Contents
Eligible Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills
Correlation Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
TEKS
Chapter 1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lesson 1
States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C.4C
Lesson 2
Physical and Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
C.4A, C.4B
Lesson 3
Pure Substances and Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
C.2E, C.2H, C.4D
Chapter 1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chapter 2 The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Lesson 4
The Development of Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
C.2A, C.3F, C.6A
Lesson 5
Electromagnetic Radiation and the Bohr Model . . . . . 48
C.2G, C.3C, C.6A, C6.B, C.6C
Lesson 6
Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
C.2G, C.6A, C.6D
Lesson 7
Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
C.6E
Chapter 2 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Chapter 3 The Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Lesson 8
The Organization of the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . 78
C.5A, C.5B
Lesson 9
C.5C
Periodic Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Chapter 4 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Lesson 10 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
C.2G, C.7C, C.7D
Lesson 11
Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
C.7B
Lesson 12
Chemical Formulas and Compound Names . . . . . . 117
C.7A, C.7B
Lesson 13
VSEPR Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
C.7E
Chapter 4 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 5 Chemical Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Lesson 14 Calculations Involving Chemical Composition . . . . . 138
C.2G, C.8A, C.8B, C.8C
Lesson 15
Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
C.2G, C8.D
Lesson 16
Calculations Involving Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . 149
C.2G, C.3D, C.3E, C.8E
Chapter 5 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
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Chapter 3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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TEKS
Chapter 6 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Lesson 17 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
C.1A, C.1B, C.2E, C.2F, C.2G,
C.2H, C.2I, C.3E, C.3F, C.9A, C.9B
Lesson 18
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
C.2B, C.2C, C.2D, C.9C
Chapter 6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Chapter 7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Lesson 19 Properties of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
C.10A
Lesson 20
C.10B, C.10C, C.10D,
Properties of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
C.10E, C.10F
Lesson 21
Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
C.1A, C.1B, C.1C, C.2E, C.2F, C.2G,
C.2H, C.7B, C.10G, C.10I, C.10J
Lesson 22
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
C.10H
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Chapter 7 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chapter 8 Energy Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Lesson 23 Energy and Its Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
C.11A. C.11B
Lesson 24
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
C.3C, C.11D
Lesson 25
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . 251
C.11C, C.11E
Chapter 8 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Chapter 9 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Lesson 26 Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
C.3D, C.12A, C.12B
Lesson 27
C.3A, C.3B, C.3D, C.12C
Fission and Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Chapter 9 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Investigation 1 Identifying Unknown Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
C.1A, C.1B, C.1C, C.2B, C.2C,
C.2E, C.2F, C.7A, C.7B, C.10B,
C.10H
Investigation 2 Determining the Oxidation
Number of Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
C.1A, C.1B, C.1C, C.2E, C.2F,
C.2G, C.7A, C.7B, C.8A, C.8B,
C.8D, C.8E
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Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Pretest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Posttest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Chemistry Reference Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
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Safety Guidelines for Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
6 • Table of Contents
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Chapter 1 • Lesson 1
TEKS: C.4C
States of Matter
Key Words •matter•mass•volume•state of matter•solid•liquid •gas•compressibility
•state change•melting•vaporization•boiling•evaporation •sublimation •freezing
•condensation•deposition•kinetic molecular theory
Getting the Idea
When studying objects, it is often helpful to classify them, or group them into categories based
on their appearances and behaviors . This process helps us see the basic similarities and
differences between objects . One of the most basic characteristics of any object is its form .
What Is Matter?
The particles that make up matter are constantly in motion . How they move affects the form
that matter takes . As the particles move, forces between them tend to pull them toward
one another and bind them together, forming objects . When particles move quickly enough,
they can overcome these forces . This allows the particles to move around one another and
sometimes even fly apart . The motion of the particles determines the form of the object .
States of Matter
These different physical forms that objects can take are called states of matter . States of
matter are also called phases of matter . The most common states of matter on Earth are
solid, liquid, and gas . Objects in the same state have similar characteristics in terms
of shape, structure, volume, and compressibility .
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All the objects in the world around us—including ourselves—are composed of matter .
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume . Mass is the amount of matter in
an object . The more mass an object has, the more it resists changes in motion . Volume is
the amount of space an object takes up . The different types of matter we encounter consist
of basic building blocks called atoms, usually in collections called molecules . For now,
though, you can think of these building blocks simply as particles .
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A solid is a substance with a definite shape and volume . The particles in a solid generally stay
in one location . They cannot move about freely, but they still move by vibrating in place . This
arrangement of the particles gives the solid a definite shape and volume that do not change
unless a force acts on the object .
A liquid is a substance that has a definite volume but no definite shape . The particles in a liquid
stay close together, but they do not keep any pattern or arrangement, unlike in a solid . Instead
of being held in place, the particles of a liquid slide past one another . A liquid, therefore, does
not have a definite shape and will take the shape of its container . The volume of a liquid stays
constant no matter what shape it takes .
A gas is a substance that has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume . The particles of
a gas move quickly and are far apart, without any regular arrangement . They can spread out
and move independently of one another . As such, they have no definite arrangement, shape,
or volume . A gas takes on the shape and volume of its container .
Compressibility describes the ability of a substance to change volume when the pressure
around it changes . Imagine squeezing a small balloon . The balloon becomes smaller as the gas
within it is compressed because gases are highly compressible . Squeezing a brick, however,
does not much change the volume of the brick because solids are not easily compressible .
The compressibility of a substance results from the arrangement of its particles and the forces
between them .
The table below provides a summary of these characteristics .
States of Matter and Their Properties
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Property
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Shape
Definite shape
No definite shape
No definite shape
Volume
Definite volume
Definite volume
No definite volume
Structure
Particles closely
packed and fixed in
place with a regular
arrangement
Particles close
together, sliding past
one another without a
regular arrangement
Particles far apart,
without a regular
arrangement
Compressibility
Not easily
compressible
Not easily
compressible
Highly compressible
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Changes of State
A state change is a change from one state of matter to another, such as when a solid melts to
become a liquid . All state changes require that the substance either absorb or release energy,
usually in the form of heat .
If a solid absorbs enough energy, it changes from a solid to a liquid, a process called melting .
This change occurs at the melting point, a specific temperature that depends on the substance
that is melting .
Similarly, adding energy to a liquid can change it to a gas . Change from a liquid to a gas is
called vaporization . Vaporization can occur in two ways . If it happens rapidly, with bubbles
of gas forming throughout a liquid and rising to the surface, the process is called boiling .
Each substance has a boiling point . This is the temperature, measured at a standard pressure,
at which the substance boils . If a liquid changes to a gas only at the surface of the liquid,
the process is called evaporation . This is how a puddle of water dries up on a sunny day .
A substance can evaporate even at temperatures below its boiling point .
Other state changes result from loss of energy . For example, when warm water is placed
in a freezer, energy moves out of the water and into the cold air . This flow of energy due to
differences in temperature is called heat . You will learn more about heat transfer in Lessons 23
and 24 . When enough energy is removed from the liquid water, it changes into solid ice . The
change from liquid to solid is called freezing . The temperature at which a substance freezes is
called its freezing point, and it is almost always equivalent to that substance’s melting point . For
example, when the temperature of water falls below 0 degrees Celsius ( °C), the water freezes to
form ice . When the temperature of ice rises above 0 °C, the ice melts to form liquid water .
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Sublimation occurs when a solid absorbs energy and changes directly to a gas, without first
becoming a liquid . A substance nicknamed “dry ice,” which is actually solid carbon dioxide,
sublimates at room temperature .
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Lesson 1: States of Matter
If enough energy is released or removed from a gas, its particles draw together and change to
liquid . This process is called condensation . The drops of water that form on the outside of a
cold soda can or glass of iced tea result when water vapor in the air condenses on the can or
glass .
Under some circumstances, a gas can change directly into a solid through a process called
deposition . Particles of water vapor undergo deposition within winter clouds to form solid ice
and snow .
Notice that the processes of freezing, condensation, and deposition are the reverse of the
processes of melting, vaporization, and sublimation . The first three state changes all involve
matter losing energy . The latter three state changes involve matter gaining energy . The following
diagram summarizes these state changes .
Deposition: Energy is released.
Freezing:
Energy is released.
Solid
Liquid
Melting:
Energy is absorbed.
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Condensation:
Energy is released.
Gas
Vaporization:
Energy is absorbed.
Sublimation: Energy is absorbed.
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Kinetic Molecular Theory
Changes of state are caused by changes in energy . These changes can be described using
the kinetic molecular theory . The kinetic molecular theory states that particles of matter are
always moving in a random fashion . Even in a solid substance, the particles vibrate in place . The
theory’s name comes from kinetic energy, which is the energy due to the motion of objects, such
as particles .
The diagram below illustrates the arrangements and movements of particles in solids, liquids,
and gases . When a substance is in the solid state, its particles have the least kinetic energy . The
particles have the most energy when the same substance is in the gas state .
Particles in Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Liquid
The particles are able to
slide past one another.
Gas
The particles move quickly
and independently of one
another.
The kinetic molecular model of matter helps explain the characteristics of each state . Because
the particles in solids are bound tightly together, solids keep a specific shape and volume . There
is little space between the particles, so compressing the solid does not change its volume much .
Although the particles in liquids move too quickly around one another to bind together in a fixed
shape, there is little space between the particles . It is difficult to push the particles closer together
when compressing a liquid . Thus, a liquid has a fixed volume . The particles in gases move so
quickly that they bounce off one another and rocket away, leaving large distances between them .
Because gases contain these large empty spaces, they are much more easily compressed into a
different volume . This is why gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape .
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Solid
The particles are held tightly
in place and move only by
vibrating in place.
18 • Chapter 1: Properties of Matter
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Lesson 1: States of Matter
Discussion Question
In a laboratory, a solid substance is heated at a constant rate. As its state changes first to a liquid
and then to a gas, how will the behavior of the particles in the substance also change? How do these
changes relate to the changes in the characteristics of the different states?
Lesson Review
1.
A solid and a gas are placed in identical containers. Then, the size of each container is increased.
Which of the following will most likely occur?
A. The volume of both the solid and the gas will increase.
B. The volume of both the solid and the gas will remain the same.
C. The volume of the solid will increase, and the volume of the gas will remain the same.
D. The volume of the gas will increase, and the volume of the solid will remain the same.
2.
In which state of matter do the particles of a certain substance have the least kinetic energy?
A. solid
B. liquid
C. gas
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3.
Which state of matter will show the greatest change in volume when pressure is applied to it?
A. solid
B. liquid
C. gas
4.
How do particles in a solid substance move?
A. Particles in a solid spread far apart and move independently of one another.
B. Particles in a solid stay close together but slide around one another.
C. Particles in a solid stay bound together and vibrate in place.
D. Particles in a solid do not move.
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