is a large piece of software. It requires several people
to work on it. Each member of the team gets a part of the project software to
program. If one member does not cooperate, then the whole project will be
jeopardized.
(Roman H., Essay Excerpt)
Practice 1.2—Identifying a Specific Purpose
Directions: Read the sentences below and answer the question that follows.
I was sixteen when I tried sushi for the first time. I was immediately in love; I had never
tasted anything so exotic up to this point in my life. Dragon rolls, eel rolls, and spicy
tuna rolls were all just so good, causing my taste buds to erupt.
(Michael R.)
10 Writing for All
What is the purpose of these sentences? (Choose one.)
A. To share an experience about eating sushi
B. To inform the reader about what sushi is
C. To analyze the different types of sushi
D. To argue in favor of eating sushi
Know Your Audience. Every piece of writing also has an audience, its targeted
reader(s). The audience can be exclusively the writer or one or more other people (a
teacher, classmates, parent, friend, community members, employer, or admissions
committee, for instance). Whether you are writing for yourself or for others, knowing your audience affects the decisions you make about your writing.
Consider the relationship between you and your audience; this relationship will
help you decide how to convey your purpose. For example, let’s say that you want
to inform someone that you are going to miss class one evening. If you want to
share this information with a friend, you might just send a casual message and
use informal language. If you want to share this information with your professor,
you are more likely to send a detailed e-mail using formal language. In the sample
below, the writer expects that the reader can relate to having a job (so a term like
“minimum wage” does not have to be explained), but still the writer uses formal
language to be taken seriously.
Sample Writing for a Specific Audience: My Worst Job
I would advise anyone thinking about working at Burger King to think again.
My first job as a cook and cashier there when I was in high school was one of
the worst jobs I ever had. In the first place, the pay was too low. The company
only offered minimum wage, and there was no opportunity for overtime pay.
Secondly, the work environment was terrible. At busy times, there was a lot of
pressure to fill the orders fast. The kitchen was hot despite the air conditioning.
Also, at the end of every shift, my hair, skin, and uniform always smelled like
grease. Worst of all, though, was that it was a completely degrading job. My
ten-minute training consisted of a quick tour of the kitchen and a one-time
demonstration of how to assemble a Whopper—so I often felt confused when
I was given new tasks. In addition, as one of the less senior employees, I would
be given the most unappealing tasks, the ones no one else wanted to do,
like cleaning the bathroom or taking out the trash. Finally, not only would my
manager, Diane, bark orders at me and criticize me but when winter arrived,
she called me into her office at the start of my shift to say, “Due to the winter
slow-up, we’re letting some of the newer people go, and you’re one of them.”
That was when I decided to go to college.
Purpose, Audience, and Voice 11
Practice 1.3—Understanding Audience
Directions: Read the sample below and answer the questions that follow it.
My best friend and I wandered uptown to visit the Mutter Museum of Medical
Oddities. The museum included a wall of actual human skulls, ranging from war
casualties to murder victims. These showed a variety of head injuries. It was an odd
but most certainly educational experience.
(Ryan C.)
1. What item is explained in additional detail? How does that detail help the
reader?
2. Finish this sentence: “The audience is people who are interested in … but
have never visited …”
Knowing your purpose and understanding the people who make up your audience will guide the decisions you make about your writing.
FIGURE 1.2: Preparing to Write
Know your purpose
Know your audience
Adjust your language
Chapter 1 Review
• Effective writing is one of the most important skills for college, and it takes
practice.
• Use formal language instead of casual speech for most college writing.
• This formal language is also referred to as Academic English.
• Practice writing in Academic English to develop your academic voice—your
formal manner of speaking and writing.
• Your purpose is why you are writing, what the writing will be used for, and what
you want the reader to get from it.
• To share an experience (tell a story, describe a scene or object)
• To inform (give examples, explain a process, define an item’s qualities)
• To analyze (examine similarities and differences or reasons and results)
• To argue (defend your point of view on an issue)
• Every piece of writing also has an audience, its targeted reader(s). How much
the reader knows about the subject determines what details will be included.
Chapter 2
WRITING AS A PROCESS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the stages of the writing process
• Be able to use prewriting techniques to develop ideas for
an essay
• Arrange ideas into an organized plan for writing
13
14 Writing for All
Viewing Writing as a Process
Think about how you write. What do you do when given an assignment? When
you start to write, do you have a plan? Do you tend to write down the first ideas
that come to mind and then just add sentences later to fill up the page? When you
submit your paper to an instructor, does he or she usually return it with comments
like “too general” or “too vague”? If so, a better approach would be to take time to
think about your ideas, plan how to arrange those ideas, and then build up slowly
to compose an actual first draft. These are just the first few stages of an entire
writing process.
If you learn to view writing as a process—a series of specific stages—the quality
of your papers will improve, and you will feel more confident about writing. The
writing process comprises a series of stages that include generating ideas and planning how to organize those ideas to achieve a specific purpose. This process can be
separated into five distinct stages (see Figure 2.1).
FIGURE 2.1: Writing Process Map
Prewriting
Composing
Revising
Editing
Presenting
Prewriting Techniques
Before beginning to compose sentences about your topic (the subject of your
writing), you need to spend some time narrowing it down, gathering your ideas,
and thinking about how best to express them. This is the prewriting stage.
Conversations like the one at the start of this chapter can be the beginning of
prewriting. Several prewriting techniques can also help you develop your topic
more fully; which technique you use depends on how much time you have and
what works best for your learning style. Try all of them at first to see which ones
you prefer.
Freewriting. Freewriting is a technique for getting started when planning a
paper. This allows you to get ideas on the page, sometimes before you forget
them! When you freewrite, you write continuously for a set period of time on
a particular subject. You might go off track, but you usually end up with many
ideas you can use to begin your writing assignment (see sample on next page).
Freewriting creates a stream of ideas, and since it is only meant to be read by
you, the fact that your sentences might not be complete or might not be properly
punctuated does not matter. The freewriting will not be in the final paper you
submit.
Writing as a Process 15
Sample Freewriting: Overcoming an Obstacle
I haven’t really had too many obstacles so far in my life. I am worried about
my future but that’s why I’m going to school. I don’t know what I want to do
yet so I’m living at home for a few years and taking classes at community
college until I decide. Then I can work and save my money too. My parents
are helping me pay for it. I’m lucky to have 2 supportive parents who r still
together cuz some of my friends have had to deal with their parents getting
divorced and my one friend’s mother even passed away from cancer. I can say
that I really feel lucky not having dealt with that kind of stuff in my life. I hope
college is going to be better than high school. I liked some of my high school
teachers but I used to get bored a lot n stare out the window or write notes
to my friends. The best class was driver’s ed because the teacher was so cool
and I could hang out with my friends and talk. The teacher didn’t mind if we
made jokes and laughed as long as we didn’t let it get too out of hand. At first,
I wasn’t very good at it, but Mrs. Reid was very patient if it wasn’t for her I don’t
know if I would of gotten my license, at least not on the first try.
Practice 2.1—Using Freewriting
Directions: Freewrite for five minutes about a time you overcame an obstacle.
Brainstorming. Another way to explore a topic is by brainstorming—listing as
many related ideas as possible. In the sample brainstorming below, the writer has
gone into more depth on the topic by making a list of his ideas, adding details about
the experience. He included everything that came to mind even if it will not be used
later. Brainstorming can follow freewriting or be a starting point itself.
Sample Brainstorming: Overcoming an Obstacle
school
high school
college friends driver’s ed
driving getting a license parallel parking turning 3-point turns buying my first car
knowing the signs speeding
highway driving
studying for the written test
practicing
passing the road test
taking my parents’ car out alone
driving my sister to the mall
almost hitting a mailbox
icy roads
16 Writing for All
Practice 2.2—Using Brainstorming
Directions: Brainstorm a list of words and phrases about a time you overcame an
obstacle. Keep going until you cannot think of anything more about that time.
Clustering. You can sort and group ideas with clustering—a prewriting technique
that helps you to arrange your ideas in a visual manner. Clustering helps you to see
how ideas connect. In the cluster diagram on this page, the student has arranged
his ideas into related groups: tests, driver’s education, practicing, and getting into
trouble. He chose not to include items like school and details like buying my first
car either because they are too general or they are not related to any of the four
groups.
Sample Clustering: Learning to Drive
Practicing
Getting into trouble
• Highway driving
• Icy roads
Driver's Ed
• Turns
• Parking
• Mailbox
• Speeding
Learning
to drive
Tests
• Written
• Road
Practice 2.3—Using Clustering
Directions: Create a cluster diagram about a time you overcame an obstacle. Put
your topic in the center of the diagram and group related ideas into boxes branching
off of it.
Outlining. Composing is easier if you work from a written plan. An outline is a
blueprint of the ideas you want to include in the way you want to arrange them. In a
formal outline, ideas are developed with details. There must be separate sections for
each part of the paper (introduction, support, and conclusion) and the “big” ideas
must be further explained with more specific details (see sample outline on the next
page).
Writing as a Process 17
Sample Formal Outline: Learning to Drive
I. Introduction
A. I couldn’t wait to get my license. It took more work than I expected.
B. Getting my driver’s license required me to do several things.
II. Supporting Idea 1
A. First, I had to pass two tests both written and road.
B. I studied the handbook for months.
1. There were a lot of rules and regulations to learn.
2. I was nervous when I was waiting for the test to be scored.
C. I knew I would have to pass a road test.
1. I felt confident about parking and turning as the day approached.
III. Supporting Idea 2
A. In preparation, I learned several techniques in a driver’s ed class.
B. I had to learn how to respond to different kinds of signs.
1. Stop, yield, curves ahead
C. I also had to master turns and signaling.
2. K-turn, U-turn, left and right signals, pulling over, curb parking
IV. Supporting Idea 3
A. Finally, I had to practice as much as possible.
B. My family helped me as much as they could.
1. My mom let me drive her around to do errands.
2. My dad took me out on the highway and helped me stay calm.
3. My sister asked me to drive her to the mall several times.
V. Conclusion
A. Everything I did helped me pass my tests and get my license.
If pressed for time, as with a timed writing assignment, you can make a quick,
“scratch” outline of the most important idea you want to state about your topic and
the main areas you plan to write about to explain the topic (see sample on the next
page).
18 Writing for All
Practice 2.4—Making an Outline
Sample “Scratch” Outline: Learning to Drive
Getting my driver’s license required me to do several things.
1. Had to pass two tests—written and road
2. Learned techniques in driver’s ed—signs, turns, signaling
3. Practiced—mom on errands, dad on highway, sister to mall
Directions: Arrange your ideas about a time you overcame an obstacle into a
“scratch” outline. State your most important idea in a sentence at the top. Then, list
three areas you would use to explain and describe that experience.
Composing Stage
In the composing stage you create a first draft, or version, of your work. You put your
ideas into sentence form organized into a paper with a definite beginning, middle,
and end. This is not the time to be concerned with sentence “correctness,” punctuation, spelling, or paper format. The key is to write out your ideas.
When you write a paper off the top of your head, getting your thoughts onto the
page and reviewing them later, you might find that you get stuck trying to think of
additional ideas or that you have difficulty organizing your thoughts. Students who
take the time to think about and plan out their ideas before composing find that this
stage goes more smoothly.
Revising Stage
During this revising stage of the writing process, you make changes to the content and
organization (see Figure 2.2). You analyze your writing with a critical eye, “revisiting”
your draft to evaluate whether your sentences are communicating what you want them
to communicate; it also means adding to, omitting, or changing sentences as needed.
The revision stage is the ideal time for you to share your writing with another
person in order to know whether more revising needs to be done. Sometimes it is
difficult to truly see or hear what is actually written—after all, writing is personal.
Another set of eyes can offer a a fresh perspective and identify gaps in information
that you might not notice on your own.
Writing as a Process 19
FIGURE 2.2: Steps in Revising
Delete ideas
that go off
track or
repeat
Add missing
ideas that
make things
clearer
Rewrite or
combine
sentences
Put ideas in
a logical
order
Add
connections
for a smooth
flow
Editing Stage
Editing is not the same as revising. Editing means rereading the entire piece of
writing, checking for sentence errors (proofreading), and fixing them. You must make
sure that sentences are complete and parts of speech are used correctly. You check
that you have followed standard conventions of spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Fortunately, you can use computer tools to help you edit.
Presenting Your Work
All other stages—prewriting, composing, revising, and editing—lead to the presentation of a final copy of your writing to one or more readers. Not everything you
write is meant to be read by someone else, but you should expect to share most
of your writing for this course with your teacher and classmates for feedback and
suggestions for improvement. Take care to create a clear, organized, detailed, and
correct final version of your writing. An old saying is that a piece of writing is never
really “done” just “due.” This means that you can keep working on it and perfecting
it, but eventually you have to turn it in. Be open to suggestions, but once you have
submitted a piece of writing, set it aside and move on.
Chapter 2 Review
• Using the stages of the Writing Process will improve your writing and confidence.
• Prewriting—narrowing and developing ideas about a topic: free writing,
brainstorming, clustering, and outlining.
• Composing—creating a first draft in sentence and paragraph form.
• Revising—changing the content and organization by re-evaluating whether your sentences are communicating what you want them to in a clear,
organized way.
20 Writing for All
• Editing—checking for sentence errors and fixing them to prepare your
final draft.
• Presentation—submitting a final copy of your writing to one or more
readers.
Chapter 2 Review Activity:
Exploring a Topic through Prewriting
Directions: Choose one of the prewriting techniques below to write about an experience you had that left a significant impression on you.
Brainstorm a list of ideas
Create a cluster diagram
Freewrite on the topic
Write each idea on a Post-it
note. On a separate piece of
paper, arrange the Post-its in
columns of related ideas.
Write the topic in a circle
in the center of a page.
Draw lines branching out
from the center circle to
boxes with each major
idea related to the topic.
Fill the space around
each of these boxes with
specific details.
Freewrite
about
the
topic for five minutes.
Read your writing back
to yourself. Pick out a
phrase and rewrite it on
another page and then
freewrite on that topic for
another five minutes and
read it to someone else.