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M. E. Jones
December 14, 2010
How the Characters in the Táin Bó Cúailnge and Beowulf Relate
The Táin Bó Cúailnge is commonly referred to as Ireland‘s epic. Likewise, Beowulf is the
epic poem of the Anglo-Saxons. The estimated setting for both tales, the years the stories are
thought to have taken place during are almost identical. The events of the Táin are estimated to
have roughly occurred around the 600‘s CE.1 Beowulf‘s tale is placed somewhere between 400
and 500 CE.2 Although scholars can guess at historical settings, the exact time in history when
these epics were created is unclear. They could have been told at the time of their settings, or
from a few generations later, looking back. Regardless, both existed well before either was
written down and were passed down though oral tradition. Despite this rather close similarity, the
two really are two different epics from two different cultures, and deeper similarities are much
harder to find. Their plots are completely different and each tale offers a wide range of
characters. The Táin, is about a cattle raid. The King Ailill and Queen Medb of Connacht wage
war on the Ulstermen trying to obtain their prize bull for Medb‘s collection. Because the
Ulstermen are under a curse and unable to defend themselves and their lands, Cú Chulainn must
solely protect Ulster from the invasion. Although the story is told mostly from Ailill and Medb‘s
perspective, meaning, the omniscient narrator spends a lot of time telling the reader what they
are up to, Cú Chulainn is considered the ―hero‖ of the tale.3 Cú Chulainn eventually succeeds in
keeping Ailill and Medb from overrunning Ulster.4 Beowulf, on the other hand, centers mostly on
1
Ciaran Carson, introduction, Beowulf (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) xii.
Michael Alexander, introduction, Beowulf (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) xiii.
3
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 109.
4
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007)
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its hero and follows him as he defeats the monster Grendel, Grendel‘s mother, and a dragon.
Beowulf travels to Denmark to fight Grendel, a monster who is terrorizing the Danes. Warrior
after warrior has tried to defeat Grendel but no one is successful until Beowulf comes. After
injuring Grendel, Grendel‘s mother comes to the king Hrothgar‘s hall for revenge. Beowulf
follows her back to her home and once and for all defeats Grendel and his, Grendel‘s, mother.
Many years later, after Beowulf has become king of his own people, the Geats, a dragon begins
terrorizing his own people. Beowulf takes on this challenge too, and defeats him but not without
giving up his own life.5
Beowulf, Grendel, and Grendel‘s mother are alike in several ways to characters found in
the Táin. This then brings up the question of how and why such similarities are present. Cú
Chulainn, as portrayed in the Táin, shares several characteristics with Grendel and Grendel‘s
mother, and Beowulf, as portrayed in Beowulf, shares similarities with Fer Diad and Fergus Mac
Róich — all based on the circumstances they are put in and how they handle each task or
challenge laid out before them. These likenesses exist due to trade and the way both were
remembered.
From the viewpoint of Medb and Ailill in the Táin, Cú Chulainn seems a lot like Grendel.
In Beowulf, warriors go up against Grendel to try and defeat him. They all fail except Beowulf.6
Likewise, in the Táin, Cú Chulainn will not let Medb and Ailill‘s armies pass further into Ulster
until someone can defeat him.7 After killing many men at once, in a fashion not completely
unlike Grendel, Cú Chulainn encourages one man to come and fight him each night.8
5
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001)
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001)
7
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007)
8
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 98-133.
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 53 -111.
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This likeness between the two is further seen when Hrothgar tries to find a way to defeat
Grendel. The epic Beowulf notes that ―the council lords sat there daily to devise some plan, what
might be best for brave-hearted Danes to contrive against these terror-raids.‖9 In a similar
manner, Medb and Ailill struggle to find someone who will go up against Cú Chulainn and
succeed. In the Táin, ―the men of Ireland debated among themselves as to which man would be
most capable of withstanding Cú Chulainn, and who should be next to go and face him at the
ford.‖10 Both Grendel and Cú Chulainn are met with fear and it is understood by the audience of
both epics that the man who is able to defeat either Grendel or Cú Chulainn must be a powerful
and strong man in his own right.
Medb and Hrothgar recognize this, and in both epics, a champion of sorts comes to fight
for them. In Beowulf, Beowulf hears about the trouble Hrothgar is having and comes to fight
Grendel. The Danes place all their hope with Beowulf.11 In the Táin, Medb summons Fer Diad to
fight Cú Chulainn. Fer Diad is described as ―that irresistible force, that indomitable rock of
battle, Cú Chulainn‘s own dear devoted foster-brother‖ again showing that, like Grendel, not just
any man can defeat, or attempt to defeat, Cú Chulainn.12 Like the fight between Beowulf and
Grendel, the fight between Fer Diad and Cú Chulainn is detailed and lengthy. It does not end in
one sitting, but rather takes four days for a victor to emerge.13 This is similar to the fight between
Grendel and Beowulf because their fight was not completely over in a single night either.
Beowulf rips Grendel‘s arm off the first night, delivering him a fatal wound. He is then forced to
9
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 170-173.
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 123.
11
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 1-688.
12
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 123.
13
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 123-160.
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later, not on the same night, fight Grendel‘s mother and finally ends the entire episode by cutting
of Grendel‘s head.14
With Cú Chulainn compared to the villain of the Beowulf tale, it is not surprising to see
Beowulf compared to Fer Diad, the temporary (and coerced) ally of Ailill and Medb as seen
above. Grendel and Grendel‘s mother are not the only adversary Beowulf faced, however.
Towards the end of the epic, Beowulf‘s third adversary, the dragon, appears. This is a battle that
Beowulf will not come out alive from – much like Fer Diad‘s fight with Cú Chulainn. (Again, a
big difference is that Beowulf defeats the dragon while Fer Diad does not defeat Cú Chulainn.
This can be noted as a difference that is to be expected of two different tales.) Both Beowulf and
Fer Diad know they could die if they fight this one last battle. Fer Diad, in conversation to Cú
Chulainn, reminds him ―every man must step upon the sod that is his grave.‖15 When Beowulf is
about to fight the dragon, he tells his people, ―By daring will I win this gold; war otherwise shall
take your king, terrible life‘s bane!‖16 This sentiment is further supported by Michael Alexander,
a published translator Beowulf. According to Alexander, ―when [Beowulf] is at the mercy of
Grendel‘s mother, or of the dragon, Beowulf thinks of his glory;…he is ‗mindful of glorious
deeds‘.‖17 Beowulf and Fer Diad are both highly concerned with honor, though it may get them
killed.
Just as Beowulf is similar to Fer Diad, he is also similar to Fergus Mac Róich simply
based on character placement. Fergus, like Fer Diad, is used by Medb to try and defeat Cú
Chulainn. In the end, he makes a deal with Cú Chulainn that he will give Cú Chulainn the fight
14
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 780-1622.
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 146.
16
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 2532-2534.
17
Michael Alexander, introduction, Beowulf (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) xxii.
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later on if Cú Chulainn ―[yields] to [him].‖18 Although they do not fight and no victor emerges,
Beowulf can be likened to Fergus in that they are both expected to take on their ally‘s enemy.
Another big point of comparison between all six characters is how each does battle. Cú
Chulainn, for instance, is rather similar to Grendel instead of Beowulf regarding the use of the
torque. In the Táin, Cú Chulainn uses torque to essentially channel his battle adrenaline. Martin
Puhvel writes about how both Cú Chulainn and Beowulf have similar ―battle rage‖ and uses this
to describe a similarity between the two.19 I disagree. I think that the ―battle rage‖ found in
Beowulf is much more present in Grendel than in Beowulf. Despite Puhvel‘s claims, I don‘t think
that anger enabled Beowulf to go into a blood lust any more so than other characters in the
epic.20 While it is true that Beowulf accomplishes magnificent feats, I think it unlikely that it is
his rage that allowed him to accomplish this. He seemed to be doing well in his fight against
Grendel without a torque-like occurrence. For example, the epic describes ―Hygelac‘s brave
kinsman [calling] to mind that evening‘s utterance, upright he stood, [fastening] his hold till his
fingers were bursting.‖21 This seems to be torque-like behavior, but it is not quite spot on.
Grendel‘s description is much closer. The epic details that ―the door gave way, toughened with
iron, at the touch of those hands. Rage-inflamed, wreckage-bent, he ripped open the jaws of the
hall.‖22 It is a more violent and much less rational occurrence than Beowulf‘s. The imagery, for
instance, is much more vicious and brutal. Grendel ―ripped open‖ the doors with ―the touch of
[his] hands.‖23 It was an impossible task made rather simple.
18
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 117.
Martin Puhvel, Beowulf and Celtic Tradition (Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1979) 45-54.
20
Martin Puhvel, Beowulf and Celtic Tradition (Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1979) 45-54.
21
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 758-760.
22
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 721-724
23
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 721-724
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Cú Chulainn, the character in the Táin who essentially sets the standard for what is torque
and what is not, is described going into battle as ―transformed by the Torque, the hero Cú
Chulainn sprang into his scythed chariot that glittered with iron tangs…‖24 and ―he came out
fighting with the thunder-feat of one hundred, and the thunder-feat of two hundred…‖25 Here, Cú
Chulainn is both impossibly fierce and strong, like Grendel.
Another example of how Cú Chulainn and his use of the torque are similar to the Grendel
family is when Beowulf chases Grendel‘s mother back to her home. She is described as having
―ruthless hands‖ that caused ―the strongest of fighting-men [to stumble] in his weariness.‖26
While Grendel‘s and Grendel‘s mother‘s actions may seem normal and not extraordinary in
comparison to Fer Diad and Fergus, their actions in relation to Beowulf‘s are much more similar
to the actions of Cú Chulainn in relation to those of Fer Diad and Fergus. In these such
situations, the relativity of these comparisons must also be taken into account.
Looking at Beowulf, it is true that Beowulf accomplishes impossible feats of his own in
defeating Grendel and Grendel‘s mother, but his ability to do so does not seem to directly relate
to the amount of strength and energy Grendel, Grendel‘s mother, and Cú Chulainn receive from
the torque or some similar state. Rather, Beowulf‘s strength seems to come from a natural
biological tendency like Fergus and Fer Diad when neither is under the torque.
Further clarification of the differences in torque can be seen in the description of it. In the
Introduction to Michael Alexander‘s translation of Beowulf, he describes Grendel as ―a human
whose envy and blood-lust have made him a monster.‖27 Cú Chulainn receives a similar
description when he undergoes the torque:
24
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 109-110.
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 110.
26
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 1541-1543.
27
Michael Alexander, introduction, Beowulf (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) xl.
25
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―The first Torque seized Cú Chulainn and turned him into a contorted thing,
unrecognizably horrible and grotesque…The ropes of his neck rippled from ear to
nape in immense, monstrous, incalculable knobs…‖28
Cú Chulainn is no longer the perfect hero but has been turned into the perfect fighting machine.
He is not watered-down for a clear cut ―ideal Christian hero‖ as Beowulf is sometimes
interpreted as. He is raw in his form as a warrior and uncontrollable – much like Grendel. The
only big difference between the two is the fact that Cú Chulainn is accepted as a person whereas
Grendel and his mother are supposed to represent Evil. Beowulf, itself, talks about the origins of
Grendel being evil: ―until One began to encompass evil, an enemy from hell. Grendel they called
this cruel spirit, the fell and fen his fastness was, the march his haunt”29 It would seem that this
is another case where one must look at the context of each epic. Grendel and his mother‘s
―evilness‖ compared to Beowulf‘s ―goodness‖ could be comparable to Cú Chulainn‘s torque and
Fer Diad and Fergus normal adrenaline.
Although Beowulf may not be transformed by the torque like Cú Chulainn is, he is not
lacking in connections to the Fer Diad and Fergus. When fighting Grendel‘s mother, Beowulf is
described as:
―with mounting anger the man hard in battle hurled her to the ground…the
Scylding champion, shaking with war-rage, caught [the Giant-sword]…and
brought it down in fury to take her full and fairly across the neck, breaking
bones…‖30
Beowulf has clearly gone into battle frenzy, but in a manner reminiscent of Fer Diad instead of
Cú Chulainn. It is not a clear distinction, and it is hard to tell if what Beowulf used in battle was
the torque or not. If one compares this reaction to Fer Diad‘s method of fighting Cú Chulainn he
or she would find it familiar. When Fer Diad fights Cú Chulainn on the last day, there is no
28
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 108-109
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 99-103.
30
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 1538-1539;1562-1565.
29
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mention of him becoming ―torqued.‖ Cú Chulainn must ―[torque] himself a hundredfold‖ to be
able to keep up with Fer Diad at this point in the fight.31 Towards the end, Fer Diad even had the
upper-hand, which he gained through his ―overwhelming onslaught of cut and thrust.‖ 32 This
technique of fighting using his own natural tendencies, tendencies that most everyone would
consider heightened battle adrenaline, sounds a lot like Beowulf‘s. One does not get the
impression that Fer Diad has undergone such a transformation as the torque would have caused.
Fer Diad, and Beowulf, were impossibly strong in their own right, able to overcome their
enemies in a more natural and normal state. Cú Chulainn prevailed in the end by using the gae
bolga, but the fight was really close.33 Cú Chulainn could have failed just as Grendel did even
with the torque. To be sure, this argument is not meant to make a point about which characters
were the strongest, but to show the likenesses between them.
Although Fer Diad does not really enter into combat with Cú Chulainn directly, he does
fight against the Ulstermen, in a manner not unlike Beowulf. When enraged at Conchobar,
Fergus performs several feats of strength in his fury. He, ―in a single onslaught cut down a
hundred Ulstermen with his sword.‖34 He cuts ―off the tops of the …Hills of Meath.‖35 There is
no mention of Fergus undergoing the torque as Cú Chulainn does minutes later when he learns
what is happening in the battle.36 Here, Fergus is exhibiting extreme strength by doing the
impossible in battle, as Beowulf does. He does not have the torque.
All of these comparisons seem likely in context, but why do they exist? Could it be as
simple as proximity or coincidence? One theory is the obvious ―trade‖ response. Trade seems to
31
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 150.
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 151.
33
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 151.
34
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 203.
35
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 204.
36
The Táin, trans. Ciaran Carson (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) 204-205.
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be the answer to why most ideas, concepts, and goods cross cultural boundaries. It is true though.
It happens all the time in the modern era with something as simple as sending a postcard or
bringing artifacts from China to the United States. Trade and travel is definitely not a modern
concept so it makes sense that pieces of either epic could have made its way across the water in
this manner. Furthermore, poets and bards would have been the people who knew the epics
really well. They made their living telling stories/sing songs. Unlike a written book, they could
add more plots and characters or take some out as they saw fit. This usually tied in with whoever
their audience was. If a bard or poet ended up traveling across to another country or culture, for
whatever reason, it would be remiss of him (or her) to not ―bring‖ his stories with him and take
some back when he left.
Another plausible scenario is slavery. Slavery was not uncommon. Saint Patrick, himself,
was kidnapped and enslaved from Britain to Ireland.37 If a bard, poet, or even just a regular guy
who grew up hearing one of the tales fell into slavery, he or she would not automatically forget
the tale. Rather, he (or she) would inevitably retell the tale to people he met, whether to pass the
time, continue the legacy, or the need for a little fast talking and a good story to get out of
trouble. If he or she was not a bard or poet and did not have the talk completely memorized, it
would explain why only certain characteristics in the tales are similar.
And finally, slaves, bards, poets, and laypeople were not the only ones who traveled. The
Life of St. Columba talks briefly about visiting clerics and saints,38 and St. Patrick‘s Confession
mentions that he also traveled.39 It is generally believed that the monks were the ones who finally
wrote these epics down. Would it not be likely for monasteries to talk to each other or even
37
Saint Patrick, ―The Confession of Saint Patrick,‖ online, Mary Jones: Celtic Literature Collective, N.p., n.d.,
Internet, 13 Dec. 2010. Available: http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/p01.html
38
Adomnán of Iona, Life of St Columba, trans. Richard Sharpe (New York: Penguin Books, 1995) 117-118.
39
Saint Patrick, ―The Confession of Saint Patrick,‖ online, Mary Jones: Celtic Literature Collective, N.p., n.d.,
Internet, 13 Dec. 2010. Available: http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/p01.html
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borrow occasionally? One legend of how the Táin was written down talks about Fergus, although
dead, telling St. Ciaran how the events unfolded.40 Although no one really takes this legend
seriously, it does show the role clerics played in copying down the Táin and opens up another
problem. If both were written down by monks, how true are they to the original tale? This is
important to take into account when comparing the two tales.
One obvious difference is that Beowulf has many more religious overtones.41
Ecclesiastical bias is almost to be expected when a monastic community begins to copy down a
very pagan tale. It would seem that the scribes of Beowulf certainly took advantage of their
opportunity to alter the epic poem so that it was more fitting for a Christian audience. Beowulf is
full of Christian themes and allusions. For instance, Beowulf refers to Grendel being ―cast…out
as kindred of Cain‖ by ―the Creator‖ and further mentions that ―for [Cain] killing…Abel the
eternal Lord took vengeance.‖42 These are clear biblical references from the Christian Bible. If
these close religious ties are not enough evidence to show a monastic scribe, scholar C. P.
Wormald argues:
―It is possible to account for [Beowulf being written by monks] in terms of the
known social and cultural instincts of some early English religious communities.
Ecclesiastical discipline was not so well established in the early Middle Ages that
it is usually safe to conclude that a given text, however hair-raising, could not
have been written in a monastery.‖43
Although this clears up the origins of the Beowulf manuscript, it does not explain why the Táin,
also transcribed by clerics, is much more pagan. It would appear that the monks in Ireland took a
different approach when they sat down to put the tale to paper. One monk, the ―redactor of the
40
Ciaran Carson, introduction, Táin (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) xii.
C.P. Wormald, ―The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and Its Neighbours,‖ Transactions of the Royal
Historical Society, Fifth Series, Vol. 27 (1977): 104, JSTOR, online, Internet, 17 November 2010.
42
Beowulf, trans. Michael Alexander (New York: Penguin Books, 2001) Lines 105-107.
43
C.P. Wormald, ―The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and Its Neighbours,‖ Transactions of the Royal
Historical Society, Fifth Series, Vol. 27 (1977): 104-105, JSTOR, online, Internet, 17 November 2010.
41
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‗Book of Leinster,‘‖ added a disclaimer of sorts to the end of the Táin that explained the obvious
lack of Christian influence.44 In his disclaimer, he asserts that the Táin is a ―fable‖ and that parts
of it ―are for the entertainment of idiots.‖45 It is clear that this monk wants to make it clear that
just because he retained the integrity, as far as modern historians can tell, of the tale, it does not
justify any actions or events that take place in the setting of the story.
Despite the differences in the epics, the evidence of several shared aspects gives credence
to the notion that Cú Chulainn can be compared to the characters Grendel and Grendel‘s mother
in Beowulf, Beowulf to Fer Diad and Fergus, and the idea that the two epics have some type of
shared history. Multiple characters from each tale relate to multiple characters in the other. This
shows just how interrelated these comparisons are and adds several more dimensions to each
one. What is especially compelling in studying the above is how the similarities cross
conventional norms. The ―bad guys‖ do not just relate to the other ―bad guys,‖ and the ―good
guys‖ are not copies of each other either. They say there are two sides to every story. These
comparisons help provide that second side. Because both of these epics existed for so long as
oral tradition and were later written down many centuries ago, it is hard to find multidimensional plots and characters within them. This is not to say that a fully developed and
complex story never existed, but due to the sheer amount of time that has passed, any further
development of the character Beowulf, for example, could have easily been lost.
Though particularly obvious in the case of the Táin and Beowulf given their similar
characters and general close proximity regarding location, it is important to make these
connections and see how two pieces of literature from the same relative time period correspond.
Doing so can help confirm or deny what other records say. The same concept has been used for
44
45
Ciaran Carson, introduction, Táin (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) xvii.
Ciaran Carson, introduction, Táin (New York: Penguin Books, 2007) xviii.
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years in other, broader cases. For instance, scholars generally agree that there was a massive
flood in the Mesopotamia area several centuries before 1 CE because of the numerous literary
texts from multiple cultures that mention it. This can be applied to the Táin and Beowulf as well
as other cases. Literature is a good way to learn about history because it often remains long after
other items of historical value fade, disappear, or are destroyed. One reason for this is the oral
tradition and storytelling that most every culture employs. People keep this tradition alive
because it is a part of their past and tells them where they come from. Knowing the past helps us
to know the present and glimpse the future.
These stories help decode the mystery shrouding the past of the Irish, English, and other
cultures influenced by them. The similarities between the characters suggest communication and
trade. They also lend credibility to other historic discoveries about the early medieval period in
their apparent collaboration of ideas. Although it can never be known for certain why the two are
similar, the above are plausible reasons and help to explain how the characters from two different
epics can be similar in multiple ways and on different levels. There are a number of ways the tale
could have traveled, and as with the popular party game ―telephone,‖ bits and pieces were most
likely changed and adapted here and there. Unfortunately, time machines do not exist and no one
can really be sure. Historians can only look at and examine what evidence they do have. What
can be determined are the similarities between key characters in both the Táin and Beowulf and
some possible reasons for their occurrence.
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Works Cited
Adomnán of Iona. Life of St Columba. Trans. Richard Sharpe. New York: Penguin Books, 1995.
Print.
Alexander, Michael. Introduction. Beowulf. New York: Penguin Books, 2001. xiii-lvii. Print.
Beowulf. Trans. Michael Alexander. New York: Penguin Books, 2001. Print.
Carson, Ciaran. Introduction. Beowulf. New York: Penguin Books, 2007. xi-xxi. Print.
Puhvel, Martin. Beowulf and Celtic Tradition. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University
Press, 1979. Print.
Saint Patrick. ―The Confession of Saint Patrick.‖ Mary Jones: Celtic Literature Collective. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2010. < http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/p01.html>
The Táin. Trans. Ciaran Carson. New York: Penguin Books, 2007. Print.
Wormald, C.P.. ―The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and Its Neighbours.‖
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Fifth Series, Vol. 27 (1977): 104-105.
JSTOR. Web. 17 November 2010.