History of China
China refers to a number of states and cultures that have existed and are viewed as having
succeeded one another in continental East Asia, dating back at least 3,500 years. China as it
exists today has been variously described in different points of view as a single civilization or
multiple civilizations, as a single state or multiple states, and as a single nation or multiple
nations.
With one of the world's longest periods of uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest
continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by
repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent
imperial dynastic change. The country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in
the North China Plain, and varied according to its moving fortunes to include multiple regions of
East, Northeast, and Central Asia. For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most
technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an
impact lasting to the present day throughout the region.
By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and
military influence declined relative to growing regional power Japan and the influence of
Western powers. Semi-colonialism developed by the late nineteenth century in parts of China,
and the country was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The imperial system in
China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912;
however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second SinoJapanese War (WWII), and the Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the
Communist forces.
After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong
established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic of China (ROC)
to retreat to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World War II. Since
then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores, several
islands off the coast of Fujian province, and some islands in the South China Sea.
The Chinese call their country Zhongguo (also romanized as Jhongguo or Chung-kuo), which is
usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", but could also be translated as, "Central State" or
"Central Country". It literally means "middle (or center) land," referring to the supposed position
of China at the centre of the known world, surrounded by lesser tributary states.
The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain
cultural and political connotations, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not
called "Zhongguo". During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states
politically descended from the Western Zhou, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the
exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin.
The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the
axis mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing dynasty, although
being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its
culture assimilated alien influences.
Thus "Zhongguo" quickly came to include areas farther south, including the Yangtze River and
Pearl River systems, and by the Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the
Xianbei and Xiongnu. As the PRC now governs Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the
ROC now governs Taiwan (also claimed by the PRC), these regions are also often included as a
part of "Zhongguo", though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial,
especially where Zhongguo means PRC.
During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected
to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was
doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these
peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it
with the Southern Dynasties, which they called the Yi (Y7), meaning "barbarian".
The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei Lu
, meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy.
It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao,
Jin and Song. The term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural and political
identity and less to ethnic origin.
The Republic of China as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China,
have used Zhongguo to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control (people
in the Republic of China now usually uses Zhongguo to refer to the PRC and Taiwan to refer to
itself). Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren, or
Zhongguo people. Their disparate histories are collectively the history of Zhongguo.
English and many other languages use forms of the name China (and the prefix Sino-), which is
believed to have derived from the name of the Qin dynasty that first unified the country. Despite
the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and was often regarded as overly tyrannical it
unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor",
hence, the subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves by that name.
There are also other minor alternative theories on the origin of the word.In any circumstance, the
word China passed through many languages along the Silk Road before it finally reached Europe
and England.
The Western "China", transliterated to Shina has also been used by Japanese since the nineteenth
century, and has since evolved into a derogatory term in that language.
The term "China" can narrowly mean China proper, or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner
Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st
century political entity China; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow
provincial boundaries.
In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or
mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, in
economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" refers to Mainland China, Hong
Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of
Zhongguo, or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland
China.In many contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "mainland China", especially
when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and
territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan).
China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. The Chinese language was also one
of the few languages to invent writing independently, the other languages being that of ancient
Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayans, and Egypt.
The first dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia dynasty; however there is
no archaeological evidence definitively attesting a Xia dynasty (although some neolithic sites
have been suggested to be such).
The first confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang He river, dating from the
18th to the 12th centuries BC. The Shang were in turn invaded by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries
BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to
warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring and Autumn period, many strong
independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou state as the
Imperial centre.
They were all unified under one emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin
Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state.After the fall of authoritarian Qin Dynasty in
207 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period of disunion followed again.
In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China
reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries,
China was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art.
The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan,
established the Yuan Dynasty.
A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming
Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty,
which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911.
Often times regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take
special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example,
after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the
Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the
Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. However, these restrictions proved
ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture.
In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of
Central Asia, which it had been at war with for several decades, while simultaneously falling
behind Europe in that respect. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a
defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion
into Central Asia.
However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and
American interference, as the ethnocentric Western historians would lead many to believe.
On the contrary it was a series of internal upheavals. Most prominent of these was the Taiping
Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862.
The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by
Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus.
Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in
human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in
the First World War).
Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred.
Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller
than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War.
This second conflict was the Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although
secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing the
uprising.
In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared
and the Republic of China was established. The following three decades were a period of
disunion - the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War.
The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. The
CPC established a communist state - the People's Republic of China - that laid claim to be the
successor state of the Republic of China.
Meanwhile, the disorganized and potentially corrupt ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to
Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the
Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched
recognition to the PRC.
The United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the
southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. China used in a modern
context often refers to just the territory of the PRC, or to "Mainland China" (the territory of the
PRC excluding Hong Kong and Macau).
The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate
governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. On the other hand, the ROC - while never
formally surrendering its claim to be the legitimate authority over all of China - has moved away
from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself
as Taiwan.
The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light
of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as
an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of China,
possible Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan.
Political History
Before unification by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. The
Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several states, each ruled by a king, duke,
marquess, or earl.
Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful hegemons sometimes
held considerable influence, each state was ruled as an independent political entity.
This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the emperor was set up,
and a system of bureaucratic administration established.
After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the
extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. The territory varied with
several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty.
However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and
religious leader of China. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the
prime minister.
Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, eunuchs, or imperial
relatives, often at the expense of a child emperor. This happened especially since the emperor
often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to
manipulation.
Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international
marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for
examples), Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most
commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history.
Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the
arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages.
On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the
Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party),
was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing
general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the
presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what
was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan).
Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he
died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire.After Yuan's
downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually
powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a state).
Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories.In the late
1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own
control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an
intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming
China into a modern, democratic state.
Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang with heavy Leninist
influences. Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences.
In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War
between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947
ROC constitution were never put into actual practise on the mainland.
By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC
government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the
implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under ROC
control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province).
Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of
society. But rather than the usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of
most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with
China in the long-run vs. formal independence issue.
However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. more environmentally friendly) and Blues are
generally regarded as more conservative.Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, the leader of the communists,
proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing.
From the beginning, the PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Party.
However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over
many areas of society. Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political
aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule.
Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the
press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, censorship of the press, literature
and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements.
In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an
end by the Chinese government. The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also
held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence.
Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and
propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened.
Map of the PRC and the ROC
Historical overview
The Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi Huangdi, was originally the
region around the Yellow River. Since then, the territory has expanded outward in all directions,
and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. The Qing Dynasty included parts of
modern Russian Far East and Central Asia (west of Xinjiang).
Along with provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to the
Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them.
The Chinese thought that the barbarians attached themselves to the virtue of the Emperor, while
the foreign governments sometimes disagreed.
Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or
suzerainty-dependency, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international
political theories.
The Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as a barrier of China
proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of the wall with China proper south
of it.
In 1683 after the surrender of the Kingdom of Tungning established by Koxinga, Taiwan
including the Pescadores became a part of the Qing Empire, originally as one prefecture, then
two, and later a province. Taiwan was subsequently ceded to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese
War in 1895.
At the end of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the
island in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and the Republic of China took over.
Since then, the de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between the PRC, and the
now democratic ROC and Taiwan independence supporters.
Reference: Wikipedia