Cardiff School of Sport
DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT
PROFORMA:
Empirical
Student name:
Programme:
Lewis Edward Jones
Student ID:
ST20001717
SPE
Dissertation title:
The influence of extracurricular after school club physical activity
on health related fitness levels in year nine children.
Supervisor:
Anwen Rees
Comments
Section
Title and Abstract (5%)
Title to include: A concise indication of the research question/problem.
Abstract to include: A concise summary of the empirical study undertaken.
Introduction and literature review (25%)
To include: outline of context (theoretical/conceptual/applied) for the question; analysis of
findings of previous related research including gaps in the literature and relevant
contributions; logical flow to, and clear presentation of the research problem/ question; an
indication of any research expectations, (i.e., hypotheses if applicable).
Methods and Research Design (15%)
To include: details of the research design and justification for the methods applied;
participant details; comprehensive replicable protocol.
Results and Analysis (15%) 2
To include: description and justification of data treatment/ data analysis procedures;
appropriate presentation of analysed data within text and in tables or figures; description of
critical findings.
Discussion and Conclusions (30%) 1
To include: collation of information and ideas and evaluation of those ideas relative to the
extant literature/concept/theory and research question/problem; adoption of a personal
position on the study by linking and combining different elements of the data reported;
discussion of the real-life impact of your research findings for coaches and/or practitioners
(i.e. practical implications); discussion of the limitations and a critical reflection of the
approach/process adopted; and indication of potential improvements and future
developments building on the study; and a conclusion which summarises the relationship
between the research question and the major findings.
Presentation (10%)
To include: academic writing style; depth, scope and accuracy of referencing in the text and
final reference list; clarity in organisation, formatting and visual presentation
1
There is scope within qualitative dissertations for the RESULTS and DISCUSSION sections to be presented as a
combined section followed by an appropriate CONCLUSION. The mark distribution and criteria across these two sections
should be aggregated in those circumstances.
CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)
SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
2013-4
‘THE INFLUENCE OF EXTRACURRICULAR AFTER SCHOOL
CLUB PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE HEALTH RELATED
FITNESS LEVELS IN YEAR NINE CHILDREN.’
(Dissertation submitted under the discipline of
PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH)
LEWIS EDWARD JONES
ST20001717
‘THE INFLUENCE OF EXTRACURRICULAR AFTER SCHOOL
CLUB PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE HEALTH RELATED
FITNESS LEVELS IN YEAR NINE CHILDREN.’
CARDIFF METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
Cardiff Metropolitan University
Prifysgol Fetropolitan Caerdydd
Certificate of student
By submitting this document, I certify that the whole of this work is the result of my
individual effort, that all quotations from books and journals have been acknowledged, and
that the word count given below is a true and accurate record of the words contained
(omitting contents pages, acknowledgements, indices, tables, figures, plates, reference list
and appendices).
Word count:
11,852
Name:
Lewis Edward Jones
Date:
21/03/2014
Certificate of Dissertation Supervisor responsible
I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own effort.
I have received dissertation verification information from this student
Name:
Date:
Notes:
The University owns the right to reprint all or part of this document.
Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………...
i
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………...
ii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..
1
1.0
Introduction………………………………………………………………………
2
1.1
Research Hypothesis…………………………………………………………...
4
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………
5
2.0
Literature Review………………………………………………………………..
6
2.1
Physical Activity and Exercise…………………………………………………
6
2.2
Obesity……………………………………………………………………………
8
2.3
Health Related Fitness/ Physical Activity Interventions
9
2.4
An increase in Children’s resting Heart Rate and BMI levels………………
16
2.5
Physical activity levels within Children………………………………………..
17
CHAPTER THREE
Methods……………………………………………………………………………………….
18
3.0
Methods…………………………………………………………………………..
19
3.1
Recruitment and Preparation…………………………………………………..
19
3.2
Ethical Considerations………………………………………………………….
20
3.3
Physical Activity Questionnaire………………………………………………..
20
3.4
Pre-fitness testing preparation…………………………………………………
21
3.5
Testing Procedures……………………………………………………………..
21
3.6
Anthropometric assessment……………………………………………………
22
3.7
Field Tests……………………………………………………………………….
23
3.7.1
Hand-grip Strength (Muscular Strength)……………………………………...
23
3.7.2
Sit & Reach (Flexibility)…………………………………………………………
24
3.7.3
Sit-up Test (Muscular Endurance)…………………………………………….
24
3.7.4
Cooper Run (Aerobic/Cardiovascular Fitness)………………………………
25
3.8
Statistical Analysis………………………………………………………………
26
CHAPTER FOUR
Results………………………………………………………………………………………...
27
4.0
Results……………………………………………………………………………
28
4.1
Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………………
28
4.2.1
Anthropometric Data- Height and Weight…………………………………….
29
4.2.2
Anthropometric data- Body Mass Index………………………………………
30
4.3
Health Related Fitness………………………………………………………….
31
4.3.1
Aerobic Fitness (cooper run)…………………………………………………..
31
4.2.2
Flexibility………………………………………………………………………….
31
4.3.3
Muscular Strength……………………………………………………………….
31
4.3.4
Muscular Endurance……………………………………………………………
33
4.4
Physical activity levels………………………………………………………….
34
4.5
Correlations………………………………………………………………………
35
4.5.1.
Correlation results between gender or after school club physical activity
attendance/non-attendance and health related fitness components………
4.5.2
35
Correlation results between all anthropometric measures/health related
fitness components……………………………………………………………..
35
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………
36
5.0
Discussion………………………………………………………………………..
37
5.1
Physical activity levels………………………………………………………….
37
5.2.1
Anthropometric Data- Height and Weight…………………………………….
37
5.2.2
Anthropometric Data- Body Mass Index (BMI)………………………………
39
5.3
Health Related Fitness………………………………………………………….
40
5.3.1
Aerobic Fitness (Cooper Run)…………………………………………………
40
5.3.2
Flexibility………………………………………………………………………….
42
5.3.3
Muscular Strength……………………………………………………………….
43
5.3.4
Muscular Endurance……………………………………………………………
44
5.4
Strengths and Limitations of the study………………………………………..
45
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………
47
6.0
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….
48
6.1
Areas for future research……………………………………………………….
49
6.2
Recommendations for applied Practise………………………………………
49
References……………………………………………………………………………………
50
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………......
61
Appendix A -
Letter to Head Teacher Requesting School Assent.
Appendix B -
Participant Assent Form.
Appendix C -
Participant Information Sheet.
Appendix D -
Parent Consent Form.
Appendix E -
Parent Information Sheet.
Appendix F -
Physical Activity Questionnaire.
Appendix G -
Participant Data Collection Sheet (Girls).
Appendix H -
Participant Data Collection Sheet (Boys).
Appendix I -
Weight Data Collection Sheet.
Appendix J -
Cooper Run Data Collection Sheet.
Appendix K -
Correlation Test Results.
Appendix L -
Ethics Approval Letter.
Appendix M -
Ethics Application Form.
List of Tables
Table
1
Page
A critique of two interventions which both assess the influence of physical
activity on children’s BMI levels…………………………………………………
2
A critique of numerous interventions which all assess the influence of
physical activity on various health related fitness levels in children………...
3
23
Distances to categorise levels of performance in the cooper run between
males and females.……………………………………………………………….
5
12
Body Mass Index values for Males and Females between 13 and 14.5
years of age categorising overweight and obese BMI values.………………
4
11
25
Six independent T-test comparisons which were completed between the
four gender/attendance classification groups to distinguish where the
significant difference lay between all groups.………………………………….
6
Descriptive analysis of participants within the study showing mean ± SD
results………………………………………………………………………………
7
32
A two-way annova comparison between Gender and ASC attendance*
compared with participants health related levels……………………………...
10
29
Independent T-test analysis results between different genders and
participation levels compared with muscular strength………………………..
9
28
Descriptive analysis showing results for each attendance classification
group presented as mean ± SD results………………………………………...
8
26
33
Total metres and SD results from the cooper run in relation to
gender/attendance classification group with comparison to average
distances categorised by Mackenzie (1997)…………………………………..
41
List of Figures
Figure
1
Page
The percentage of participants who fall into each individual BMI weight
category in accordance with regular after school activity attendance/nonattendance…………………………………………………………………………
2
A comparison of mean muscular strength results between different
genders/attendance classifications……………………………………………..
3
30
32
Percentage of participants from the whole sample and of both genders
categorising the percentage of participants who fall into each hour
category……………………………………………………………………………
34
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation to Dr Anwen Rees for all the guidance she has
given me throughout the course of the dissertation project.
I also would like to thank the participants from The Corsham School for their participation in
the study, and also the Physical Education teachers for their support and assistants.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents and brother for their support, guidance and advice
throughout my dissertation, and the boys of 42 Claude for their constant support and for
making my university experience one to remember.
i
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the impact that after school club physical activity has on
year nine children’s health related fitness levels. Research was undertaken in a large
comprehensive school within Wiltshire, England. The sample comprised of 41 year nine
students of mixed academic and physical ability (males, n = 21; females, n = 20) with a
mean age of 13.9 ± 0.3 SD years. Participants completed a physical activity questionnaire
which examined the total hours of after school club physical activity that participants
regularly undertake. Regular attendance in after school club physical activity was
categorised at (≥2 hrs/wk) and non-attendance was categorised at (<2 hrs/wk). The
following health related fitness components were tested: body mass index (BMI) (weight x
height²), muscular strength (hand-grip strength), muscular endurance (timed sit ups),
aerobic fitness (cooper run) and flexibility (sit and reach). Comparisons were made between
participants who regularly attended after school club physical activity and participants who
did not regularly attend after school club physical activity in relation to the health related
fitness test results. Anthropometric results established that non-attendance participants
were significantly taller and heavier than attendance participants (p<0.05). Health related
fitness results demonstrate that attendance participants had significantly better flexibility
than non-attendance participants (p<0.05). However, all other components of health related
fitness showed no significant differences between the two attendance classifications
(p>0.05). Overall, the study demonstrated trends establishing that the health related fitness
levels were greater in attendance participants in comparison with non-attendance
participants.
ii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
1.0 Introduction
There is a significant global concern relating to the rising prevalence of childhood obesity
(Lobstein et al., 2004). Numerous long-term health problems are associated with childhood
obesity, including progressive morbidities during early adulthood such as: type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular disease and neurological, gastrointestinal, psychological and social
disorders (Lloyd et al., 2010; Lobstein et al., 2004). All morbidities highlighted have a
positive association with earlier mortality rates (Baker et al., 2007).
A major factor
associated with obesity is low physical activity levels (Hills et al., 2011), therefore it is
important for children to participate in regular physical activity in order to reduce the risk of
becoming obese and developing any associative health risks (Strong et al., 2005).
In recent years, the level of physical activity undertaken by children has declined which has
had a direct impact on childhood obesity levels (Anderson and Butcher, 2006). Due to
environmental changes and advances in technological activity, children of today’s society
are less likely to be physically active in comparison to children from previous decades
(Anderson and Butcher, 2006; Goran et al., 1999). Technological advances have had an
adverse effect on children’s physical activity levels, as children tend to devote more time to
watching television, using computers and playing on video game consoles as opposed to
participating in physical activity (Anderson and Butcher, 2006).
The importance of regular physical activity in childhood is not only vital in reducing obesity
levels and decreasing the risk of morbidities in adulthood, it also has numerous health
benefits including both physical and psychological enhancements (Siscovick et al., 1985;
Taylor et al., 1985; Warburton et al., 2006). Aerobic-based activities of moderate to
vigorous intensity provide the greatest health benefits (Janssen and Leblanc, 2010). Due to
children spending an abundance of their time in school, and schools having specialist
physical education staff, this is an ideal location to promote and provide physical activity
opportunities for children (Downs, 2005; Trost and Loprinzi, 2008).
2
The school environment has numerous opportunities for physical activity including:
classroom activities, active lessons, lunch time breaks, physical education lessons and
before/after-school programmes (Pate et al., 2006). Regular participation in both physical
education lessons and general physical activity within school hours has a positive effect on
children’s overall physical activity levels (Nakamura et al., 2013). Physical education is a
compulsory subject within the National Curriculum in state schools which aims to ensure
that children:
1. Develop competence to excel in a broad range of physical activities.
2. Are physically active for sustained periods of time.
3. Engage in competitive sports and activities.
4. Lead healthy, active lives.
(Department for Education, 2013). Although the physical education National Curriculum
aims to ensure that students are physically active for long periods of time (Department for
Education, 2013), on average students only engage in moderate-to-vigorous physical
activity for between 27%-47% of total physical education class time (Fairclough and
Stratton, 2005). Quick et al. (2010) also highlighted that on average, year nine children
within the UK participated in just 125 minutes of physical education per week in 2009/2010.
It is therefore of great importance to focus attention on increasing physical education
participation, in order to address the long-term health benefits and help to promote life-long
physical activity (Fairclough and Stratton, 2005). This can be achieved by physical
education teachers encouraging participation in after school club physical activity which
may inspire children to participate in extracurricular and community based physical
activity/sport (McKenzie et al., 2000).
After school club physical activity programmes are available for all students in both primary
and secondary schools (National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE),
2013). The aim of after school club physical activity is to ensure that children are receiving
instruction in motor skill, health-related fitness and sport activities for at least 30 minutes at
moderate-to-vigorous intensities (NASPE, 2013). Such activities are undertaken in order to
enhance children’s overall physical activity levels and increase children’s enjoyment within
physical activity (NASPE, 2013). Another aim is to improve children’s knowledge, skill base
and confidence in physical activity in order to inspire children to participate in lifelong
3
physical activity and sport (NASPE, 2013). Although after school club physical activity
encourages moderate-to-vigorous intensity activity for prolonged time periods, just 19% of
year nine children participated in regular after school club competition in the UK in the
2009/10 academic year (Quick et al., 2010). Therefore, the promotion and provision for
after school club physical activity needs to be improved in order to increase children’s
overall physical activity participation levels.
There is an abundance of previous literature concerning the extent to which physical activity
impacts on children’s health related fitness levels (Dwyer et al., 1983; Hutchens et al.,
2010; Mayorga-Vega et al., 2013; Perez-Rodriquez et al., 2012; Trudeau et al., 2000;
Weintraub et al., 2008). However the literature associated with after school club physical
activity attendance in comparison to children’s health related fitness levels is sparse.
Therefore in order to address the gap in the literature, more research is required in this area
of study.
The aim of the proposed project is to identify the impact that extracurricular after school
club physical activity has on year nine children’s health related fitness levels including:
Body Mass Index (BMI), Muscular Strength, Muscular Endurance, Aerobic Fitness and
Flexibility.
1.1 Research Hypothesis
The research hypothesis for the proposed study is that the health related fitness levels will
vary between the two year nine attendance/non-attendance classifications:
1. Children who participate in regular after school club physical activity will have lower BMI
levels than children do not participate regularly.
2. Children who participate in regular after school club physical activity will have greater
levels of aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance and flexibility than children
who do not participate regularly.
4
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
5
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Physical Activity and Exercise
Thomas et al. (2007) defined physical activity as ‘all movement that is produced by the
contraction of skeletal muscle and that substantially increases energy expenditure’ (p.305).
Casperson (1989) highlighted that physical activity tasks include instances in the following
situations: during work, at home and in leisure settings. Regular physical activity has
numerous physical, social and psychological health benefits contributing to overall good
quality of life (Allender et al., 2006). This is supported by Bredin et al. (2006) as they
propose that there is a direct relationship between physical activity and health status, with
an increase in physical activity leading to overall health improvements. This study also
identified that an increase in physical activity levels reduces the risk of premature death
(Brendin et al., 2006). The World Health Organisation (WHO) supports this statement as
this organisation identified that physical inactivity was a main influence of death in
developed countries, with an estimated value of 1.9 million deaths Worldwide annually due
to physical inactivity (World Health Organisation, 2002).
Overall, evidence shows that there is a linear relationship between physical activity and
health status, with an increase in physical activity leading to physical, social and mental
health improvements (Warburton et al., 2006). Myers et al., (2004) explained that if
someone is physically active and fit, they have a 50% reduced risk of death caused by a
hypokinetic disease. Such hypokinetic diseases include coronary heart disease, diabetes,
hypertension, colon cancer and strokes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(USDHHS), 1996). Both the USDHHS (1996) and Silvestri (1997) highlighted that regular
physical activity decreases the risk of developing a hypokinetic disease in adulthood.
Downs (2005) suggested that in childhood and throughout adolescence, physical inactivity
is likely to lead to a sedentary lifestyle in adulthood which may increase the chance of
developing fatal diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, various
forms of cancer and obesity.
6
A further concern relating to physical inactivity in the UK is the significant economic burden
to the National Health Service (NHS). It was predicted that in 2002, the cost of physical
inactivity in England to the NHS alone was £1.7 billion per year (Department of Culture,
Media and Sports (DCMS), 2002). Recent statistics show that the direct healthcare cost for
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) alone in 2009 was £8.7 billion and the total economic cost
including informal care and healthcare costs was £18.9 billion (Townsend et al., 2012)
Exercise is similar to physical activity as it relates to the production of bodily movement
however exercise is ‘planned, structured and repetitive bodily movement done to improve or
maintain one or more components of physical fitness’ (Caspersen, 1989: p.424). As
identified by Spirduso (1986) and Toufexis (1988), exercise, along with healthy dietary and
living habits, will enhance psychological and emotional well-being, decrease the burdens of
ageing and increase the likelihood of living to one’s full life expectancy. Fentem (1994)
clarified some of the functional changes and improvements that can be achieved from
participating in regular exercise including: enhanced skeletal muscle, tendon and
connective tissue functions and improved cardiovascular functions. Fentem (1994) also
highlighted some morbidities that exercise will help prevent including: coronary heart
disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis and certain cancer types.
As children spend an abundance of their time at school, this is an appropriate environment
from which to promote healthy lifestyles and provide opportunities for children to participate
in regular physical activity and exercise (Downs, 2005). Trost and Loprinzi (2008)
conducted a critique on the key evidence from the public health literature on the promotion
of physical activity in children. This study identified that schools are an ideal setting for the
promotion of physical activity for the following positive benefits: practitioners are able to
target all children in positive activities, they have trained P.E. staff who are interested in
health promotion and they have an organisation structure and specialist facilities that can
be used for physical activity promotion (Trost and Loprinzi, 2008).
7
2.2 Obesity
Obesity is ‘the result of long-term energy imbalances, where daily energy intake exceeds
daily expenditure’ (Schwartz et al., 2000, p.661). Obesity is also identified as an excess of
body fat and perceived as a chronic health condition (Canoy and Bundred, 2011). A major
factor which has a direct impact on obesity is physical inactivity (Hussey et al., 2007).
Weinsier et al. (1998) clarify that obesity is attributed to environmental changes which
promote excessive food intake and encourage physical inactivity. Overall, the rate of
obesity within the UK is increasing among children, with 16.8% of boys and 15.2% of girls
aged 2-15 years obese in 2008 which has increased from 1995 with 11.1% of boys and
12.2% of girls aged 2-15 years obese (Canoy and Bundred, 2011). This is a key concern in
current society as there are major health related clinical problems prevalent in adulthood
which are caused by obesity including: respiratory, orthopaedic, gastrointestinal,
cardiovascular, endocrine and reproductive problems (Wilson and Baur, 2007). Such health
problems may include a predisposition to type two diabetes, risk factors for cardiovascular
disease, asthma and impaired mobility (Ludwig and Pollack, 2009). This is supported by
Hardman et al. (2004), as they state that obesity increases the risk of mortality by
approximately 50%. The WHO (2002), highlighted that 2.8 million people die worldwide
each year as a result of being overweight or obese.
Numerous research studies have provided evidence that childhood obesity frequently
persists into adolescence and adulthood causing many health related problems in
adulthood (Serdula et al., 1993; Reilly, 2005; Reilly et al., 2003). The 1993 study by Serdula
et al. reviewed various epidemiological studies and established that 26-41% of obese
preschool children were obese as adults and 42-63% of obese school-age children became
obese adults. In Serdula et al.’s 1993 study, associations between obesity in childhood and
adulthood were consistently positive, although the studies analysed were dissimilar in study
design, their definition of obesity and the analytic methods used. Results also reported that
across all studies and ages, the risk of developing obesity in adulthood was twice as high
for obese children as opposed to non-obese children (Serdula et al., 1993). This is
supported by the WHO as they suggest that childhood obesity is associated with a higher
chance of adulthood obesity and that obese children are also at higher risk of premature
death and disability in adulthood (WHO, 2012).
8
Physical activity and diet have a significant role in reducing and preventing childhood
obesity (Biddle et al., 2004). During childhood, a combination of both low levels of physical
activity, and obesity, contribute to insufficient levels of health-related fitness (Biddle et al.,
2004). Hills et al. (2011) highlighted that physical activity has a direct impact on weight
status with healthy weight children being associated with higher levels of physical activity.
Another directly linked factor with physical activity is children’s overall health outcomes, as
poor levels of physical activity are related to an increased risk of vascular and cardio
metabolic diseases (Strong et al., 2005). Therefore it is of significant importance to
encourage those children who are of normal-weight and overweight to increase their
physical activity and exercise levels, to help avoid weight gain and its associated health
risks (Lanigan and Singhal, 2009).
2.3 Health Related Fitness/ Physical Activity Interventions
Health related fitness requires desirable levels of the following: cardiovascular fitness,
muscular strength and endurance, percentage body fat (body composition) and flexibility
(Tancred, 1987). Blair et al. (2012) stated that on average and in most individuals, health
related fitness levels will increase if one participates regularly in physical activity. McMurray
and Anderson (2009) identified that children with advanced levels of health related fitness
have a decreased risk of developing diseases and chronic illnesses such as: cardiovascular
disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis and certain forms of cancer. Additional
benefits of acquiring high levels of health related fitness include a decreased risk of
suffering from depression and anxiety problems (Parfitt, Pavey and Rowlands, 2009) and
enhanced academic performance (Grissom, 2005).
Physical activity interventions have been widely used to assess whether physical
activity/exercise programs, along with other factors such as diet, have a positive effect on
children’s physical health and health related fitness levels.
9
Table 1 demonstrates a critique of two interventions studies which examined the
association between the amounts of physical activity undertaken in comparison to children’s
body mass index (BMI) levels. Both studies assessed children of similar age and targeted
overweight/obese participants however they were different in design. Weintraub et al.
(2008) analysed whether an after school club sports team programme was effective for
reducing weight gain in low-income overweight children. The contradicting area of study by
Perez-Rodriquez et al. (2012) distinguished whether the amount of time children spent
performing moderate to vigorous physical activity in school hours was associated to with
obesity. Although different in design, both studies concluded that regular participation in
moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was associated with lower BMI levels.
10
Table 1. A critique of two interventions which both assess the influence of physical activity on children’s BMI levels.
Study
Sample
Aims/Purpose
Method
Results
Conclusions
Strengths
Weaknesses
A six month controlled trial from which
two interventions were devised: 1.
Participants engaging in a regular team
sport which in this case was soccer, 2.
Participants attending an after-school
21 children
Weintraub et
al. (2008)
aged 9-11
with a BMI of
>85
percentile.
A pilot study- analysis into
whether an after-school team
sports programme was
effective for reducing weight
gain in low-income overweight
children.
health education program. In the soccer
intervention group, One day per week
was game day, with three other days
being practice days. Sessions were
approximately 2 1⁄4 hours long and
started with a homework period,
followed by approximately 75 minutes of
activity. Body Mass Index (BMI)
The results from the trial concluded that the
soccer group demonstrated a significant
decrease in BMI levels at both the three and six
month point in the study (p<0.05). Increases in
total daily, moderate, and vigorous physical
activity were also present after 3 months as
opposed to the health education program group
who did not demonstrate decreases in BMI
levels.
Regular participation in the
afterschool football team overall
Two intervention
reduced children’s BMI scores.
groups were devised
An after-school team soccer
which allowed a
programme for overweight
comparison between
children can be acceptable for
the two groups.
Although it was a pilot study there
were still only 21 children involved
in the intervention which is a very
small sample size.
weight control in children.
measurements were conducted at the
start of the study, at three months and at
six months. Physical activity was
measured using accelerometers.
1. Obese children perform less
1. To distinguish the amount
of time children spent
performing moderate to
vigorous physical activity in
school hours including
143 normalweight and
Perez-
48 obese
Rodriquez et
children aged
al. (2012)
8–10 years
from Mexico
City.
the hour prior to school, during
their lunch break and the hour
after class dismissal.
2. Measure the amount and
intensity of their physical
activity during school hours
and compared this to their
physical activity levels during
after school hours.
3. Compare the association of
diet behaviours and physical
activity/inactivity with excess
weight and body fat.
Children in the obese group were taller than
In the cross-sectional study,
normal weight children regardless of age
anthropometric and body composition
(p<0.05).The 2 groups did not differ in time
measures were taken. Normal weight
spent watching television (p>0.05) or in PC/VG
children were categorised as (<85th
use (p>0.05).
percentile and >5th percentile) and
Both groups had a mean daily intake of 4.7
obese as (>95th percentile) using age
meals, but eating 5 meals per day was more
and sex BMI-specific percentiles. Diet
common among normal weight than obese
factors and behaviours were analysed
children and was associated with a lower risk of
from two 24/hr recalls. The amount of
obesity. Normal weight children tend to
time the children spent using personal
participate in sports more than obese children
computer/video games, watching
(63 vs 48%). Activity before school began was
television and participating in sports
primarily sedentary (mean moderate to vigorous
outside of school was attained from a
physical activity (MVPA) less than 2 mins).
questionnaire. Physical activity was
During the hour after school dismissal the mean
directly measured with accelerometers.
MVPA was 1.7 ± 2.7 min for normal weight
children and 1.0 ± 1.7 min for obese children.
moderate to vigorous physical
activity during school hours and
lunch time periods than that of
normal weight children.
2. Sedentary time was negatively
associated with BMI and body fat
percentage; however lightintensity activity was positively
linked with these two
measurements.
3. Children spent 73% of their
lunch time in sedentary activities
and less than 1 minute of their
lunch doing moderate to
vigorous intensity activities.
4. Both obese and normal weight
children were more active in
after school hours rather than in
school hours.
11
Large sample size
for a small age
group category.
Physical activity was
measured using an
accelerometer
throughout the
whole study. Time
points were
categorised
precisely to
distinguish the
different times for
assessing physical
activity.
Both diet and physical activity
levels in after school hours were
assessed through a 24 hour diet
recall and a physical activity
questionnaire. This could have an
effect on the results as children
may not recall their exact caloric
food intake and their physical
activity levels or they may lie and
provide false information to the
researchers. This is one possible
reason as to why results displayed
that children were more active in
after school hours due to children
recalling their own physical activity
levels.
Table 2. A critique of numerous interventions which all assess the influence of physical activity on various health related fitness levels in children.
Study
Sample
Aims/Purpose
Method
Phase 1- A 14 week controlled trial. The
following groups were produced; a skill
group receiving 1.25 hours a day of skill
The short-term health
benefits on grade five
students of a 14 week
>500 children
Dwyer et al.
(1983)
aged 10 from
seven
Australian
schools
physical education
programme (phase 1) in
1978, compared with grade
five students who had been
participating in daily
physical activity
programmes for up to two
years (phase two) in 1980.
instruction, a fitness group receiving 1.25
hours a day of vigorous physical activity
and a control group who receiving 30
minute periods of P.E. per week.
They tested the individuals before and
after the 14 week trial and tested the
following on all participants; body mass
index (BMI), sum of four skinfolds, blood
pressure, cholesterol, endurance fitness,
classroom behaviour and academic
performance including an arithmetic test
and a reading test. Phase 2- Fitness,
academic performance and classroom
behaviour tests on students who had been
participating in daily physical activity
programmes for up to two years.
Results
Phase 1 results- All groups gained aerobic
endurance fitness although the gain from the
fitness group was greater. The fitness group
also experienced a dramatic decline in the sum
of the four skinfolds, no significant change in
systolic or diastolic blood pressure and no
significant differences between the groups were
noted in lipid levels (p>0.05). Classroom
behaviour of both the fitness and skill groups
improved to a significantly greater degree than
the control (p<0.05). Phase 2- Phase 2
Students were superior for physical work
capacity in both genders. A significant decrease
in body fat in both genders from the four skin
folds (p<0.05). A reduction in the proportion of
overweight students in phase 2. Phase 2
students had significantly lower BMI levels
(p<0.05). Both systolic and diastolic blood
pressures were lower in both genders in phase
2 students.
Conclusions
A 14 week physical education
programme which incorporates
1.25 hours a day of vigorous
physical activity is more effective
than receiving 1.25 hours a day
of skill instruction for improving
levels of aerobic endurance
fitness and for decreasing levels
of BMI. Students who completed
a physical education for two
years have greater levels of
physical activity than those who
completed a 14 week trial,
showed a decrease in body fat in
both genders, showed a
decrease in systolic and diastolic
blood pressure and less
overweight students were
present in phase 2 of the study.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Large sample size.
Two different phasesallowed comparisons
to be made between
those who participated
for 14 weeks against
those who participated
for two years.
Three groups devisedcontrol group, fitness
groups and skill group
which meant that a
comparison between
Researchers could have perhaps
tested the students after a year
of participating in physical
activity. This would give the
researchers more information on
when the most significant
differences occurred between
the three groups.
fitness levels,
behaviour and
academic performance
could be made
between groups.
Use of bike or jog paths to school was
9,268
Madsen et al.
(2009)
In the cross-sectional study, a survey was
significantly associated with greater
undertaken by participants consisting of 40
cardiorespiratory fitness (shorter mile times)
multiple choice questions on students’
(p=0.02) and availability of indoor facilities was
attitudes, behaviours, and perceptions
significantly associated with lower fitness levels
related to their physical activity and
(longer mile times) (p=0.03).
students
To identify the physical
nutrition environments.
Enjoying PE and using school grounds outside
aged 12-15
activity opportunities linked
Both Cardiorespiratory fitness (mile time)
school hours were significantly associated with
from 19
to fitness and weight status
was measured along with Body Mass
greater fitness (p=.03 and p=0.02), and walking
public
among adolescence in low-
Index (BMI). Height was measured to the
to school showed a trend toward greater fitness
schools in
income communities.
nearest inch and weight was recorded to
(p=0.07). Students who reported higher rates
the nearest pound with students wearing
of active transport (to or from school) had
P.E. kit and no shoes. Cardiorespiratory
higher average BMI scores. Students reporting
fitness was assessed with the 1- mile run
at least 20 minutes of exercise during P.E per
in 99% of students (1% completed the
day tended to have lower BMI scores. No
walk test).
association between active P.E. minutes and
America.
cardiorespiratory fitness.
12
Physical education is a good
opportunity to improve student
health. Promoting active
Transport (walking/ cycling) may
improve fitness but must be
done in conjunction with
community partnerships to
improve the food environment in
the vicinity of schools. Promoting
the use of school grounds
outside school hours (such as
after-school programs) should
also be prioritised to prevent
child obesity.
An extremely large
sample size for a small
age group category.
The use of objective
measures of both
fitness (mile run) and
weight status (BMI
measurements) in
comparison with the
children’s’ perceptions
of any opportunities for
participation in
physical activity in low
income areas (survey
answers).
Children’s perceptions were
measured through the use of a
student survey which could allow
for children to be somewhat bias
towards their physical activity
levels. Children’s perceptions of
opportunities to participate in
physical activity in low income
areas could also be bias.
Children were grouped into either an
experimental group (n= 35) or a control
group (n= 37). An eight week programme
consisting of moderate-to-vigorous
To evaluate the short-term
effects of a circuit training
Mayorga-Vega
et al. (2013).
72 school
children aged
10-12.
programme along with a
maintenance programme on
muscular and
cardiovascular endurance in
children in a physical
education setting.
intensity circuits in a development
After the development program, muscular and
programme- twice a week for four weeks.
cardiovascular endurance increased
Then performed a four-week maintenance
significantly in the experimental group (p<0.05).
program with circuits once a week. Circuits
With the gains obtained remaining the same
comprised of eight stations of 15/45 to
after the maintenance program. Values did not
35/25 seconds of work/rest performed
change in the control group (p>0.05). Pre-test
twice lasting 50 mins with a warm up and
results show sit up test results= 20.37 ± 4.21
cool down. Abdominal muscular
sit-ups/min, post-test results= 22.09 ± 3.70 and
endurance (max sit-ups in 30 seconds),
re-test results= 23.10 ± 3.88 for the
upper-limbs muscular endurance (bent
experimental group. Pre-test results show sit
arm hang test), and cardiovascular
up test results= 17.95 ± 4.94 sit-ups/min, post-
endurance (20-m endurance shuttle run
test= 17.64 ± 5.89 and re-test results= 17.57 ±
test) were measured at the beginning and
5.76 for the control group.
The results showed that the
Sample-Two groups
circuit training program was
were devised which
effective to increase and
allowed comparisons
maintain both muscular and
to be made between
cardiovascular endurance
the groups. Controlled
among school children. It may
the amount of physical
influence physical education
activity which was
teacher’s perceptions on
undertaken outside of
developing programmes for
the study- No
students to attend to maintain
participant was
muscular and cardiovascular
allowed to carry out
endurance fitness levels.
any physical fitness
A limitation of the study was that
the intervention did not include
many enjoyable tasks for the
experimental group and at these
ages in PE classes it is important
to develop contents mainly
through enjoyable/playful tasks.
training outside of the
supervised setting.
at the end of the programme, and at the
end of the maintenance programme (after
8 weeks). Control group participated in
traditional P.E. games.
A cross-sectional study. Physical activity
1. To analyse the
association of objectively
363 (180
females and
MolinerUrdiales et al.
(2010)
183 males)
aged 12.5–
17.5 years
from Spanish
schools
assessed physical activity
with muscular strength and
fat-free mass in
adolescence.
2. To determine whether
meeting the current physical
activity guidelines is
associated with higher
levels of muscular strength
and fat free mass.
(PA) was assessed using an
accelerometer. Average PA was measured
as (counts/min) and min/day of active,
light, moderate, vigorous and moderate
vigorous PA (MVPA). Participants were
instructed to place the monitor on their
lower back and wear it for seven
consecutive days. Upper body muscular
strength was measured using a hand-grip
dynamometer. Lower body muscular
strength was measured with the standing
broad jump, the squat jump, the counter
movement jump, and the Abalakov tests.
Fat free mass was measured by DXA.
Males showed higher levels of muscular
strength and fat-free mass, and were more
Large sample size
physically active than females (p<0.001).
including similar
The prevalence of males achieving at least 60
number of males and
min/day MVPA was also higher than in females
Results do not show any
females which allowed
(57.9 vs. 23.6%).
relationship between PA and fat-
comparisons between
In females, there was no association between
free mass. Results also suggest
the two to be made.
PA and any strength test after controlling for
that after controlling for the fat-
Multiple strength tests
age, pubertal status and fat-free mass. In
free mass, vigorous PA is the
were used to
males, vigorous PA was positively associated
minimum physical stimulus able
distinguish upper and
with the squat jump, the Abalakov tests and the
to enhance muscular strength.
lower body strength.
standing broad jump test although not with the
Use of accelerometry
hand grip dynamometer test.
to record PA levels.
Meeting the PA recommendations was not
Fat free mass
associated with higher levels of muscular
measured my DXA.
strength or fat-free mass, especially in females.
13
Although
many
factors
were
considered, factors such as the
type of Physical activity, diet and
genetic factors have not been
considered.
To distinguish the long-term
effects of physical
68 children in
the
experiment
Trudeau et al.
group and 35
(2000)
children in
the control
group. All
aged 10-12.
education on the following
fitness/health components:
cardiorespiratory fitness
(PWC cycle test), muscular
strength (hand-grip
dynamometer), abdominal
endurance (sit up test),
balance (flamingo balance
test), body fat percentage
(BMI) and cholesterol (LDL
The researcher’s devised two groups
including the following: an experimental
group who participated in P.E. five hours a
week and a control group who participated
in just 40 minutes of P.E. a week.
Participants’ individual fitness/health
components were tested at ages 10, 11
and 12 and then again 20 years later to
see whether health related fitness levels
differed between the groups later in life.
Experimental males and females showed a
significant advantage over the respective
control group on the balance test, but scores for
the remaining physical and health-related
fitness tests (PWC170, handgrip strength, total
cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, Apo B,
triglycerides, blood pressures, waist-to-hip ratio
and percentage of body fat) did not differ
between experimental and control subjects.
and HDL).
The only difference between the
Sample- Two groups
Didn’t incorporate physical
experimental group and the
devised: an
activity outside of school
control group was that the
experimental group
physical education- results could
experimental group had a
and a control group
have possibly been similar due
significantly improved balance
which allowed results
to the intervention only
than that of the control group.
to be compared
considering and controlling the
Participants who participate in a
against one another.
children’s participation levels in
daily physical education program
Fitness/health
school physical education. Didn’t
during primary school do not
components were all
take into account any
display any advantage of
tested 20 years later to
extracurricular after school
physical fitness over control
distinguish differences
exercise which the children may
subjects as adults.
between the groups.
have participated in.
A five week physical activity
Various different types
Very small sample size and large
intervention consisting of 120
of physical activity
age range- results could be
min of physical activity, three
were undertaken by
different between certain ages.
days a week has limited effect
participants. A low
Only included one group- A
on health related fitness
ratio of (2:1)
control group could have been
components apart from BMI in
participants to staff
included to distinguish whether
overweight/obese children. The
meant that all
there was a difference in health
only significant difference
participants could be
related fitness results due to the
apparent from all health related
instructed and guided
intervention or because of other
fitness from pre to post-test was
in certain health
extraneous variables.
BMI (p<0.05).
related fitness tests.
Intervention consisted of approximately
120-min of moderate-to vigorous physical
activity followed by 60-min of diet
education/counselling three days per week
for 5 weeks. Children were encouraged to
complete activity-based exercise in
8 overweight
to obese
To pilot a 5 week study with
Hutchens et
children aged
intent to improve measures
al. (2010)
8-14 (3 males
of health related fitness in
and 5
overweight children.
females).
addition to education on diet, exercise,
healthy lifestyles and cardiovascular
disease. Skinfold measurements were
taken to assess body fat percentages,
aerobic capacity was assessed via a 20
metre progressive aerobic cardiovascular
endurance run test, sit-up and modified
pull-up tests were used to assess
muscular strength and endurance and the
Results expressed no significant decrease in
mean body mass (pre-test= 62.4, post-test=
62.5). No difference in body fat percentage
(pre-test= 38.0, post-test = 38.0). A slight
decrease in cardiovascular fitness (pretest=13.0, post-test= 12.3), An increase in
muscular endurance (pre-test=50.6 sit-ups,
post-test=61.1 sit-ups), A slight increase
muscular strength (pre-test=0.6, post-test= 1.5
pull-ups) and in the back saver sit-and-reach
test, showed a decrease in flexibility (Left legpre-test=8.8, post-test=8.3) (Right leg- pretest=8.8, post-test=8.5).
Back-saver sit-and-reach test was used to
measure flexibility.
Table 2 displays a critique of numerous interventions which all examined the influence of various intensities and amounts of physical activity in
comparison to the components of health related fitness. Interventions including Dawyer et al. (1983), Hutchens et al. (2010) and Mayorga-Vega
et al. (2013) analysed the short-term effects of physical activity and exercise on health related fitness levels. Interventions expressed comparable
results including that regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity of (≥100min/wk) has a positive effect on aerobic/cardiovascular endurance
fitness (Dawyer et al., 1983; Hutchens et al., 2010; Mayorga-Vega et al., 2013) and decreases children’s BMI levels (Hutchens et al., 2010;
Dawyer et al., 1983). However particular results are contradictory, as Mayorga-Vega et al. (2013) highlighted that there was a significant increase
in muscular endurance levels from pre to post-test (p<0.05). In comparison, results from Hutchens et al.’s (2010) study
14
expressed no significant difference amongst participants’ muscular endurance levels from
pre to post-test (p>0.05), although results did still demonstrate trends showing an increase
in muscular endurance levels. A possible reason for different results could be due the
interventions including different types and durations of physical activity.
Two interventions from Table 2 which also demonstrate comparative results are that of
Moliner-Urdiales et al. (2010) and Trudeau et al. (2000). Moliner-Urdiales et al. (2010)
examined the influence of regular participation in physical activity in comparison with upper
body muscular strength by using a hand-grip dynamometer. Results expressed no
relationship between physical activity and upper body strength in both males and females
(p>0.05) (Moliner-Urdiales et al., 2010). Similarly, in the Trudeau et al. (2000) study they
assessed the long-term effects of physical education on health related fitness levels.
Conclusions from the study also established that there was a limited increase in hand-grip
muscular strength. Therefore, both interventions established that there was no linear
relationship between regular participation in physical activity, with hand-grip muscular
strength.
Through evaluating and critiquing various physical activity based interventions in Tables 1
and 2, it is clear that there are both comparative and dissimilar results concerning the
impact that physical activity has on children’s health related fitness levels.
Several interventions from Table 1 and 2 (Weintraub et al., 2008; Perez-Rodriquez et al.,
2012; Hutchens et al., 2010; Dawyer et al., 1983) all conclude that regular physical activity
is positively associated with decreased BMI levels, however no association between the
two variables was distinguished in the Trudeau et al. (2000) intervention. Various studies
which assessed aerobic fitness (Dawyer et al., 1983; Hutchens et al., 2010; Mayorga-Vega
et al., 2013) all show a linear relationship between the level of physical activity undertaken
and the level of aerobic fitness with exception to Trudeau et al.’s (2000) intervention, who
concluded that there was no relationship between the two variables.
15
Superior levels of muscular endurance were associated with greater physical activity levels
in the Mayorga-Vega et al. (2013) study, however there was no association between the
two variables in other interventions by Trudeau et al. (2000) and Hutchens et al. (2010).
Finally, the two interventions analysed in Table 2 which assessed the impact of regular
physical activity on flexibility, both conclude that there is no relationship between the level
of physical activity undertaken with children’s flexibility levels (Trudeau et al., 2000;
Hutchens et al., 2010).
2.4 An increase in Children’s resting Heart Rate and BMI levels.
A recent article posted on the British Heart Foundation (2013) website delves into the
conducted research of Li et al. (2013). Research examined whether children’s resting
heart rates had risen during the past 28 years between 1980 and 2008. Findings were
based on 22,843 children of white European origin in the UK, aged between 9 and 11.
Results displayed that the resting heart rate for both sexes rose constantly by an average
of 0.04 BPM per year. Results also expressed an average resting heart rate for girls at
82.2 beats per minute (BPM) and boys at 78.7 BPM. Over the 28 year period, the resting
heart rate amongst boys increased by approximately 2 BPM and by 1 BPM amongst girls.
Another variable which was assessed was BMI recordings. Mean BMI results showed an
increase from 16.9 kg/m2 vs. 17.1 kg/m2 for boys and girls in 1980, to 18.8 kg/m2 vs.
19.2kg/m2 for boys and girls in 2002 and remained constantly high until 2008. The
researchers established that the increase in resting heart rate was not explained by
increased BMI values (Li et al., 2013).
The increase in children’s resting heart rate is a significant concern for this population as it
will increase the risk of Cardiovascular Disease mortality rates in adulthood (Li et al.,
2013). Cooney et al. (2010) clarified that if an increase of 2 bpm in the mean resting heart
rate in boys persists into the adult population, it could consequently result in a 4% increase
in coronary heart disease amongst men (Cooney et al., 2010). This is supported by Van
Mechelen, W. (1998) and Farinaro, E. (1999) as they propose that in adults, an increased
resting heart rate is associated with atherosclerosis, hypertension and cardiovascular risk.
The 28 yearlong study by Li et al. (2013) concluded that there has been a distinct rise in
children’s resting pulse rate which could possibly be due to children possibly undertaking
more sedentary lifestyles.
16
2.5 Physical activity levels within Children.
A recent survey conducted by Sport Wales (2013) observed the opinions of 110,000
Welsh school children. Sport Wales analysed the number of young people participating in
physical activity, established whether children enjoyed physical activity, and also
conducted a statistical analysis amongst genders physical activity levels. Research
concluded that the number of young people participating in physical activity three or more
times a week has risen from 27% of children in 2011 to 40% of children in 2013. They
revealed that 92% of children enjoy physical education lessons and established that 44%
of boys and 36% of girls were likely to regularly participate in physical activity and sport
(Sport Wales, 2013). The survey also concluded that 77% of children participated in sport
at a club outside of school within the last year (Sport Wales, 2013).
A similar survey which was conducted by Quick et al. (2010) was the P.E. and Sport
Survey 2009/10 in England. This survey also discovered an increase in physical activity
levels in school children. They established that across year groups 1-13, 55% of pupils
participated in three or more hours of physical education and out of school sport
throughout the 2009/10 academic year which was a 5% increase from the previous 2008/9
survey (Quick et al., 2010). However, when doing a year group analysis, year nine
students who participated in three or more hours of physical education and out of school
sport accumulated to 49% of students, yet still demonstrated a rise of 5% from 2008/9.
Researchers also analysed the percentage of children who participated regularly in after
school club competition. Results demonstrated that just 19% of year nine children
participated regularly in after school club competition in the 2009/10 academic year which
was an overall decrease by 1% from the 2008/09 survey (Quick et al., 2010).
The two surveys by Sport Wales (2013) and Quick et al. (2010) both discovered that there
has been an overall increase in children’s total physical activity levels, although only the
study by Quick et al. (2010) examined children’s physical activity levels in after school club
competition. Results from the Quick et al. (2010) study demonstrated a decrease in after
school club physical activity levels. Therefore, the provision to improve participation in after
school club physical activity is necessary in order to increase children’s overall physical
activity participation levels.
17
CHAPTER III
METHODS
18
3.0 Methods
This study attempts to determine the effects that extracurricular after school clubs and
specifically positive exercise and physical activities has on year nine students health
related fitness levels. A questionnaire was adapted in order to identify the amount of
extracurricular activity individuals participated in. Health related fitness tests were
performed to identify participant’s individual fitness levels. Comparisons were then
distinguished between the results from the questionnaire and participants individual health
related fitness test results. This chapter defines the applied methods and data analysis of
the intervention.
3.1 Recruitment and Preparation
The study was undertaken in a large comprehensive school within Wiltshire, England.
Once the school was selected, a letter was sent to the Headmaster requesting his
respective consent (see Appendix A). After receiving consent from the Headmaster, a
meeting between the principal researcher, Headmaster, Head of Physical Education (P.E)
Department and two other P.E staff members involved in the study was arranged. This
meeting outlined the procedures and times at which the principal researcher needed to
attend the school to receive specific certain information pertaining to the study. Post
meeting, participant recruitment could then commence.
Participants (n= 41) consisted of year nine male (n=21) and female (n=20) pupils with a
mean age of 13.9 ± 0.3 SD years. All students who participated in the study were
volunteers from four tutor groups of mixed academic and physical ability. Prior to
participation, parent/guardian consent and child assent forms were allocated to pupils and
parents to complete, together with information leaflets (see Appendix B to E). All consent
and assent forms were collected from students by the researcher at the start of the
following weeks P.E. lesson. Students were told that participation within the study was
voluntary and they could dismiss themselves from taking part, should they no longer wish
to be involved.
19
3.2 Ethical Considerations
As the project involved a certain degree of interaction and communication between the
researcher and the students, numerous ethical considerations needed to be taken into
account. Firstly, the project had to be approved by the Cardiff Metropolitan School of Sport
Ethics Committee before any research was undertaken (for approval letter see Appendix
L). Secondly due to the substantial access to children, the researcher attained a full CRB
check from Cardiff Metropolitan to ensure that the researcher was permitted to undertake
research with the children in the particular school. Another consideration was the
confidentiality of the participants’ data. All data received from the participants’
questionnaire or health related fitness tests, was dealt with in confidence and available
only to the individual participant, the principle researcher and the two P.E supervisors. To
ensure confidentiality, all electronic databases were password protected. A final
consideration was that the assisting supervisors had to receive specific training in the
assessment and evaluation process. Every supervisor involved was instructed by a
qualified principal researcher on how to use the specific equipment for the individual tests
to ensure the participants were performing the tests correctly.
3.3 Physical Activity Questionnaire
To understand and measure the amount of extracurricular after school exercise students
participated in, a physical activity questionnaire was adapted from the Physical Activity
Questionnaire for Adolescents (Kowalski, Crocker and Donen, 2004) (see Appendix F).
The reason for the use and adaption of this particular questionnaire was due to the fact
that it had previously been used (Carter et al., 2001; Ball et al., 2003; Crocker et al., 2003)
and was therefore deemed to be tried and tested. The questionnaire analysed the
participants’ levels of physical activity and extracurricular activities undertaken. Questions
had an emphasis on the duration, frequency and type of physical activity undertaken. All
participants completed the questionnaire after parental consent forms were received by
the principal researcher. The questionnaire was answered under the supervision of the
principal researcher and one P.E. supervisor. All students were requested to sit separately
from one another within the school’s sports hall in order to prevent students from copying
other peers’ questionnaires. Every subject was instructed to complete the questionnaire
independently and to the best of their ability. The questionnaire took approximately 20
minutes for the students to complete and at no time were the participants rushed to
complete the questionnaires.
20
3.4 Pre-fitness testing preparation
After all participants had completed the questionnaire, numerous data recording sheets
were produced. In the first instance, each student was assigned a participant number. By
allocating numbers to participants, this meant that all individual data was anonymous
ensuring confidentiality. Secondly, data collection sheets were produced for each
individual to record their fitness test scores (see Appendix G and H). Each student data
collection sheet had the students’ individual participant number, together with the students’
questionnaires. Both documents were numbered in order to ensure that the data recorded
from the fitness tests corresponded with the participants’ questionnaires. A register was
also produced to confirm which participants were present for the fitness testing and to
assign each participant to their individual number. Both a weight and a Cooper Run data
collection sheet were also created (see Appendix I and J).
3.5 Testing Procedures
The health related fitness testing took place in July 2013 within two school lunch time
periods. The sample (n=41) was split into males (n=21) and females (n=20) for the fitness
testing. All participants were asked to wear full P.E. kit consisting of a P.E. t-shirt, P.E.
shorts and trainers suitable to run in. Male participants completed the fitness tests in the
first lunch time period and female participants completed the fitness tests on the
consecutive day. Following the register, participant numbers were allocated to participants
to ensure no data collection sheets were misplaced. The researcher then guided all
participants around the circuit fitness test stations providing an explanation for each fitness
test and demonstrating the correct technique used for each test. Participants then
undertook a five minute warm up led by one of the P.E supervisors which consisted of a
two lap jog around the sports hall and a series of dynamic stretches. Participants were
allocated into groups of three people by the principal researcher which allowed: one
person to complete the test, one person to read the test result and one person to record
the test result.
21
Once all participants were allocated into a group, fitness testing proceeded. The following
fitness tests/measurements were completed in the circuit: sit and reach flexibility,
maximum
hand-grip
strength,
sit-up
muscular
endurance
and
anthropometric
measurements including height and weight. To ensure that the correct technique was
achieved, a P.E. supervisor was present to supervise at each station. One measurement
which was recorded by the principal researcher was anthropometric weight. This was
recorded onto the separate weighing sheet which the researcher kept confidential from
both participants and all P.E. supervisors. Once all three participants in the group had
completed an individual test, the researcher asked participants to rotate clockwise to the
next fitness test station. The Cooper Run Aerobic Fitness Test was conducted after the
completion of the circuit tests and this was undertaken on the schools outdoor 400 metre
running track.
3.6 Anthropometric assessment
Height was measured to the nearest millimetre using a portable Stadiometer (Seca Ltd,
Birmingham, United Kingdom). All participants were asked to remove their shoes before
the measurement was taken and instructed to stand up straight, with their back to the
Stadiometer and their feet flat on the floor. Weight measurements were taken to the
nearest 0.1kg using Seca 813 digital scales (Seca Ltd, Birmingham, United Kingdom). All
participants were asked to remove their shoes, to stand with their feet parallel to one
another and to look straight ahead whilst on the scales. The data from both anthropometric
tests was used to calculate participants BMI scores. BMI was used to determine whether a
participant was underweight, normal weight, overweight or obese as this method is widely
accepted as a suitable method of adiposity evaluation (Cook et al., 2005). Participants’
Body Mass Index (BMI) scores were calculated by the participants weight (kg) divided by
the square of their height (m²) (Cook et al., 2005). Overweight and obese BMI readings
were categorised by Cole et al. (2000) for the paediatric age group and for different
genders (Table 3). Cole et al. (2000) also highlighted that underweight children expressed
BMI readings of below 17 kg/m² and normal weight children of between 17 kg/m² and the
overweight values shown in Table 3.
22
Table 3. Body Mass Index values for Males and Females between 13 and 14.5 years of
age categorising overweight and obese BMI values.
Body Mass Index 25 kg/m²
Age (years)
Body Mass Index 30 kg/m²
Males
Females
Males
Females
13
21.91
22.58
26.84
27.76
13.5
22.27
22.98
27.25
28.20
14
22.62
23.34
27.63
28.57
14.5
22.96
23.66
27.98
28.87
Cole, T.J., Bellizzi, M.C., Flegal, K.M. and Dietz, W.H. (2000). Establishing a standard
definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. British Medical
Journal. 320: p.1-6.
3.7 Field Tests
3.7.1 Hand-grip Strength (Muscular Strength)
To measure participants’ muscular strength a Hydraulic Hand-held Dynamometer (Jamar,
Utah, USA) was used. Hand grip strength was evaluated as a method of measuring
participants’ maximal isometric strength as this is a reliable method commonly used in
many experimental and epidemiological studies within children (Ahrens et al., 2006; Ruiz
et al., 2006). As hand grip position has a large influence on overall grip strength (Härkönen
et al., 1993), a specific point on the dynamometer was marked with tape to show where
the participant should place their index finger. Participants were instructed to put their
arms by their side and to have their knuckles facing the floor as they applied a force to the
dynamometer. Participants squeezed the devise as hard as they could to produce a
maximal force. The test was completed three times from which a mean value was
generated. Every measure was conducted on the participant’s dominant hand and
participants all had a rest interval of 30 seconds between each test.
23
3.7.2 Sit & Reach (Flexibility)
Participants flexibility was measured using a sit and reach flexibility box (Body care,
Warwickshire, UK). The sit-and-reach test was undertaken as this is a frequently used
measure of combined hamstring and spinal muscle extensibility (Sinclair and Tester,
1992). The reason for the adoption of this specific flexibility test is because it is widely
used in numerous fitness test batteries (Guariglia, 2011). When completing the test all
participants were asked to remove their shoes, sit on the floor with the sole of their foot
firmly against the side of the box and to keep their knees and legs straight. Participants
extended forward three times with their arms stretched out and their hands parallel with
one another on the box. On the third stretch participants were asked to reach out as far as
possible and hold it for one second in order for a measurement to be recorded on the sitand-reach box. The test was completed 3 times from which a mean value was calculated.
3.7.3 Sit-up Test (Muscular Endurance)
The sit up test was used to measure the strength and endurance of participants’
abdominal muscles (Safrit, 1995). The assessment was a timed 60 second full sit-up test
with participants’ feet anchored as this is a reliable test for evaluating abdominal strength
and endurance and is frequently used in a school environment (Diener et al., 1995;
Sparling et al., 1997). Participants performed the test on an exercise mat from which they
completed as many sit-ups as possible within 60 seconds which was measured with a stop
watch by a P.E. supervisor. One person in each group performed the test, one held the
participant’s feet to the floor, whilst the other person counted the number of sit ups
achieved. Every participant started in a lying position with their back on the floor and their
knees bent. A sit up was performed with pupils arms crossed positioned on their chest. A
sit-up was only counted if their back touched the floor on the downward movement and
their forearms touched their thighs on the upward movement. Participants completed the
test once and their score was the number of correctly performed sit ups in 60 seconds.
24
3.7.4 Cooper Run (Aerobic/Cardiovascular Fitness)
The
12
minute
Cooper
Run
(Cooper,
1968)
was
used
as
a
measure
of
Aerobic/Cardiovascular fitness as this is a reliable test for assessing this fitness
component (Penry et al., 2011). All participants performed the test on the school outdoor
400 metre running track. Pupils ran as far as possible within a 12 minute period. Along
with the principal researcher, three P.E. supervisors were present at the Cooper Run test.
Participants were allocated to both the researcher and the P.E supervisors to record
students’ distances. The 12 minute time was recorded by the principal researcher using a
stop watch. At the end of the 12 minute Cooper Run, the researcher blew a whistle from
which participants were instructed to stop at the sound of this whistle. Both the researcher
and P.E. supervisors then recorded where on the track each participant was located and to
the nearest 100 metres, added the additional metres onto their overall lap distance score.
Table four demonstrates various cooper run distances compared to approximate average
levels of performance in the cooper run by Mackenzie (1997).
Table 4. Distances to categorise levels of performance in the cooper run between males
and females.
Age
Male
Female
Excellent
Above
Average
Average
Below
Average
Poor
13-14
>2700m
2400-2700m
2200-2399m
2100-2199m
<2100m
13-14
>2000m
1900-2000m
1600-1899m
1500-1599m
<1500m
Mackenzie,
B.
(1997).
Cooper
VO2
max
Test
[online]
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/gentest.htm [Accessed 11 February 2014].
25
Available
at:
3.8 Statistical Analysis
The data from the questionnaire provided information demonstrating those participants
who undertook regular extracurricular after school exercise (≥2 hr/wk) and those
participants who didn’t (<2 hr/wk). Mean and standard deviation calculations were made
on all anthropometric and health related fitness test results. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov
normality test was undertaken to distinguish whether data was normally distributed. If data
sets were found to be normally distributed then parametric tests would be used to analyse
the data. If data sets were not normally distributed then non-parametric tests would be
used to analyse the data. Results from this test conclude that data was normally
distributed. As data was parametric, a two-way annova, independent T-tests, and Pearson
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient were all used analyse the data.
Extracurricular attendance and gender were both analysed against participants test results
(dependent variables) using two way annova test. If a significant difference occurred
(value of p<0.05) within the two way annova, six independent T-tests were conducted to
distinguish where the difference occurred between the four sample groups (shown in Table
5). Bonferroni adjustment was applied to decrease the risk of type one errors due to the six
grouping variables used therefore, a significant difference was presented as (p<0.0083) for
the independent T-Tests. Parametric correlations were also conducted using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to distinguish any correlations between variables.
All analyses were conducted using the SPSS 12.0 package software.
Table 5. Six independent T-test comparisons which were completed between the four
gender/attendance classification groups to distinguish where the significant difference lay
between all groups.
Test Number
Groups analysed
1
Males who participated regularly vs males who did not participate regularly
2
Males who regularly participated vs females who regularly participated.
3
Males who regularly participated vs females who did not regularly participate
4
Males who did not regularly participate vs females who did regularly participate
5
Males who did not regularly participate vs females who did not regularly participate
6
Females who did regularly participate vs females who did not regularly participate
26
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
27
4.0 Results
Throughout this chapter, results are presented as a whole sample and separated into
gender groups and physical activity level groups. Various tests were undertaken to
distinguish relationships and differences between the following four classification groups:
(1) males who regularly participate in after school club physical activity, (2) males who do
not regularly participate in after school club physical activity, (3) females who regularly
participate in after school club physical activity, (4) females who do not regularly
participate in after school club physical activity. Regular participation was defined as
participating in two or more hours a week of after school club physical activity and nonregular participation was defined as participating in less than two hours a week of after
school club physical activity.
4.1 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for all components of health related fitness, anthropometric
measurements and physical activity levels for the whole sample and separate gender
groups are displayed in Table 6 showing mean and standard deviation results.
Table 6. Descriptive analysis of participants within the study showing mean ± SD results.
Whole Sample
Hours of PA
Height (m)
Males
Females
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
2.30 ± 1.93
2.31 ± 2.24
2.30 ± 1.59
167.61 ± 7.98
169.17 ± 8.04
165.98 ± 7.78
Weight (kg)
54.46 ± 8.36
55.51 ± 8.82
53.35 ± 7.92
BMI (kg/m²)
19.37 ± 2.54
19.38 ± 2.92
19.37 ± 2.16
Cooper Run (m)
2019.51 ± 490.00
2200.00 ± 498.00
1830.00 ± 413.08
Mean Flexibility (cm)
18.63 ± 8.21
15.92 ± 8.19
21.47 ± 7.41
Mean Strength (kg)
27.32 ± 5.25
29.56 ± 5.39
24.98 ± 4.01
41.27 ± 9.05
46.29 ± 7.62
36.00 ± 7.37
Mean Muscular
endurance (N /1 min)
28
Table 7 below demonstrates mean and standard deviation results between the two
attendance classifications including: participants who regularly attended after school club
physical activity (≥2 hrs/wk) and participants who did not regularly attend (<2 hrs/wk).
Table 7. Descriptive analysis showing results for each attendance classification group
presented as mean ± SD results.
Attendance
Non-attendance
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Height (m)
163.53 ± 7.34
Weight (kg)
51.21 ± 7.24
57.26 ± 8.39
BMI (kg/m²)
19.19 ± 2.54
19.53 ± 2.60
2142.11 ± 471.78
1913.64 ± 491.16
Mean Flexibility (cm)
21.79 ± 8.29
15.89 ± 7.26
Mean Strength (kg)
27.57 ± 5.47
27.11 ± 5.16
Mean Muscular
endurance (N /1 min)
41.79 ± 8.08
40.82 ± 9.98
Cooper Run (m)
171.14 ± 6.85
4.2.1 Anthropometric Data- Height and Weight.
Mean height results demonstrated no significant difference between genders (p>0.05),
however trends show that male participants were taller than female participants (169.17 ±
8.04 cm vs. 165.98 ± 7.78 cm). Mean weight results also demonstrated no significant
difference between gender groups (p>0.05) although trends show that male participants
weighed more than female participants (55.51 ± 8.82 kg vs. 53.35 ± 7.92 kg).
After school club attendance participants were significantly shorter than non-after school
attendance participants (163.53 ± 7.34 cm vs. 171.14 ± 6.85 cm) (p<0.05). Weight was
also significantly different, with results establishing that non-attendance participants
weighed more than attendance participants (57.26 ± 8.39 kg vs. 51.21 ± 7.24 kg) (p<0.05).
Two way annova results showed that there was no significant differences in either height
or weight between gender and regular after school club physical activity attendance/nonattendance (p>0.05).
29
4.2.2 Anthropometric data- Body Mass Index
The levels of BMI showed no significant difference between the two genders (p>0.05) and
between the two attendance/non-attendance classifications (p>0.05). Although trends
demonstrate that males have higher BMI levels as opposed to females (19.38 ± 2.92 kg/m²
vs. 19.37 ± 2.16 kg/m²) and participants who did not participate in regular after school club
physical activity had higher BMI levels than participants who did participate (19.53 ± 2.60
kg/m² vs. 19.19 ± 2.54 kg/m²). The two way analysis of variance (annova) test displayed
no significant difference between BMI, gender and after school club attendance (p>0.05).
Participants BMI scores were categorised in accordance with Cole et al. (2000) (shown in
Table 3 in the methods section). Results from the whole sample showed that 20% of
participants were deemed underweight, 71% were normal weight, 9% were overweight
and no participants were categorised as obese. Figure 1 shows the percentage differences
between participants who attended (n= 19) and didn’t attend (n= 22) regular after school
physical activity representing the percentage of participants who fall into each BMI weight
category.
Percentage of People
100
80
60
40
20
0
Underweight
Non-attendance
Attendance
18
21
Normal
Weight
73
68
Overweight
Obese
9
11
0
0
BMI categories
Figure 1. The percentage of participants who fall into each individual BMI weight
category in accordance with regular after school activity attendance/non-attendance.
30
4.3 Health Related Fitness
4.3.1 Aerobic Fitness (cooper run)
Cooper run results reveal that males have significantly higher aerobic fitness levels than
females (p<0.05). However, results between the two attendance/non-attendance groups
showed no significant difference (p>0.05). Although no significant difference, trends
demonstrate that aerobic fitness was greater in participants who regularly participated in
after school club physical activity as opposed to non-attendance participants (2142.11 ±
471.78 m vs. 1913.64 ± 491.16 m). Two way annova test results between gender, after
school club attendance/non-attendance and cooper run scores expressed no significant
difference (p>0.05).
4.2.2 Flexibility
Mean flexibility results demonstrate that female participants have significantly higher levels
of flexibility than male participants (21.47 ± 7.41 cm vs. 15.92 ± 8.19 cm) (p<0.05). Results
also demonstrate a significant difference in mean flexibility results between participants
who participated in regular after school club physical activity and those who did not
participate in regular after school club physical activity (21.79 ± 8.29 cm vs. 15.89 ± 7.26
cm) (p<0.05). Two way annova results express no significant difference between gender,
after school club attendance/non-attendance and flexibility combined (p>0.05).
4.3.3 Muscular Strength
Mean muscular strength results establish that males have significantly greater levels of
muscular strength than females (29.56 ± 5.39 kg vs. 24.98 ± 4.01 kg) (p<0.05). Results
expressed no significant difference between children who did and did not participate in
regular after school club physical activity (27.57 ± 5.47 kg vs. 27.11 ± 5.16 kg) (p>0.05).
The two-way annova test demonstrated a significant difference between gender, after
school club attendance and mean strength (p<0.05).
Six independent T-tests were conducted to distinguish where the differences between the
four groups lay from the two-way annova (shown in Table 8). T-test results conclude that
there was a significant difference in mean strength between males and females who both
participated in regular after school club physical activity (31.71 ± 3.52 kg vs. 23.84 ± 4.04
31
kg) (p<0.0083) and between males who did and females who did not participate in regular
after school club physical activity (31.71 ± 3.52 kg vs. 26.11 ± 3.86 kg) (p<0.0083).
Table 8. Independent T-test analysis results between different genders and participation
levels compared with muscular strength.
Independent T-test results
Test between Gender/Attendance classification
P value
Males who regularly participated vs males who did not participate regularly
0.114
Males who regularly participated vs females who regularly participated.
0.000312*
Males who regularly participated vs females who did not regularly participate
0.004*
Males who did not regularly participate vs females who regularly participated
0.084
Males who did not regularly participate vs females who did not regularly participate
0.423
Females who regularly participated vs females who did not regularly participate
0.214
* (p<0.0083).
Figure 2 demonstrates the differences in mean muscular strength results between the four
the gender/attendance classifications showing that males who participated in regular after
school club physical activity had higher levels of muscular strength than all other groups.
Muscular Strength score
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Muscular strength
1
31.71
2
27.94
3
23.84
4
26.11
Gender/Attendance classification
1- Males who participated in regular after school club physical activity.
2- Males who didn’t participate in regular after school club physical activity.
3- Females who participated in regular after school club physical activity.
4- Females who didn’t participate in regular after school club physical activity.
Figure 2. A comparison of mean muscular strength results between different
genders/attendance classifications.
32
4.3.4. Muscular Endurance
Mean muscular endurance results showed that males had significantly greater levels of
muscular endurance than females (46.29 ± 7.62 N/1 min vs. 36.00 ± 7.37 N/1 min)
(p<0.05). No significant difference was present between the two attendance/nonattendance classifications (p>0.05) although trends show that participants who regularly
participated have greater muscular endurance levels (41.79 ± 8.08 N/1 min vs. 40.82 ±
9.98 N/1 min). The two way annova between gender, after school club attendance and
muscular endurance also presented no significant difference (p>0.05)
Table 9. A two-way annova comparison between Gender and ASC attendance* compared
with participants health related levels.
BMI
Cooper
Mean
Mean
Run
Flexibility
Strength
Mean
Muscular
endurance
Annova Value
F (3,41)
F (3,41) =
F (3,41) =
F (3,41) =
F (3,41) =
(F value)
= 0.272
0.013
0.251
4.354
3.731
0.605
0.910
0.619
0.044**
0.061
Two way annova
(Gender and after
school attendance/
non-attendance)
(P value)
* (p<0.05).
33
4.4 Physical activity levels
Physical activity questionnaire results demonstrate that the percentage of participants who
regularly participated in after school club physical activity (≥2 h/wk) was 46% and the
percentage of participants who did not regularly participate in after school club physical
activity (<2 h/wk) was 54% of participants. Participation rates also differed between males
and females. The percentage of males who regularly attended was 43% compared with
57% of males who did not attend regular after school club physical activity. Participation
attendance/non-attendance was 50%/50% for females. Figure 3 demonstrates the
percentages of people who fall into the five different hour categories showing percentages
for the whole sample and comparisons between genders.
Results demonstrated that the largest percentage of males (33%) partook in no hours of
physical activity per/week. The largest percentage of females participated in 3.5 hours of
physical activity per/week. The greatest percentage of the total group (34%) participated in
3.5 hours of after school club physical activity a week. The graph also shows that a only a
small percentage of people participate in more than 3.5 hours of after school club physical
activity per week (9.76% in 5.5 hours and 2.44% in 7+ hours) totalling to 12.2% of
participants within the study.
Percentage of Participants
100
80
60
40
20
0
Whole sample
Male
Female
0
27
33
20
1.5
27
24
30
3.5
34
24
45
5.5
10
14
5
7+
2
5
0
Different hour categories displaying the total number of hours of after
school club physical activity completed
Figure 3. Percentage of participants from the whole sample and of both genders categorising
the percentage of participants who fall into each hour category.
34
4.5 Correlations
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was undertaken to distinguish
relationships between certain variables. A positive correlation value was (r = ≥0.2) with a
strong correlation value set at (r = ≥0.8). A negative correlation value was (r = ≤ -0.2) and
a strong negative correlation value set at (r = ≤ -0.8) (for all correlation values see
Appendix K.
4.5.1 Correlation results between gender or after school club physical activity
attendance/non-attendance and health related fitness components.
Results express that there is a significant correlation between gender and mean flexibility
results, demonstrating a weak positive correlation value of (r = 0.342) (p<0.05). Results
also demonstrate negative correlations between gender and health related fitness
components. A negative correlation was present between gender and cooper run results
expressing a weak negative correlation value of (r = -0.382) (p<0.05). Significant negative
correlations were also present between gender and mean strength (r = -0.442) and
between gender and mean muscular endurance (r = -0.575) (p<0.05). Correlation test
results established a significant weak negative correlation between mean flexibility results
and regular after school club attendance/non-attendance (r = -0.362) (p<0.05).
4.5.2 Correlation results between all anthropometric measures/health related fitness
components.
Correlation test results show a significant positive correlation (p<0.05) between height and
weight (r = 0.530), BMI and weight (r = 0.792), mean strength and weight (r = 0.324), and
between cooper run and mean endurance (r = 0.347). Significant negative correlations
(p<0.05) are apparent between height and mean flexibility (r = -0.530) and between weight
and mean flexibility (r = -0.545).
35
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
36
5.0 Discussion
The purpose of this research study was to identify the impact that extracurricular after
school club physical activity has on year nine children’s health related fitness levels. This
chapter will discuss the results from the present research study and such results will be
compared against previous research interventions, to demonstrate any correlations and/or
differences between comparable studies. The second section of this chapter will provide
strengths and limitations of the study.
5.1 Physical activity levels
Results demonstrated that 46% of participants regularly participated in after school club
physical activity (≥2 hrs/wk) and 54% of participants did not regularly participate in after
school club physical activity (<2 hrs/wk). Results also concluded that 37% of participants
participated in no hours of after school club physical activity per week, 27% in 1.5 hrs/wk,
34% in 3.5 hrs/wk, 10% in 5.5 hrs/wk and 2% of participants participated in seven or more
hours a week of after school club physical activity. The guidelines for physical activity
highlighted that children of this age should participate in vigorous intensity activities which
cause an increase in breathing rate and heart rate on three occasions per week for 60
minutes (Department of Health, 2011). Results from the present study demonstrate that all
participants who participated in regular after school club physical activity (≥2 hrs/wk) met
the guidelines for vigorous physical activity and all participants who did not participate in
regular after school club physical activity (<2 hrs/wk) did not meet the vigorous physical
activity guidelines.
5.2.1 Anthropometric Data- Height and Weight.
Mean anthropometric results demonstrate no significant difference in height between
males and females (p>0.05). However mean height results demonstrate a trend showing
that males were taller than females (169.17 ± 8.04 cm vs. 165.98 ± 7.78 cm). Similar
findings were established by Freedman et al. (2004) who identified the relationship
between height and weight in association with BMI levels in children. Freedman et al.’s
(2004) study demonstrated that participants had lower mean heights than the present
study of (167 ± 13 vs. 161 ± 8 cm) for males and females aged between 12 to 18 years.
Normative values for males and females of 14 years are (162.56 vs. 160.02 cm)
(Callaway, 2013), therefore the present study results demonstrate that the participants
37
mean height is above average although it is normal for males to be taller than females.
Results also displayed that participants who did not participate in regular after school club
physical activity were significantly taller (p<0.05) than participants who did not participate
in regular after school club physical activity. However, previous interventions such as
Hussey et al. (2007) have shown that there is no significant correlation between those who
participate and those who do not participate in regular physical activity in relation to height.
Mean weight results expressed no significant difference between males and females
(p>0.05) although weight measures demonstrated a trend that males in the study were
heavier than females (55.51 ± 8.82 kg vs. 53.35 ± 7.92 kg). Mean weight results also
demonstrated that participants were slightly above the national average weight for children
aged 14 years which is 50.80 kg for males and 49.44 kg for females (Callaway, 2013). In
relation to physical activity, participants who attended regular after school club physical
activity demonstrated a significantly lower mean weight than participants who did not
attend regular after school club physical activity (p<0.05). This could be due to the effect
that physical activity has on energy expenditure, as all forms of physical activity can affect
energy balance (Jakicic, 2002). Another explanation could be down to regular physical
activity contributing to a regulation of body weight, as a reduction in energy expenditure is
associated with weight gain (Jakicic, 2002).
Findings from the present study are comparative with those from Perez-Rodriguez et al.
(2012).
Within
their
study
they
compared
the
association
between
physical
activity/inactivity with body weight and body fat within children aged between 8 and 10
years. Conclusions established that normal weight children participate in more light and
moderate to vigorous physical activity in out of school hours than overweight/obese
children (95.2 ± 47.9 min vs. 76.2 ± 43.2 min). Mean weight statistics also demonstrate
that normal weight children were significantly lighter than obese children (32.6 ± 6.2 kg vs.
51.7 ± 8.8 kg) (p<0.05) Perez-Rodriguez et al., 2012). Therefore results suggest that
participants who participate in greater amounts of light and moderate to vigorous physical
activity weigh less than children who do not participate in as much physical activity.
38
5.2.2 Anthropometric Data- Body Mass Index (BMI).
BMI results showed no significant difference between males and females (19.38 ± 2.92
kg/m² vs. 19.37 ± 2.16 kg/m²) (p>0.05) and between participants who did and did not
participate in regular after school physical activity (19.19 ± 2.54 kg/m² vs. 19.53 ± 2.60
kg/m²) (p>0.05). In relation to physical activity attendance/non-attendance, BMI results are
comparable with Maffeis et al. (1998), as such researchers established that over a four
year period, regular physical activity had no significant impact on children’s BMI values.
The findings of a study conducted by Dwyer et al. (1983), contradict those of the present
study, as findings confirmed that children who participated in a two year physical activity
programme had significantly lower BMI levels than children who only participated in 14
weeks of physical activity. This demonstrates that participation in regular activity over a
two year period has a positive effect on children’s BMI levels. Therefore showing a
difference to the present study as the present study results show no relationship between
children who participate regular in physical activity as opposed to people who do not
participate compared with BMI levels. An additional study which contradicts the results
produced by the present study is that by Madsen et al. (2009). This study also associated
active physical activity participation with lower BMI scores. The study reported that
children who participated in at least 20 minutes of exercise in P.E. classes per day had
lower BMI scores than those who did not (Madsen et al, 2009).
Participants BMI scores were categorised in agreement with Cole et al. (2000) (shown in
Table 3 in the methods section). BMI results were categorised into different BMI weight
categories displaying those participants who were underweight, normal weight, overweight
or obese, for both participants who attended and participants who did not attend regular
after school club physical education (shown in Figure 1). Within the after school
attendance classifications, results demonstrated that between those participants who
attended regular after school club physical activity (n= 19), 21% of those were
underweight, 68% were normal weight, 11% overweight and no participants were obese.
BMI categories for participants who did not attend regular after school physical activity (n=
22) demonstrate that 18% of participants were underweight, 73% normal weight, 9%
overweight and no participants were overweight. However there was no significant
difference in percentages between the two attendance classifications (p>0.05).
39
5.3 Health Related Fitness
5.3.1 Aerobic Fitness (Cooper Run)
Results from the aerobic fitness test reveal that there was a significant difference between
males and females aerobic fitness levels (2200 ± 498 m vs. 1830 ± 413.08 m) (p<0.05).
Results also showed trends that participants who participated in regular after school
activity demonstrated greater levels of aerobic fitness than those who did not however no
significant difference was present (2142.11 ± 471.78 m vs. 1913.64 ± 491.16 m) (p>0.05).
An intervention which supports the results from the present study is that of Mayorga-Vega
et al. (2013). The study aimed to evaluate the short-term effects of an eight week circuit
training programme on cardiovascular endurance within 10-12 year olds. The intervention
consisted of two samples: an experimental group who performed the 8 week circuit
training programme in addition to a control group who simply attended normal P.E.
lessons. Results indicated that the experimental group’s cardiovascular fitness levels
increased significantly (p<0.05) and the control group remained relatively the same
showing no significant difference in the results pre and post intervention (p>0.05).
Therefore demonstrating that participation in regular physical activity increases aerobic
fitness which supports the current trends from the Cooper Run test results.
Normative approximate values for the Cooper Run Aerobic Fitness Test were categorised
in accordance with Mackenzie (1997) who provided approximate values for different
categories of aerobic fitness levels. Mackenzie (1997) approximated values for children by
assessing normative values from adult’s which were highlighted by Cooper (1968). In
comparison with the approximate average distances categorised by Mackenzie (1997),
results from the present study demonstrate that both males and females as individual
groups fall into the average performance category for aerobic fitness. However differences
in performance categories lay between participation/non-participation classifications
(shown in Table 10). As the distance classifications from Mackenzie (1997) are
approximate values, conclusions cannot be made on children’s overall aerobic fitness
levels. Therefore, the use of this aerobic fitness test within the study could be a potential
limitation of the study due previous studies only presenting approximate values for
children’s aerobic fitness levels from cooper run results.
40
Table 10. Total metres and SD results from the cooper run in relation to
gender/attendance classification group with comparison to average distances categorised
by Mackenzie (1997).
Results from
Distance for
Performance
aerobic
classification
Classification
fitness test
categorized by
for gender
Mackenzie (1997)
Total Males (n=21)
2200 ± 498 m
Average=
Lower percentile
2200-2399m
in Average
Males who
2356 ±
Average=
Upper percentile
participated regularly
441.90 m
2200-2399m
in Average
Males who did not
2083 ±
Below average=
Lower percentile
participate regularly
523.68 m
2100-2199m
in Below Average
1830 ±
Average=
Upper percentile
413.08 m
1600-1899m
in Average
Females who regularly
1950 ±
Above average=
Middle of Above
participated (n=10)
430.12 m
1900-2000m
Average
females who did not
1710 ±
Average=
Middle of
regularly participate
378.45 m
1600-1899m
Average
(n=9)
(n=12)
Total Females (n=20)
(n=10)
41
5.3.2 Flexibility
Mean flexibility results displayed that female participants had significantly better levels of
flexibility than males (21.47 ± 7.41 cm vs. 15.92 ± 8.19 cm) (p<0.05). Participants who
participated in regular after school club physical activity also had significantly better
flexibility than those who did not participate (21.79 ± 8.29 cm vs. 15.89 ± 7.26 cm)
(p<0.05). The literature regarding the impact that physical activity has on flexibility levels
within young children is sparse. However interventions which examine young adult’s
physical activity levels in comparison with flexibility have been adequately examined.
Both Boraczyński et al. (2009) and Kaminska et al. (2012) assessed physical activity levels
in relation to flexibility levels amongst young adults. Boraczyński et al. (2009) proposed to
assess the impact of various levels of physical activity with flexibility in 22-23 year old
students. The study consisted of two experimental groups including physical education
students (n=235), who had regularly participated in (342mins/wk vs. 276 mins/wk) of
physical activity for males and females, along with physiotherapy students (n=142), who
had regularly participated in (134 mins/week vs. 166 mins/wk) of physical activity for males
and females. Associative results with the present study include that flexibility results
showed significantly better flexibility in physical education students compared with
physiotherapy students flexibility levels (p<0.001). A contrasting result with the present
research study is that females within the Boraczyński et al. (2009) study did not have
significantly better flexibility levels than males (p>0.05), as present study results showed a
significant difference between the two genders (p<0.05).
The Kaminska et al. (2012) study comprised of 91 students aged between 19 to 23 years.
Researchers developed a physical activity questionnaire which assessed the type and
duration of participants’ weekly physical activity levels. Questionnaire results were
analysed against participants hamstring flexibility test results. Researchers identified that
there was a significant difference in gender as females demonstrated significantly better
flexibility results than males (p<0.05) which supports the findings from the present study.
Results also demonstrated that participants who undertook high or vigorous amounts of
physical activity had significantly enhanced flexibility than participants who participated in
low levels of physical activity (p<0.05). Although participants within both of the studies
were older than participants in the present study, results still demonstrate that better
flexibility is positively associated with increased physical activity levels and trends suggest
42
that females have better flexibility than males (Boraczyński et al., 2009; Kaminska et al.,
2012).
5.3.3 Muscular Strength
Mean muscular strength results concluded that males have a significantly greater level of
muscular strength than females (29.56 ± 5.39 kg vs. 24.98 ± 4.01 kg) (p<0.05). Although
no significant difference was present between participants who attended and participants
who did not attend regular after school club physical activity (27.57 ± 5.47 kg vs. 27.11 ±
5.16 kg) (p>0.05). Results also demonstrated a significant difference between gender,
after school club attendance/non-attendance compared with muscular strength (p<0.05).
Additional comparisons distinguished that males who participated in regular after school
club physical activity had significantly greater levels of muscular strength than both female
attendance groups (p<0.05).
Results from the present study are comparable with results found by Moliner-Urdiales et
al. (2010). Researchers proposed to identify whether meeting the current physical activity
recommendation of 60 mins/day of moderate to vigorous physical activity, would have an
impact on the muscular strength levels of children aged between 12.5-17.5 years. The
study distinguished that males had a significantly greater level of overall muscular strength
than females (p<0.05) which was also the case in the present study. Results also
established that there was no significant difference between females who met the physical
activity level recommendations and females who did not, in association with overall
muscular strength levels (p>0.05).
Males however, demonstrated a positive association between participation in vigorous
physical activity in relation to lower body muscular strength, although no significant
difference was distinguished between the level of physical activity and upper body strength
(p>0.05). Results therefore coincide with the present study as this used upper-body handgrip strength as the muscular strength analysis. Both the present study and MolinerUrdiales et al.’s (2010) study demonstrate no significant differences between the level of
physical activity compared with upper-body muscular strength (p>0.05).
43
In comparison to the results from the present study, although some forms of physical
activity may not increase muscular strength, it is apparent that certain types of exercise will
improve overall muscular strength of individuals (Dorgo et al., 2010). Dorgo et al. (2010)
highlighted that physical activity which places a certain level of stress on skeletal muscles
will improve muscular strength. Although the types of physical activity were not recorded in
the present study, the statement by Dorgo et al., (2010) may imply that those who did
participate regularly in after school clubs may not have undertaken activities which placed
amounts of stress on the skeletal muscles.
5.3.4 Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance test results established that males had significantly greater levels of
muscular endurance than females (46.29 ± 7.62 N/1 min vs. 36.00 ± 7.37 N/1 min)
(p<0.05). Results also demonstrated no significant difference between the two attendance
classifications (p>0.05) however trends showed that participants who regularly attended
after school club physical activities had slightly greater levels of muscular endurance than
participants who did not (41.79 ± 8.08 N/1 min vs. 40.82 ± 9.98 N/1 min). Various
intervention studies have been documented examining the impact that various types,
durations and intensities of physical activity has on children’s muscular endurance levels.
However the literature relating to the impact of different physical education and
extracurricular activity participation levels in relation to children’s muscular endurance
levels is sparse.
An intervention by Mayorga-Vega et al. (2013) contradicts the findings of the present
study. This research study involved children of 10-12 years. Participants completed an 8
week circuit training programme for between 100 and 150 minutes a week. Conclusions
demonstrate that participants significantly increased their muscular endurance levels from
pre-test to post-test (p<0.05). In comparison to the present studies regular physical activity
attendance classification of ≥2 hrs/wk, results from the Mayorga-Vega et al. (2013) study
suggest that children undertook regular physical activity as they completed ≥2 hrs/wk of
physical activity. Therefore as results demonstrated that participation in the circuit program
had a significant influence on children’s muscular endurance (p<0.05), assumptions could
be made indicating that this type of regular physical activity is effective for improving
muscular endurance (Mayorga-Vega et al., 2013).
44
A further intervention which contradicts the results of the present study is Hutchens et al.’s
(2010) intervention, however their intervention consisted of 360 minutes of physical activity
a week for five weeks which is dramatically more than the amount of regular physical
activity that was defined in the present study at ≥2 hrs/wk. Although participants who
participated in the regular physical activity increased their muscular endurance, no
significant difference was apparent between pre and post test results (p>0.05).
Assumptions could be made highlighting that if participants in the study participated in less
amounts of physical activity, then muscular endurance levels may not have increased at
all.
5.4 Strengths and Limitations of the study
A strength of the present study was the method of assessment for all individual health
related fitness tests. Firstly, all participants were instructed on how to use the specific
equipment by a trained principal researcher which ensured that participants had a
thorough understanding on how to complete each test. Secondly, multiple fitness tests
were supervised by either the principal researcher or trained P.E. supervisors which meant
that technique could be corrected if participants were demonstrating incorrect form when
completing certain fitness tests. Through providing trained supervisors for assistance and
also demonstrating and explaining the correct technique to participants, this ensured that
all results in the test were consistent throughout every participant. A further strength
relates to the equipment used for the fitness tests. All equipment was new and was all
calibrated accurately to ensure all measurements and test results were precise.
A major limitation of this study refers to the sample size. The sample (n=41) was small
including just 19 participants who participated in regular after school club physical activity
and 21 participants who did not participate in regular after school club physical activity. A
further limitation regarding the sample was that it only targeted year nine students from
one school. As a result of this limitation, the generalisability of the current results is poor as
the results are not relevant to other populations. Another limitation relates to the method of
physical activity assessment. All participants completed a physical activity questionnaire
and were categorised into individual attendance/non-attendance classifications from
questionnaire results. A negative of using this method of physical activity assessment was
that although all participants were separated from each other to prevent copying,
participants could have provided false information in the physical activity questionnaire
which could have had an impact on the validity of the results. A further limitation as
45
previously highlighted, was the use of the Cooper Run test to analyse children’s aerobic
fitness levels. This is a limitation due to previous research only providing approximate
values for children’s aerobic fitness levels with no researchers distinguishing exact figures
for average aerobic fitness levels.
A final limitation of the study relates to the assessment method for muscular strength.
Mean results from a maximum hand-grip dynamometer test were used to determine
participants maximum muscular strength. Although this method was quick and easy
method for evaluating muscular strength, it only targeted upper-body strength and
provides limited information in relation to overall muscular strength. A study by MolinerUrdiales et al. (2010) also evaluated muscular strength although included tests such as the
squat jump, abalakov test and the standing broad jump test as well as a hand-grip strength
test. Results from Moliner-Urdiales et al.’s (2010) study provide a larger amount of
information on overall muscular strength as they incorporated both upper and lower body
strength. All methods for assessment in their study were simple evaluation methods which
would have been effective to incorporate in the present study.
46
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
47
6.0 Conclusion
The overall aim of the study was to identify the impact that extracurricular after school club
physical activity has on year nine children’s health related fitness levels. Physical activity
questionnaire results demonstrated that 46% of participants within the study participated in
(≥2 hrs/wk) of after school club physical activity and 54% of participants participated in
(<2 hrs/wk) of after school club physical activity. All participants who regularly attended
after school clubs (≥2 hrs/wk) met the current guidelines for vigorous physical activity and
non-attendance participants (<2 hrs/wk) did not meet current vigorous physical activity
guidelines.
Anthropometric results showed no significant difference between genders in both height
and weight measurements (p>0.05) although trends demonstrated that males were taller
and heavier than females. In relation to attendance, participants who did not regularly
attend after school clubs were significantly taller and heavier than those who regularly
attended after school clubs (p<0.05). The study hypothesised that BMI levels would be
higher in participants who did not regularly attend after school club physical activity.
However, BMI results showed no significant differences between the two attendance
classifications (p>0.05), therefore demonstrating contradictory results in comparison with
the hypothesis.
Health related fitness test results demonstrated that males have significantly greater levels
of aerobic fitness, muscular strength and muscular endurance than females (p<0.05).
However, mean flexibility test results established that females have significantly better
flexibility than males (p<0.05). The study hypothesised that the levels of aerobic fitness,
muscular strength, muscular endurance and flexibility would be greater in children that
regularly participated in after school club physical activity. Results established that the only
health related fitness component which coincides with the research hypothesis was
flexibility, as participants who regularly participated in after school club physical activity
demonstrated significantly better flexibility than participants who did not participate
(p<0.05).
48
Health related fitness components including muscular strength, muscular endurance and
aerobic fitness test results revealed no significant difference between the two attendance
classifications (p>0.05). However, results from the health related fitness tests showed
trends concluding that the fitness levels were greater in participants who regularly
participated in after school club physical activity compared with non-regular participation
students. Therefore, although results were contradictory of the research hypothesis, trends
suggest that after school club physical activity has a positive influence on all health related
fitness levels in year nine children.
6.1 Areas for future research
A possible area for future research could be to determine the relationship between
participation in different types of after school sports clubs, in comparison with children’s
health related fitness levels. An example of this research could be to analyse whether
males health related fitness levels differ between regular participation in an after school
gymnastics club in comparison with an after school rugby club. Numerous different after
school clubs could be targeted and compared against each other to determine whether the
type of sport has an effect on children’s individual health related fitness components.
A similar possible research study could be to assess whether health related fitness levels
differ between participants who participate regularly in a variety of different after school
club sports in comparison with a group who participate regularly in just one sport. A
physical activity questionnaire could be developed to distinguish two sample groups.
Health related fitness tests could then be undertaken and comparisons made in order to
distinguish any relationships or differences between the two samples.
6.2 Recommendations for applied Practise
As results demonstrated trends that health related fitness levels are greater in children
who participate in regular extracurricular exercise, these results could be provided to the
school physical education department and potentially the local Health Authority. Reasons
behind the recommendation to these specific target groups are so that both groups can
promote after school club physical activity to non-attendance participants, to enhance
overall participation rates, explain the positive impact that physical activity has on health
related fitness and help to promote lifelong participation.
49
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Perez-Rodriguez, M., Melendez, G., Nieto, C., Aranda, M. and Pfeffer, F. (2012). Dietary
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T.N. (2008).Team sports for overweight children: the Stanford Sports to Prevent Obesity
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60
APPENDICES
61
APPENDIX A
LETTER TO HEAD TEACHER REQUESTING SCHOOL
ASSENT.
A-1
A-2
APPENDIX B
PARTICIPANT ASSENT FORM
B-1
B-2
APPENDIX C
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET
C-1
C-2
C-3
APPENDIX D
PARENT CONSENT FORM
D-1
D-2
APPENDIX E
PARENT INFORMATION SHEET
E-1
E-2
E-3
APPENDIX F
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE
F-1
F-2
F-3
F-4
APPENDIX G
PARTICIPANT DATA COLLECTION SHEET (GIRLS)
G-1
G-2
APPENDIX H
PARTICIPANT DATA COLLECTION SHEET (BOYS)
H-1
H-2
APPENDIX I
WEIGHT DATA COLLECTION SHEET
I-1
Weight Data Collection sheet
Males
Weight (kg)
Females
B.1
G.1
B.2
G.2
B.3
G.3
B.4
G.4
B.5
G.5
B.6
G.6
B.7
G.7
B.8
G.8
B.9
G.9
B.10
G.10
B.11
G.11
B.12
G.12
B.13
G.13
B.14
G.14
B.15
G.15
B.16
G.16
B.17
G.17
B.18
G.18
B.19
G.19
B.20
G.20
B.21
G.21
B.22
G.22
B.23
G.23
G.24
B.24
I-2
Weight (kg)
APPENDIX J
COOPER RUN DATA COLLECTION SHEET
J-1
Cooper run
Males
Laps Completed
(400 metres)
Females
B.1
G.1
B.2
G.2
B.3
G.3
B.4
G.4
B.5
G.5
B.6
G.6
B.7
G.7
B.8
G.8
B.9
G.9
B.10
G.10
B.11
G.11
B.12
G.12
B.13
G.13
B.14
G.14
B.15
G.15
B.16
G.16
B.17
G.17
B.18
G.18
B.19
G.19
B.20
G.20
B.21
G.21
B.22
G.22
B.23
G.23
B.24
G.24
J-2
Laps Completed
(400 metres)
APPENDIX K
CORRELATION TEST RESULTS
K-1
Hrs
Pearson
Correlation
Hrs
Height
Weight
BMI
Mean
Flexibility
Cooper run
Mean
Endurance
Mean
Strength
Age
Gender
After School
Attendance
1
-0.471**
-0.348*
-0.062
0.368*
0.280
0.107
0.138
-0.034
-0.003
-0.879**
0.002
0.026
0.701
0.018
0.077
0.505
0.391
0.834
0.988
0.0000000
1
0.530**
-0.092
-0.530**
-0.128
0.079
0.250
0.083
-0.202
0.482**
0.000360
0.586
0.000364
0.427
0.624
0.115
0.607
0.204
0.001
1
0.792**
-0.545**
-0.237
-0.123
0.324*
-0.010
-0.131
0.365*
0.000000
0.000229
0.136
0.444
0.039
0.952
0.415
0.019
1
-0.252
-0.191
-0.205
0.200
-0.089
-0.003
0.066
0.111
0.232
0.198
0.211
0.582
0.984
0.682
1
0.284
-0.039
-0.102
-0.076
0.342*
-0.362*
0.072
0.809
0.527
0.637
0.029
0.020
1
0.347*
0.257
-0.089
-0.382*
-0.235
0.026
0.105
0.582
0.014
0.138
1
0.290
0.139
-0.575**
-0.054
0.066
0.387
0.000084
0.737
1
0.137
-0.442**
-0.044
0.393
0.004
0.783
1
-0.172
0.024
0.281
0.881
1
-0.072
P value
Height
Weight
BMI
Mean
Flexibility
Cooper run
Mean
Endurance
Mean
Strength
Age
Gender
After School
Attendance
Pearson
Correlation
-0.471**
P value
0.002
Pearson
Correlation
-0.348*
0.530**
P value
0.026
0.000360
Pearson
Correlation
-0.062
-0.092
0.792**
P value
0.701
0.568
0.000000
Pearson
Correlation
0.368*
-0.530**
-0.545**
-0.252
P value
0.018
0.000364
0.000229
0.111
Pearson
Correlation
0.280
-0.128
-0.237
-0.191
0.284
P value
0.077
0.427
0.136
0.232
0.072
Pearson
Correlation
0.107
0.079
-0.123
-0.205
-0.039
0.347*
P value
0.505
0.624
0.444
0.198
0.809
0.026
Pearson
Correlation
0.138
0.250
0.324*
0.200
-0.102
0.257
0.290
P value
0.391
0.115
0.039
0.211
0.527
0.105
0.066
Pearson
Correlation
-0.034
0.083
-0.010
-0.089
-0.076
-0.089
0.139
0.137
P value
0.834
0.607
0.952
0.582
0.637
0.582
0.387
0.393
Pearson
Correlation
-0.003
-0.202
-0.131
-0.003
0.342*
-0.382*
-0.575**
-0.442**
-0.172
P value
0.988
0.204
0.415
0.984
0.029
0.014
0.000084
0.004
0.281
Pearson
Correlation
-0.879**
0.482**
0.365*
0.066
-0.362*
-0.235
-0.054
-0.044
0.024
-0.072
0.000000
0.001
0.019
0.682
0.020
0.138
0.737
0.783
0.881
0.656
P value
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
K-2
0.656
1
APPENDIX L
ETHICS APPROVAL LETTER
L-1
L-2
APPENDIX M
ETHICS APPLICATION FORM
M-1
When undertaking a research or enterprise project, Cardiff Met staff and students are obliged to
complete this form in order that the ethics implications of that project may be considered.
If the project requires ethics approval from an external agency such as the NHS or MoD, you will not
need to seek additional ethics approval from Cardiff Met. You should however complete Part One of
this form and attach a copy of your NHS application in order that your School is aware of the project.
The document Guidelines for obtaining ethics approval will help you complete this form. It is available
from the Cardiff Met website.
Once you have completed the form, sign the declaration and forward to your School Research Ethics
Committee.
PLEASE NOTE:
Participant recruitment or data collection must not commence until ethics approval has been
obtained.
PART ONE
Name of applicant:
Lewis Edward Jones
Supervisor (if student project):
Anwen Rees
School:
School of Sport
Student number (if applicable):
ST20001717
Programme enrolled on (if applicable):
Sport and Physical Education
Project Title:
The influence of extracurricular activity on
health related fitness levels in year nine
children.
Expected Start Date:
01/07/2013
Approximate Duration:
6 months
Funding Body (if applicable):
N/A
Other researcher(s) working on the project:
N/A
Will the study involve NHS patients or staff?
No
Will the study involve taking samples of
human origin from participants?
No
In no more than 150 words, give a non technical summary of the project
The proposed project is an assessment of children’s (13-14 year olds) health related fitness levels
in a school environment. The project will compare health related fitness levels of pupils who
participate in extracurricular activities (after school exercise) and children who do not participate
in extracurricular activities. The reason behind the project is to examine whether extracurricular
M-2
exercise is effective in the development of children’s health related fitness. The project will involve
attending a comprehensive school and completing health related fitness tests on 40 children aged
13-14 years old; Twenty children who participate in regular extracurricular exercise (2 or more
hours a week) and twenty children who do not participate in regular extracurricular activity (less
than 2 hours a week). The tests that will be carried out include; muscular strength, muscular
endurance, aerobic fitness, flexibility and body mass index. The aim of this project is to see if 2 or
more hours of extracurricular activities has a beneficial effect on the health related fitness of
children aged 13-14 years.
Does your project fall entirely within one of the following categories:
Paper based, involving only documents in
No
the public domain
$$Laboratory based, not involving human
No
participants or human tissue samples
Practice based not involving human
No
participants (eg curatorial, practice audit)
Compulsory projects in professional practice No
(eg Initial Teacher Education)
If you have answered YES to any of these questions, no further information regarding your project
is required.
If you have answered NO to all of these questions, you must complete Part 2 of this form
DECLARATION:
I confirm that this project conforms with the Cardiff Met Research Governance Framework
Signature of the applicant:
Date: 14/6/2013
Lewis Edward Jones
FOR STUDENT PROJECTS ONLY
Name of supervisor:
Anwen Rees
Date: 14/6/2013
Signature of supervisor:
M-3
Research Ethics Committee use only
Decision reached:
Project approved
Project approved in principle
Decision deferred
Project not approved
Project rejected
Project reference number: 13/05/190U
Name: Peter O’Donoghue
Date: 26/06/2013
Signature:
Details of any conditions upon which approval is dependant:
Click here to enter text.
PART TWO
A RESEARCH DESIGN
A1 Will you be using an approved protocol in your project?
No
A2 If yes, please state the name and code of the approved protocol to be used2
N/A
A3 Describe the research design to be used in your project
Sample
The study will be conducted at a comprehensive school looking at 40 children in year
nine (ages 13/14), 20 who participate in regular extracurricular exercise and 20 who do not
participate in regular extracurricular exercise. Regular extracurricular exercise will be defined as
somebody who completes two or more hours per week. Non regular extracurricular exercise will
be categorised as somebody who completes less than 2 hours of extracurricular exercise per
week. Year nine children will be used due to this age group not having any crucial examinations
such as GCSE’s.
Recruitment of participants
The researcher has recently been in contact with a comprehensive school and the school is
prepared for the research to be undertaken. Participants will be recruited following the
completion of a physical activity questionnaire (Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents
(PAQ-A)) with two year nine PE classes. Extracurricular activity time will be determined from
these questionnaires and the sample will be selected. Parents will be given an information sheet
and a consent form, and all children will be given an information sheet and assent form. These
will contain all details for the study. Children will only be allowed to participate when both
M-4
consent and assent forms have been signed and returned to the researcher. Those who wish
to participant will be told that they can withdraw at any point during the study.
Research method/s
Procedures- The testing will be completed over four days during lunch time hours ensuring that
no curricular teaching hours are affected. The sample will be divided into groups of 10 – 2
groups of girls (one group of <2 hours of extra-curricular activities and one group of ≥2 hours)
and 2 groups of boys (one group of <2 hours of extra-curricular activities and one group of ≥2
hours)
The first sample of 10 participants will perform the tests in a lunch time which lasts for 60
minutes. The second, third and fourth samples of 10 participants will complete the health related
fitness testing on the forthcoming days. Within each group, participants will have a partner and
record each other’s results accurately on a data collection sheet. Weight will be measured by
the researcher due to the sensitivity of the measurement. The exact procedure of the testing is
highlighted in Table 1.
The following test will be conducted three times and an average will be calculated to improve
the reliability of the results:

BMI- Height and weight measurements

Maximum strength- hand grip test

Flexibility- Sit and Reach test.
The following tests will be conducted once:

Aerobic fitness- 12 minute cooper run

Muscular endurance- maximum sit ups in 60 seconds.
M-5
Table 1. Timings and order of lunch time health related fitness testing.
Day 1- Group 1 (10 participants, 5 x 2)
Component of Time
Health
Related
Fitness
Introduction to 13.00testing
13.05pm
Test used
Body
Composition
(BMI)
13.0513.15pm
Height
and
Weight
measurements
Muscular
strength
Muscular
endurance
13.1513.20pm
13.2013.30pm
Hand
grip
strength test
Maximum
amount of sit
ups
in
60
seconds.
Aerobic
fitness
13.3013.50pm
12
minute
cooper run.
Flexibility
13.5013.55pm
Sit and reach
box test.
De-brief
of 13.55fitness testing 14.00pm
Other details
An explanation of the process told
to participants explaining order of
the tests- individual data collection
sheets given to groups. Any
questions participants have to be
answered.
Ensure participants are standing
upright and facing forwards with no
shoes on and aren’t wearing any
heavy clothes.
Ensure the observer records the
correct score.
Make sure the observer is holding
the feet of the working participant
and counting the number of sit ups
achieved, and looking at stop
watch.
Ensure participants stretch before
they
start.
Encourage
all
participants whilst on the cooper
run. Make sure I have a sufficient
data recording sheet.
Ensure participants remove shoes
for this test. Make sure all
participants do not bend at the
knee and keep legs touching the
floor at all times.
Thank all participants for their
maximum effort within the study.
Ask whether they enjoyed it and
how they felt. Answer any
questions from participants.
M-6
Equipment
Stadiometer,
Weighing
scales
Handgrip
Dynamometer
Stop watch,
Exercise mat.
400
metre
running track.
Sit and reach
box.
Statistical Analysis
Data will be inputted into an excel spread sheet and an average sum for each health
related fitness test will be calculated. The results will be compared against national performance
standards using FITNESSGRAM and comparing results to the Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ)
within FITNESSGRAM to evaluate fitness performance. Statistical analysis of the data will be
conducted using SPSS software. Tests will include t-test’s, correlations and ANOVA’s. A
comparison will be made between children participating in <2 hours a week of extracurricular
activities and ≥2 hours of extracurricular activities. Comparisons will also be made between
genders within and between the different groups. Once the statistical analysis has been
completed it will provide information to justify whether there is a difference in the health related
fitness levels within these comparative samples.
A4 Will the project involve deceptive or covert research?
No
A5 If yes, give a rationale for the use of deceptive or covert research
N/A
B PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE
B1 What previous experience of research involving human participants relevant to this project do you
have?
I have experience of the research process within the SSP5051 Research Methods module. This
module has allowed me to produce research questions, collect data, analyse data, choose
appropriate research methods, discuss results and relate these to previous research and also
consider all ethical issues when working with certain populations. An understanding of the
different statistical techniques has also been developed through the research methods module.
I have a great amount of experience in working with young children in a coaching environment. I
have recently been coaching children aged 5-8 in a primary school coaching after school
activities for the last 4 months. I have also previously coached a year nine boys rugby team for
a season. This has given me a good understanding of how year nine children behave and
interact and has also improved my confidence in organising large groups of children. I have also
got an approved CRB through Cardiff Metropolitan University. I have good experience in all of
the fitness tests which will be conducted in the research. I have personally conducted all of the
tests before in either Physiology laboratories in my first year at university within the Physiology
module or during A Level Physical Education. I am fully familiar with all of the tests and will be
M-7
happy to conduct all of the tests with the participants/ children.
B2 Student project only
What previous experience of research involving human participants relevant to this project does your
supervisor have?
Anwen Rees is a lecturer in Physiology and Health and has extensive experience of research
involving human participants. Anwen completed her PhD looking at the prevalence of
cardiovascular disease risk factors in Welsh adolescents. The findings of Anwen’s PhD have
been well received by the Welsh Government, health policy makers and at International
conferences.
C POTENTIAL RISKS
C1 What potential risks do you foresee?
As the study requires pupils maximum effort in some of the health related fitness tests there will
be a risk of injury. This will be prevented by making sure that all of the participants have warmed
up properly before the different health related fitness tests are undertaken. Another potential
risk for participants is that they may become mentally disturbed by the examinations as they
may not feel comfortable in completing each of the different health related fitness tests.
C2 How will you deal with the potential risks?
To eliminate any potential risk the researcher will ensure every participant has undertaken a
thorough warm up and will also keep asking participants whether they are feeling physically well
throughout the study. An initial meeting to explain the project to all children will take place.
Opportunities for questions will be provided. Information letters consent and assent forms will
also be distributed. All children will be told that if at any point they want to drop out, whether
they feel unwell or if they are no longer enjoying the study then they will be free to leave the
study. This will be highlighted within the child and parent’s consent forms, as well as information
regarding the confidentiality of data and results.
When submitting your application you MUST attach a copy of the following:
All information sheets
Consent/assent form(s)
Refer to the document Guidelines for obtaining ethics approval for further details on what format these
documents should take.
M-8
Parent Information Sheet
‘The influence of extracurricular activity on health related fitness levels in year nine children.’
Background
Regular physical activity has numerous physical, social and psychological health benefits
contributing to overall good quality of life. Previous research has highlighted that there is a
direct relationship between physical activity and childrens health status, concluding that an
increase in physical activity levels leads to health status improvements. Extracurricular after
school exercise is a planned and structured activity and involves various levels of physical
activity from which some school chidren participate in. The following research will examine
whether children who participate in extracurricular after school exercise clubs have greater
levels of health related fitness as opposed to children who do not participate in extracurricular
after school exercise clubs.
Participation in the research project
Why has your child been asked to participate?
Your child has been asked as one of forty year nine children who have been chosen to
participate in a the study categories into the following: Sample 1- someone who participates in a
regular extracurricular after school club. Sample 2- somebody who does not participate in a
regular extracurricular after school club. The study will be evaluating the health related fitness
levels within the two different samples to see whether there is a correlation between those who
do/don’t participate in regular extracurricular exercise and health related fitness levels. From
collecting this data, the researcher will hope to feedback to the school any information which
may be helpful in promoting after school extracurricular exercise.
What is being asked of your child?
Your child will be asked to participate in five health related fitness tests. The tests will include
the following:





Body composition- height and weight measurements
Maximum muscular strength- hand grip strength
Muscular endurance- maximum amount of sit ups in one minute.
Aerobic fitness- 12 minute Cooper run
Flexibility- sit and reach test.
M-9
The purpose of completing all of the highlighted tests is so that a range of different health
related fitness components are covered in order to provide a sufficient number of results for the
researcher to analyse. During the tests your scores for each component of fitness will be
recorded by another student.
What happens after?
After the health related fitness tests have been completed the researcher will take in all of the
data collection sheets from the participants and conduct an analysis as to whether there is a
difference in the different health related fitness levels between those who participate in
extracurricular after school clubs and those who don’t. If information arises which may benefit
the P.E. department on their participation levels in extracurricular after school, the researcher
will provide this information to the Physical Education department within the school.
Right to withdraw
At no point during this study will your child be put at any risk; he/she has the right to withdraw from this
study at any point.
How your privacy is protected
The researcher will be the only person who will see and analyse the results from your son/daughter’s
health related fitness tests and will not give this information to anybody after the completion of this
research project.
All information given in the consent forms will be securely stored with nobody else having access to
them.
Further Information
If you have any questions about the proposed research, how the researcher plan’s to conduct study and
what will happen with the findings then please do not hesitate to contact via email or phone.
Contact email- [email protected]
Contact Phone number- Lewis Jones 07968854582
M-10
Participant Information Sheet
‘The influence of extracurricular activity on health related fitness levels in year nine children.’
Background
Regular physical activity has numerous physical, social and psychological health benefits
contributing to overall good quality of life. Previous research has highlighted that there is a
direct relationship between physical activity and childrens health status, concluding that an
increase in physical activity levels leads to health status improvements. Extracurricular after
school exercise is a planned and structured activity and involves various levels of physical
activity from which some school chidren participate in. The following research will examine
whether children who participate in extracurricular after school exercise clubs have greater
levels of health related fitness as opposed to children who do not participate in extracurricular
after school exercise clubs.
Participation in the research project
Why have you been asked to participate?
You have been asked as one of forty year nine students who have been chosen to participate in
a study as a participant which lies in one of the following categories: Sample 1- someone who
participates in a regular extracurricular after school club. Sample 2- somebody who does not
participate in a regular extracurricular after school club. The study will be evaluating the health
related fitness levels within the two different samples to see whether there is a correlation
between those who do/don’t participate in regular extracurricular exercise and health related
fitness levels. From collecting this data, the researcher hopes to be able to feedback to the
school any information which may be helpful in promoting after school extracurricular exercise.
What is being asked of you?
You will be asked to participate in five health related fitness tests. The tests will include the
following:





Body composition- height and weight measurements
Maximum muscular strength- hand grip strength
Muscular endurance- maximum amount of sit ups in one minute.
Aerobic fitness- 12 minute Cooper run
Flexibility- sit and reach test.
M-11
The purpose of completing all of the highlighted tests is so that a range of different health
related fitness components are covered in order to provide a sufficient number of results for the
researcher to analyse. During the tests your scores for each component of fitness will be
recorded by another student.
What happens after?
After the health related fitness tests have been completed the researcher will take in all of the
data collection sheets from the participants and conduct an analysis as to whether there is a
difference in the different health related fitness levels between those who participate in
extracurricular after school clubs and those who don’t. If information arises which may benefit
the P.E. department on their participation levels in extracurricular after school, the researcher
will provide this information to the Physical Education department within the school.
Right to withdraw
At no point during this study will you be put at any risk; you have the right to withdraw from this study at
any point.
How your privacy is protected
The researcher will be the only person who will see and analyse the results from your health related
fitness tests and will not give this information to anybody after the completion of this research project.
All information given in the consent forms will be securely stored with nobody else having access to
them.
Further Information
If you have any questions about the proposed research, how the researcher plans to conduct study and
what will happen with the findings then please do not hesitate to contact.
Contact email- [email protected]
Contact Phone number- Lewis Jones- 07968854582
M-12
CARDIFF MET PARENT / GUARDIAN CONSENT FORM
UREC Reference No:
Title of Project: The influence of extracurricular activity on health related fitness
levels in year nine children.
Name of Researcher:
Mr Lewis E Jones
Participant to complete this section:
Please initial each box.
1. I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet
for this evaluation study. I have had the opportunity to
consider the information, ask questions and have had these
answered satisfactorily.
2. I understand that the participation of my child is voluntary and
that it is possible to stop taking part at any time, without giving a
reason.
3. I also understand that my child’s results will be recorded onto a data collection
sheet by a fellow student.
4. I agree for my child to take part in this study.
Name of Child
Name of Parent / Guardian
Signature of Parent / Guardian
Date
* When completed, one copy for participant and one copy for researcher’s files.
M-13
CHILD’S ASSENT FORM
UREC Reference No:
Title of Project: The influence of extracurricular activity on health related fitness
levels in year nine children
Name of Researcher:
Mr Lewis E Jones
Please fill this form by circling the face by each question that you think is best
for you.
If you agree, circle this face

If you aren’t sure, circle this face

If you disagree, circle this face

I understand what the Health related fitness testing involves
I have had a chance to ask questions and get them answered






I know I can stop at any time and that it will be OK



I am happy to take part in the Health related fitness assessments.



and I know what will happen.
_____________________________________________
___________________
Your Name
Date
________________________________________________
Your Signature
* When completed, one copy for participant and one copy for researcher’s files.
M-14