FU N D A M E N TA L RIG H TS
AND
THE
IM P L E M E N T A T I O N OF A
B IL L
OF
R IG HTS
IN S O U T H A F R I C A 1
PJ v a n N i e k e r k
D epa rtm e nt of
C h ris tia n
P ublic
Law a n d
H ig h e r E du ca tio n ,
Le gal
P hilo so p h y,
P otche fstro om ,
P otche fstro om U n i v e r s i t y f o r
2520
ABSTRACT
In t h e t i t l e o f t h i s a r t i c l e r e f e r e n c e is ma de t o f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s a n d n o t hu m an
r ig h t s because it
is m y c o n t e n t i o n
th a t
one c a te g o ry o f fu n d a m e n ta l r i g h t s .
o f t h e h u m an a n d
group
s e c ti o n
stra tegie s
d iffe re n t
S outh A fric a
th e th ir d
rig h ts
sectio n,
a tte n tio n
d is c u ssio n
re g a rd in g
a re c o n s id e re d .
human
rig h ts
sho uld
be seen as o n l y
In t h e f i r s t s e c ti o n an o v e r v i e w is g i v e n
A g a in st
th e
in
S outh
A fric a
in tr o d u c tio n
the b a c k g ro u n d
and
in
th e
of a b ill o f
second
rig h ts
in
o f the se d iscu ssio n s
in
is g i v e n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f f u n d a m e n t a l
r i g h t s w h i c h c o u l d be m e a n i n g f u l l y p r o t e c t e d in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f d e v e l o p i n g
states.
In t h e f o u r t h
r i g h t s le ga l c u l t u r e
in
sectio n th e im p o rta n c e o f th e
S o u th
A fric a
is
re v ie w e d
cre a tio n
o f a fun dam enta l
ag a in st th e b a c k d ro p of
the
c o n s titu tio n a l h is to rie s of E nglan d and F rance.
1. T H E H U M A N A N D G R O U P R I G H T S D I S C U S S I O N
The c u rre n t
d e b a t e on
human
rig h ts
in
S outh
IN S O U T H A F R I C A
A fric a
c i r c l e s s ee m s2 t o f o c u s on t h e q u e s t i o n , n o t w h e t h e r ,
r i g h t s a r e t o be co me p a r t o f t h e
t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n is t h e g r o u p
1
1
T h e fin a n c ia l
le g a l
system of th is
in
co u n try .
In s titu te
fo r
R e s e a rc h
r e s e a r c h is h e r e b y a c k n o w l e d g e d .
A c c o rd in g
S outh
A fric a n
La w
C o m m is s io n
a
small g r o u p
of
S outh
C losely
A fric a n s
v iz .
rig h tw in g
D evelo pm e nt
(1 989)
a g a in s t human r i g h t s and th e im ple m en tation of a b ill
Koers 54 (3)
leg al
lin k e d
r i g h t s dilem ma t h a t a l r e a d y s u r f a c e d a t t h e F i r s t
s u p p o rt of th e
th e
and
b u t ho w a n d w h e n hu m an
HSRC to w a rd s th i s
to
a ca dem ic
of
of
the
th e
a rgum e nts
rig h ts
come f r o m
organ isa tio n s
(e .g .
th e
1989
319
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n H u m a n R i g h t s i n S o u t h A f r i c a . 3 B u t i t is p r e c i s e l y
th is p o s s ib le
lin k a g e
in tr o d u c tio n
the
b e tw e e n
human
rig h ts
and g ro u p
o f a b ill of r ig h ts a tt r a c tiv e to w h ite s
p o litic a l
s pe ctrum )
and
rig h ts
t h a t m a ke s
the
(t o th e c e n tr e and r i g h t of
un acce p ta b le to b la c k s .
D u rin g
th e
sym p osium
A
B ill o f R ig h ts f o r S outh A f r i c a ' d i f f e r e n t v ie w s r e g a r d in g th e a tt it u d e s of b la cks
w e re ra is e d .
A c c o rd in g to D u g a rd
human r ig h t s
1988:
(1 9 8 8 ) t h e r e
among b l a c k s . 5 W h ils t C o r d e r
133) is o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t a b i l l o f
is a n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e
(Van
rig h ts
d e r W esthu izen
imposed b y
th e
tow ards
and
V iljo e n
ru lin g
group
w o u l d n o t b e t o l e r a t e d , D i d c o t t (1 9 8 8 ) e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e c h a n c e s o f a p o l i t i c a l
A fr ik a n e r V o lk s w a g ),
p o litic a l p a rtie s
(e .g .
th e H e r s t ig t e N asionale P a r ty )
and in d iv id u a ls .
3
H eld
fro m
22 t o t h e 26 J a n u a r y 1979 a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a p e T o w n .
pro c e e d in g s
w ere s u b s e q u e n tly
p u b lis h e d
in
F o rsyth
and
S ch ille r
The
(1979).
NJ R h o o d i e ( F o r s y t h a n d S c h i l l e r 1979: 4 7 - 4 8 ) e m p h a s i z e s t h a t h u m a n r i g h t s
in
de m o c ra tic ,
p lu ra l
in d iv id u a l-o rie n ta te d
to
him
it
is
s o c i e t ie s
but
esse ntial
to ta k e
A fric a .
He does
ig n o re d
in f a v o u r o f g r o u p
(n o t
r a c ia l
not,
must
account of
how e ver,
c a te g o rie s )
n e c e s s a rily
co m p rise ,
als o t h e g r o u p - o r i e n t a t e d
rig h ts
sho uld
th e
propose th a t
not o n ly
d im e n sio n .
rig h ts
of groups
in d iv id u a l
the
A c c o rd in g
rig h ts
in
S outh
s h o u ld
be
b u t he o n l y s u g g e s t s t h a t e t h n i c f a c t o r s
be ta k e n
in to
account
in
p ro m o tin g
h u m an
rig h ts .
*
It too k
place at th e
papers
and
U n iv e rs ity
d isc u s s io n s
w ere
of
P re to ria
p u b lis h e d
on
1 and
2 May
1986 a n d
th e
in V a n d e r W e s t h u i z e n a n d V i l j o e n
(1988).
5
"For y e a rs
b la cks
have plea d e d
N ow t h a t m a n y w h i t e s ,
and
fo r
p o s s ib ly
th e
le ga l
even
are more s y m p a th e tic to w a rd s a b ill o f r i g h t s ,
power ro und
th e
co rner,
p e rce ive d
be
a
the m selves
lo n g
to
appear
m ethod
of
to be
p r o te c tio n of human r i g h t s .
the
N ation al
th e
p ro te c tio n
of
p ro te c tin g
th e
law
go vernm e nt,
r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t an
w hites
as a p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t e n e d m i n o r i t y .
o u ts id e
P arty
b l a c k s , w h o i n c r e a s i n g l y see
are
no w
or
A frik a n e rs
in s tru m e n t
who
see
Those who have s u ffe re d
u n w illin g
to
see
th e ir
o p p re s s o rs b r o u g h t w it h in th e p r o te c tio n o f th e la w ” (3 3 -3 4 ).
320
s e t t l e m e n t m i g h t w ell
p a rtie s in v o lv e d .
149) a b i l l o f
be
to
e co nom ic r i g h t s ,
t h a t o n ly
blacks
speakers
in c o rp o ra te d
present
at
in to
th e
sym p osium
of
B o th
rig h ts
in
th is
re gard ,
and
sho u ld
e n force d
have
p o litic a l
address
D id c o tt
and
rig h ts
w ould
its e lf to
not
soc ial a n d
em phasizes t h a t
s a id t h a t s u c h
a n y th in g
less
(1 988)
socio-econom ic r i g h t s s h o u ld not
n o t e a s ily j u s tic ia b le .
civil
it
He a ls o m e n ti o n s t h e r i g h t t o d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t s h o u l d
be cla im e d a n d
a b ill
system .
g u aran tee s
and th e re fo re
as w e l l .
be a r i g h t t h a t c o u l d
m o st
r i g h t s t o be a c c e p t e d b y all
A c c o r d i n g t o M o s e n e k e ( V a n d e r W e s t h u i z e n a n d V i l j o e n 1988:
rig h ts
a c c e p t a b le
be e n h a n c e d w e r e a b i l l o f
is
and
rig h ts
g o in g
D ugard
be p a r t o f a b i l l o f
to
sho uld
n o t be
pe rpetuate
(1 987)
rig h ts
a lth ough
the
argue
tha t
because th e y
are
A f t e r c o n s id e rin g th e p ro v is io n s of th e Freedom C h a r te r
D id c o tt
c le a rly
states
th a t
he
cannot
im a g i n e
anybody
q u a r r e l l i n g w i t h t h e p u r s u i t o f t h e s e i d e a l s , b u t he s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s b e l o n g s ,
n o t in a b i l l o f r i g h t s b u t in a p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m m e .
D uga rd,
ho w ever,
t h a t i n o r d e r t o a f f i r m t h e c o m m i tm e n t o f t h e ne w o r d e r t o t h e s e i d e a l s ,
be w i s e t o a t t a c h
a n o n -ju s tic ia b le
th in k s
it w ould
D e c l a r a t i o n o f S o cia l a n d E co n o m ic
R ig h ts
to t h e b i l l o f r i g h t s ( a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o v e n a n t on E c o n o m ic ,
S o cia l a n d C u l t u r a l
R ig h ts
of
1966)
th a t
c o u ld
p ro v id e
g u id e lin e s
fo r
th e
in te rp re ta tio n of th e b ill of r ig h ts and th e c o n s titu tio n .
S outh
A fric a n s
who accept th e n e ce ssity o f th e in tr o d u c t io n o f a b ill o f r ig h ts
t h u s c l e a r l y d i f f e r as t o t h e r i g h t s t h a t s h o u l d be
of g ro u p
rig h ts
r ig h t s 6 argue
A fric a n
is e v e n
th a t
p o p u la tio n ,
it
m o re c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
is,
a
on
acco unt of th e e th n ic
ne cessary
o p p o n e n ts 7 of e th n ic g r o u p
in c o rp o ra te d .
The
q u estion
T h o s e in f a v o u r o f e t h n i c g r o u p
p re co n d itio n
fo r
c om position
pe ace a n d
of
th e
S o u th
s ta b ility .
The
r i g h t s a r g u e t h a t t h e r e is no s u c h t h i n g as e t h n i c
g r o u p r i g h t s , m a i n l y s i n c e an e t h n i c g r o u p is n o t a le g a l s u b j e c t o r le g a l p e r s o n
and
th e re fo re
c o n s titu tio n ,
cannot
w ith
have
rig h ts .
its d i s t i n c t io n
M o reove r,
th e
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r a c ia l g r o u p s a n d is r i g h t f u l l y
‘
7
C f.
C f.
present
S o u th
b e tw e e n g e n e r a l a n d o w n a f f a i r s ,
A frica n
is b a s e d on
seen as a f u r t h e r a t t e m p t
B o o y s e n ( 1 9 8 0 ) , J a c o b s (1 981, 19 8 7 ), C l o e te (1 9 8 1 ) a n d R h o o d i e ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
Coetzee
N ie k e rk
(1983),
Du
P le ssis
(1 984,
(1 9 8 8 ) a n d t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n
1985,
1987,
1988a,
1988b),
Van
La w C o m m is s io n ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
321
to i n s titu tio n a lis e
r a c ia l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
Any
a ttem pt
to d if f e r e n t ia t e
p e o p l e on an e t l i n i c g r o u p b a s is is t h e r e f o r e r e g a r d e d w i t h
between
s u s p ic io n , e sp e cia lly
b y tho se w ho are a d v e rs e ly a ffe c te d b y th e p r e s e n t system .
T w o of th e most im p o r ta n t re c e n t c o n t r ib u t io n s to th is de ba te a re th e d o c to ra l
th e s is o f B laauw
R ig h ts
(1 9 8 8 ) a n d t h e t h o r o u g h w o r k i n g
p a p e r on G r o u p
( r e l e a s e d on t h e 11th M a r c h 1989) b y t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n
and
Hum a n
Law C om m is s io n
(1989).
A lth o u g h
B laauw
d iffe re n t
c a te gory
rig h ts ,
because
(1 9 8 8 )
is in f a v o u r o f g r o u p
when
s he
com pared
takes
to
great
f i g h t s , sh e b e lo n g s t o a t o t a l l y
some o f t h e o t h e r
c h a n c e be m i s t a k e n f o r a v a r i e t y o f n e o - a p a r t h e i d .
th e re c o g n itio n of g r o u p
rig h ts
proponents of
care to d e ve lo p a t h e o r y
group
t h a t co u ld
by
no
On a c c o u n t o f t h e f a c t t h a t
w ith a p o litic a l c o n n o ta tio n
is i n t e r t w i n e d
w ith
t h e n o t i o n o f l e g i t i m a c y s he is o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t c o u l d be c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e
in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c l i m a t e o f t h e p r e s e n t l e g i t i m a c y ,
it
ha s
be en
proposes
a
fu n d a m e n ta l
a c c ru e to
re je c te d ,
e sp e cia lly
n e u tra l,
n o n -p o litic a l
rig h ts ,
in c lu d in g
in d iv id u a ls
by
c iv il
(d u e to th e
th e
approach,
rig h ts
and
not a u to m a tic a lly to j u r i s t i c p e rs o n s ,
rig h ts .
be e x p li c i t l y
C iv il
r ig h t s co u ld
e xte nde d
by
aim in g
to g r o u p s .
de m ocra tic
c iv il
c ris is because u n til
e x tra -p a rlia m e n ta ry
at
no w
o p p o s itio n .
th e
She
exte n s io n
S ince c iv i l
of
r ig h ts o n ly
b a s is o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
order)
g r o u p s c a n n o t be o r i g i n a l b e a r e r s o f
(a s is d o n e in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e e l s e w h e r e )
a b ill o f
rig h ts
to
groups
or
p riv a te -la w
ju ris tic
p e r s o n s in o r d e r t h a t t h e y q u a l i f y as b e a r e r s o f r i g h t s v i s a v i s t h e s t a t e .
In
t h i s w a y t h e G e r m a n b i l l o f r i g h t s e x t e n d e d c i v i l r i g h t s in t e r m s o f s e c t i o n 1 9 (3 )
t o p r i v a t e la w j u r i s t i c p e r s o n s . F r o m t h i s s h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e r e
is
no
groups.
reason
a s im ila r m a n n e r be e x te n d e d
to
I t is a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r B l a a u w t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e g r o u p s
why
c iv il
rig h ts
co u ld
n o t in
as
b e a r e r s o f f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s m u s t a ls o b e a c c e p t a b l e t o all t h e c i t i z e n s o f S o u t h
A fric a ,
groups.
irre s p e c tiv e
of
th e ir
pe rsona l
asso cia tio n
to
or
d isa sso cia tio n
fro m
A l t h o u g h B l a a u w ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n is n o t w i t h o u t m e r i t , s h e does n o t t a k e
t h e s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p u b l i c law a n d p r i v a t e law f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s
in to a cco u n t an d she p ro p o se s,
m o reove r,
th a t c iv il rig h ts
s h o u ld be e x te n d e d
322
to
groups
w h ich
re sp e ct th a t th e
do not q u a lify
as j u r i s t i c
S outh
La w C o m m is s io n c l e a r l y
A fric a n
p e rso n s.'
It
is p r e c i s e l y
in
th is
d if f e r s fro m h e r p o in t
of view .
A c c o rd in g
to th e
S outh
A fric a n
Law C om m is s io n
(1989),
w h o jo in s
th e
ranks
of th e o p p o n e n ts o f g r o u p r i g h t s , th e p ro te c tio n of human rig h t s of in d iv id u a ls
may
be i n s t r u m e n t a l
in
p ro te c tin g
th e
in te re s ts
of groups.
In
its
proposed
B i l l o f R i g h t s t h e co m m is s io n c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e h u m an r i g h t s o f n a t u r a l ( a n d
ju ris tic )
pe rsons;
d is c rim in a tio n
about
in
th e re b y
s ig n a llin g
in an e n v i s a g e d
an e v o l u t i o n a r y
fa sh io n
via
fiv e
f r a n c h i s e as a c o n d i t i o s i n e q u a n o n .
w ay to a tta in
un im p e a ch a b le
the
end
p o s t-a p a rth e id
o f,
e s p e cia lly,
s o cie ty
proposed
th a t
sh o u ld
all
be
phases and w ith
r a c ia l
brought
u n iv e rs a l
T h e c o m m is s io n r e g a r d s t h i s as t h e o n l y
le g itim a c y
fo r
a B ill
of
R ig h ts
in
S outh
A fric a .
F o r i ts r e j e c t i o n o f e t h n i c g r o u p r i g h t s t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n Law C o m m is s io n r e li e s
t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on
Du
P l e s s i s 's
(1 98 8a ,
19 88b) v i e w s .
f r u i t f u l t o h a v e a c l o s e r lo ok a t h is id e a s .
group
rig h ts ,
he does
d iffe re n tia te
I t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be
In s p i t e o f
his
r i g h t s a n d m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e r e is no c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e
r i g h t s as t h e r i g h t s o f social i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e ,
le ga l
are
p e rs o n a lity
not g ro u p
e x p la in s
th e
and to
rig h ts
r e c e i v e le g a l
be tw een
E th n ic
re co g n itio n .
e th n ic g ro u p
r i g h t s b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t an e t h n i c g r o u p
la tte r tw o .
a c c o r d i n g t o h im ,
re co g n itio n .
f o r pu rpo se s o f such
d iffe re n c e
re je c tio n o f e th n ic
betw een in d iv id u a l and in s titu tio n a l g r o u p
rig h ts
(o r
Du
and
G roup
s u s c e p tib le to
"ra ce ")
P le ssis
rig h ts
(1988b)
in s titu tio n a l g ro u p
is a c o l l e c t i v i t y
and th e r e fo r e
in
e s s e n c e j u r i d i c a l l y u n d e f i n a b l e a n d c a n n o t be p r o t e c t e d b y ( p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c )
la w .
E th n ic o r c u ltu r a l r ig h ts
(v iz .
l a n g u a g e r i g h t s ) c a n o n l y b e p r o t e c t e d as
r ig h t s o f th e in d iv id u a l. T h is co u ld o n ly be a tta in e d b y o p tim a lly e n d o rs in g th e
r i g h t o f a s s o c ia t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s .
t h e c ase o f
•
in s titu tio n a l
I n s t i t u t i o n a l g r o u p r i g h t s c an e x i s t o n l y
c o m m u n itie s ’
c re a te d
O n l y s o c ia l e n t i t i e s w h i c h a r e le g a l
th e
c ase
w ith
la n g u a g e
th ro u g h
su b je c ts
and cu ltu ra l
ca n
groups,
such
have
fre e
rig h ts .
and th e re fo re
in
a s s o c ia tio n .
T h is
is n o t
it w ould
be
le g a lly f i c t i t i o u s to e x te n d r i g h t s to th e se g r o u p s .
*
E x a m p le s
of
in s titu tio n a l
b u s in e s s e n t e r p r is e s ,
com m unitie s a re s ta te s ,
m a rria g e s ,
chu rches,
u n iv e rs itie s ,
f a m i li e s e t c . .
323
He t h e r e f o r e
comes t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n
p ro te c t
c u ltu ra l
th e
a s s o c ia tio n ,
and
1988b: 2 3 3 ) .
rig h ts
p ro te c t
of
th e
t h a t t h e la w " c a n a t m o s t r e c o g n i s e a n d
in d iv id u a ls ,
rig h ts
of
p e rm it
in s titu tio n a l
m a x im u m
fre e d o m
c o m m u n itie s "
(D u
of
P lessi s
T h i s p o i n t o f v i e w ca n o n l y be s u b s c r i b e d to .
T h e o n l y i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n m a de b y t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n La w C o m m is s io n (1 989)
re g a rd in g
c a te g o rie s o f
in d iv id u a l
human
s u b s t a n t i v e a n d so cio-econ om ic r i g h t s .
rig h ts ,
is t h a t b e t w e e n
p ro c e d u ra l,
W i t h o u t f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h i n th e s e
c a t e g o r i e s t h e c o m m is s io n g i v e s l i s t s o f p r o c e d u r a l a n d s u b s t a n t i v e r i g h t s , t h a t
s h o u ld
be p r o te c te d
concerned,
the
as a m i n i m u m .
c o m m is s io n
is
of
As fa r
th e
as t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
o p in io n
th a t
th e
b a s ic
f r e e d o m s , c a p a c i t i e s a n d c o m p e t e n c e s s h o u l d , l i k e a ll o t h e r r i g h t s ,
in a b i l l o f r i g h t s i n a n e g a t i v e w a y in o t h e r w o r d s ,
and
e x e c u tiv e
acts
s h a ll
no t.
A lth o u g h
a r g u m e n ts c o n c e rn in g the se r ig h t s ,
but
o n ly
states
th a t a b ill of
th e
rig h ts
are
socio-econom ic
be p r o te c te d
in t h e s e n s e t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n
co m m is s io n
c o n s id e rs
o p p o sin g
i t g i v e s no t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d s f o r i t s v i e w
rig h ts
is
not th e
place f o r e n f o r c in g
als o d i s t i n g u i s h e s
betw een
procedu ral
p o s itiv e
o b lig a tio n s a g a in s t th e state.
Van d e r V y v e r
human
Du
rig h ts
P le s s is
g iv e s
his
(1 9 7 5 )
w ith o u t
(1 9 8 8 a )
own
g iv in g
qu estions
any
th e
c la ss ific a tio n .
th e o re tic a l
th e o re tic a l
He
l i m i t s 1"
su b s ta n tiv e rig h ts .
Du P le ssis (1 987,
b a s ic
(v iz .
human
rig h ts
th e
rig h t
fo u n d a tio n
v ia b ility
h im se lf,
of
and
s u b s ta n tiv e
fo r th is
d is tin c tio n .
th is
ho w ever,
d is tin c tio n
to th e
and
s o-called
1988a, 1988 b) a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e
to fre e d o m ,
th e
rig h t
to
ju s t
and
equal
t r e a t m e n t a n d t h e r i g h t t o f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s o c ia l p r o c e s s e s )
th a t
form
a b ill of
of
t h e b a s is o f all s p e c i f i c h u m a n
rig h ts .
s p e c ific
A lth o u g h
human
s tr u c tu r a l d iffe re n c e s
some
of
th e
states
11
he
re s u lt of th is
Du
P le ssis
does
c a p a b l e o f b e i n g p r o t e c t e d in
attem pt
is t h r e e
not succeed
betw een th e se d i f f e r e n t c a te g o rie s .
fu n d a m e n ta l
co n s titu tio n a l
A lth o u g h
th e
rig h ts ,
rig h ts ,
w ill
re fra in s
rig h ts
be
and
le ga l
c o n s id e re d
fro m
in
d is c u s s in g
p r in c ip le s
order
th e
and equal tre a tm e n t and p r o te c tio n
im p re s s iv e
h ig h lig h tin g
lis ts
th e
In t h e t h i r d s e c ti o n
em bodie d
to g e t
te c h n ic a l
p r o c e s s he do e s s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f f r e e
in
an
in
in s ig h t
m o dern
in to
asp ects o f th e
a c ce ss t o t h e
le g a l
the
le g a l
process
b y t h e le g a l s y s t e m .
324
d iffe re n t
c a te g o rie s o f
rig h ts
w h ic h
co u ld be
m e a n in g fu lly
e n sh rin e d
in
the
c o n s t i t u t i o n o f a d e v e l o p i n g s t a t e l i k e S o u th A f r i c a .
2.
THE
As
is t h e ca se w i t h t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f r i g h t s t o be e m b o d ie d in a b i l l o f r i g h t s
S outh
I M P L E M E N T A T I O N OF A B I L L OF R I G H T S
A fric a n s
succe ssful
d iffe r
about
in tro d u c tio n
th e
o f a b ill
s tra te g ie s
of
IN S O U T H A F R I C A
tha t
rig h ts .
are
The
to
be
proposed
follow e d
in
stra tegie s
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a b i l l o f r i g h t s c o u l d be n a r r o w e d d o w n t o t h r e e , 11 v i z .
im m e d ia te
in tro d u c tio n
of
i n t r o d u c t io n of a lim ited
a
b ill
fu ll-fle d g e d
of
rig h ts
b ill
and
of
(iii)
rig h ts ,
th e
(ii)
s tra te g y
th e
of
th e
f o r th e
(i) th e
im m e dia te
n e g o tia tin g
a
b ill o f r ig h ts f o r a f u t u r e p o s t-a p a rth e id d isp e n sa tio n .
Van W yk
rig h ts ,
(1 9 8 8 )
o p p o sitio n
AN C ).
p ropag ate s
t h e im m e d ia te i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a f u l l - f l e d g e d b i l l o f
th e r e b y e x p re s s in g not o n ly th e sen tim ents of
(e .g .
the
He r e f r a i n s
UDF)
fro m
b u t als o t h e
s a y in g
o r o n ly a d e c la ra tio n of in te n t.
tra n s itio n a l
and
th e re b y p ro v in g
co u ld
play
V iljo e n
D id c o tt
1988:
im m e diate ly.
it
sh o u ld
in e x i l e "
be i m m e d i a te l y
(e .g .
th e
en fo rce a b le
T h e p r e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t is , a c c o r d i n g t o h im ,
a
p o s itiv e
ro le
by
in tro d u c in g
a b ill of
rig h ts ,
its s i n c e r i t y a n d h o n e s t y .
C o r d e r (V a n d e r W esthu izen
(1 9 8 8 ),
w hether
th e e x tr a - p a r lia m e n ta r y
"in te re s t groups
(1988),
152)
Davis
and V iljo e n
V e n te r
propose
(1 9 8 8 )
(1 9 8 6 )
th a t
de nies
a
(1 988:
133),
and V o rs te r
lim ited
b ill
D avis
(Van
of
(1988),
rig h ts
t h a t a lim ite d b ill o f
D even ish
d e r W esthu izen
be
rig h ts
and
in tro d u c e d
w ould
have
no
e ff e c t on de m o c ra c y because if it s a fe g u a rd e d p r o c e d u r a l r i g h t s it c o u ld be used
t o p r o v i d e p r o t e c t e d sp a c e s t o e n h a n c e t h e s t r u g g l e t o w a r d s a t r u e d e m o c r a c y .
I t m ig h t f u r t h e r m o r e c o n v in c e e m b itte r e d d is e n fra n c h is e d S outh A fr ic a n s o f th e
im p o rta n c e of
re p re s s iv e
rig h ts
legal
and
system ,
c iv il
w o rk
lib e rtie s
im p o r ta n t e d u c a tio n a l ro le it c o u ld f u l f i l .
a nd V iljo e n
11
C f.
1988:
D avis
A fric a n
th a t
can,
to th e ir ad va n ta g e .
in
spite
d e r W esthu izen
th e
present
stre sses th e
V an Z y l S la b b e rt (V a n d e r W esthu izen
138) de em s t h e id e a o f a l i m i t e d b i l l o f
(V an
of
He t h e r e b y
and V iljo e n
1988:
rig h ts
1 3 0-1 3 1)
to be a v e r y
and
th e
S outh
L a w C o m m is s io n ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
325
d a n g e r o u s o n e b e c a u s e i t is g o i n g t o h i g h l i g h t t h e a b s e n c e o f o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l
rig h ts
of
th a t do not
n e g o tia tio n
is
e x is t
reached
in
S outh
A fric a .
it co u ld
If
b e seen
i t is i n t r o d u c e d b e f o r e t h e s t a g e
as an
in s tru m e n t to
en tren ch
th e
po s itio n of th e r u lin g m in o rity .
C i l l i e r s ( 1 9 8 7 ) , S a n d e r s ( 1 9 8 6 ) , D la m i n i ( 1 9 8 8 ) , Du P le s s is ( 1 9 8 8 b ) , R a u t e n b a c h
(1988),
V an Z y l S la b b e rt (V a n d e r W esthu izen and V iljo e n
S outh
A fric a n
n e g o tia tio n
S outh
the
La w
C o m m is s io n
as a p r e c o n d i t i o n
A fric a n s .
b la c k
fo r th e
stre ss
th e
1988:
1 3 8 ),
and th e
im p o rta n ce o f a process of
le g itim a c y o f a b ill
of
rig h ts
a m ong
all
A c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b l u e p r i n t t h a t do e s n o t h a v e t h e a p p r o v a l o f
people
can,
no
lo ng er
illu s tra te d ,
(1 9 8 9 )
a cc o rd in g
be
to
take n
D lam ini
(1988),
s e rio u s ly
in
as
S outh
recent
A fric a
h is to ry
or
has
abroad.
A
s u c c e s s fu l b ill of r i g h t s w ill t h e r e f o r e have to be a n e g o tia te d one.
Du P l e s s i s ' s
( 1 9 8 8 b ) p r o p o s a l s a r e o f s p e c ia l i m p o r t a n c e n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y
take
th e
present
w ith
a u tochto nou s
p o la riz a tio n
and
i n t o a c c o u n t b u t a ls o p r o v i d e f o r a b i l l o f r i g h t s
th e re fo re
tru e
A fric a n
e le m e n ts
w ith o u t
ig n o rin g
p o s i t i v e e le m e n ts in o u r E n g l i s h a n d Roman D u t c h la w b a c k g r o u n d .
a th re e fo ld
th e
stra te g y:
(i)
ig n o ra n c e a b out th e
get in itia te d ;
p o litic a l
(ii)
An
awareness
tru e
na tu re
th e
He p r o p o s e s
a n d in fo rm a tio n pro g ra m m e e lim in a tin g
and o p e ra tio n
of a b ill of
c o n s e n s u s on t h e c o n t e n t o f a b i l l o f r i g h t s
rig h ts
s h o u ld
re a ched t h r o u g h
n e g o tia tio n on a n a tio n a l level ( i n c l u d i n g th e g r o u p s " in e x i le " ) w o u ld
re prese nt
b a s ic a g r e e m e n t on
A fric a ;
(iii)
th in k in g )
and the
th e
i dea
of
fu n d a m e n ta l
A fric a n
Freedom C h a r te r
v a lu e s
socialism
sh o u ld ,
fo r a
(a s
fo r
w ell
th e
p o s t-a p a rth e id
as t r a d i t i o n a l
sake
of
S outh
A fric a n
le g itim a cy
and
l e g a l i t y o f a b i l l o f r i g h t s in a f u t u r e S o u t h A f r i c a n s o c i e t y , b e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y
( e s p e c i a l l y b y w h i t e s ) w i t h o u t t o t a l l y d i s c a r d i n g t h e W e s t e r n le g a l a n d p o l i t i c a l
c u ltu re .
In
its
v a r ie ty
o f a n e g o tia te d b ill o f r ig h t s th e S outh A fr ic a n
(1 9 8 9 ) p r o p o s e s f i v e s t a g e s :
a b ill of rig h ts
of rig h ts
w ith
it;
ro le
and
be ad opte d
(i)
in
La w C om m is s io n
T h e a c c e p t a n c e in p r i n c i p l e b y p a r l i a m e n t t h a t
fu tu re ;
(ii)
th e way
fo r
th e ad o p tio n
of a b ill
s h o u ld be c le a re d b y th e repeal o r am endm ent o f le g is la tio n c o n f lic t in g
(iii)
a th o r o u g h e d u ca tio n a l p ro c e s s to in fo rm th e p o p u la tio n a b o u t th e
v a lu e
of
a
r e a c h in g co n s e n s u s on
c o n s titu tio n
a fu tu re
of w h ic h
c o n s titu tio n
a b ill
and
of
rig h ts
fin a lis in g
form s
th e
b ill
p a rt;
of
(iv )
rig h ts ;
326
an d
(v )
a s in g le open
d is c rim in a tio n
My
p re ference
S outh
and
co u ld
c u ltu re
se ctio n ,
th e
s t r a t e g y of n e g o tia tio n
La w C o m m is s io n )
idea o f g u a r a n t e e i n g
com prom ised
leg al
fo r
A fric a n
n e g o tia tio n
in
th e
r a c ia l o r g r o u p
re s tric tio n
or
(a s p r o p o s e d b y Du P le ssis an d
is b a s e d on t h e
fun d a m e n ta l
d e p o la rize d
rig h ts
a tm o s p h e r e
argum ent tha t
in
a b ill
cre a te d
of
by
then
rig h ts
o n ly
not
e d ucation
be
and
be t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s
S outh
A fric a .
a fte r a tte n tio n
fu n dam enta l
w ith o u t any
s h o u l d be h e ld t o l e g i t i m i s e t h e b i l l o f r i g h t s .
the
w ould th e
re fe re n d u m
rig h ts
has
but
T h is
be en
a rg u m e n t w ill
given
als o t o t h e
be e x p la in e d
in
th e
last
not o n ly t o th e d i f f e r e n t c a te g o rie s of
im po rtan ce o f a
fu n d a m e n ta l
rig h ts
le ga l
c u l t u r e f o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a b i l l o f r i g h t s in S o u t h A f r i c a .
3.
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS PROTECTED IN THE
CONSTITUTIONS OF MODERN STATES
In
order
to
get
in s ig h t
in to th e d i f f e r e n t c a te g o rie s o f
rig h ts
e n s h rin e d
in
m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n s we s h a ll n o w c o n s i d e r some o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s a n d
lega l p r i n c i p l e s e m b o d i e d in m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s .
The c u rre n t
der
s itu a tio n
Vyver
(1 9 8 8 )
in
S outh
a p p ra is e s
A fric a
S o u th
co u ld
s e r v e as a s t a r t i n g
A fric a
in t e r m s
of th e
p o in t.
Van
p o w e r-re s tric tiv e
m e c h a n is m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s f o r d u e legal p r o c e s s as t h e y
have d e ve lo p e d in th e
h is to ry
several
of
stru c tu re s
W estern
p u b lic
d e s ig n e d
to
in s titu tio n s .
re s tric t
the
p o w e r-re s tric tiv e
s tra te g ie s .
These
re p re s e n ta tio n
a d e m o cra tic
system ;
in
He
m entions
power
of
includ e
th e
th e
state,
p r in c ip le
of
s e p a ra tio n of p o w e rs ;
a b i l l o f r i g h t s ; t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f an o m b u d s m a n ;
c o n s titu tio n a l
w h ich
he
c a lls
co n s titu tio n a l
de c e n tra lis a tio n ;
a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e s p h e r e
o f c o m p e te n c e o f t h e s t a t e t o a l l o w s cop e f o r n o n - s t a t e s p h e r e s o f l i f e a n d
r u l e o f la w .
W ith
th e
r e g a r d t o t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m in W e s t e r n p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
he sees s o - c a l l e d p r o c e d u r a l h u m a n r i g h t s as a s e t o f j u r i d i c a l n o rm s o r c r i t e r i a
for
th e
due
in d e p e n d e n tly
process
and
of
law
d e s ig n e d
im p a rtia lly ;
c o n v i c t e d is r u l e d o u t t h r o u g h
the
to
ensure
p o s s ib ility
th e
him se lf;
same c r i m e ;
no d e c i s i o n s
th a t
th e
inno cent
cou rts
fu n c tio n
persons
b e in g
r e s p e c t f o r p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s a n d means o f p r o o f ;
e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l is r e f u t a b l y s u p p o s e d i n n o c e n t ;
fo r
of
an a c c u s e d
p re ju d icia l
pe rson
n o b o d y is t r i e d m o re t h a n on ce
c a n n o t be o b l i g e d
to a p e rs o n
are ta ke n
to
u n le s s
te s tify
a g a in st
he is g i v e n an
327
o p p o r t u n i t y to d e fe n d him se lf;
legal
re p re s e n ta tio n ;
pre ju d icia l
to
the
e v e r y b o d y w h o f a l l s fo u l o f t h e law is a c c o r d e d
laws
are
rig h ts
and
not
e n force able
fre edo m s
of
p u n i s h m e n t s a r e n o t im p o s e d ; a n d a r b i t r a r y
is n o t p e r m i t t e d .
re tro s p e c tiv e ly
s u b je c ts ;
cru e l
if
th is
and
is
inhum an
d e te n tio n o r d e te n tio n w ith o u t tria l
V an d e r V y v e r re g a rd s the se ju r id ic a l c r it e r ia
as t h e b a s ic
r u l e s a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h p r o p e r l y o r g a n i s e d s t a t e s m a i n t a i n law a n d o r d e r a n d
th e a u t h o r it y of th e
state
is s e c u r e d ,
of po w e r and to s a fe g u a rd ju s tic e .
power
and
secure
a u th o rity
in
th e
aim b e i n g
to g u a r d
a g a i n s t ab u se s
In h is a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e m e a s u r e s t o r e s t r i c t
S outh
A fric a
he c o n c l u d e s
p o w e r - r e s t r i c t ! v e measures in c o r p o r a te d in to th e
th a t th e re
c o n s titu tio n a l
system ;
are
no
and
in
t h e p r o c e s s o f s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r th e
d u e p r o c e s s o f law a r e t h r o w n o v e r b o a r d c o m p l e t e l y .
A fric a
as a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
a lth o u g h
th e
c o u n try
has
s tate Van
c e rta in
Wyk
s ig n ific a n t
In h is a p p r a i s a l o f S o u th
(1 979,
1980) m a in t a i n s t h a t ,
claim s
to
b e in g
a
fo r m a l
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e , i t can cla im o n l y q u a l i f i e d s t a t u s as a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
sta te .
Its
a ttrib u te s
as a f o r m a l
c o n s titu tio n a l
s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s ; b a s ic p e r s o n a l r i g h t s ;
a n d t h e n u l l a p o e n e s i n e le g e p r i n c i p l e .
as o n e w h o s e a u t h o r i t y ,
is
in trin s ic a lly
tie d
on t h e b a s is
up w ith
in c lu d e
c o n s titu tio n a l
h ig h e r ju rid ic a l
v alue s
a p p l i c a t i o n o f w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t in a m a t e r i a l l y j u s t j u r i d i c a l
and V iljo e n
(1 9 8 8 )
like w ise f in d
as a f o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e ,
th a t,
a lth o u g h
c o n c e p tio n ,
re g u la tiv e
p rin c ip le s
states
in
th a t
p rin c ip le s
la rg e ly
to e x is t o n ly
it
c e rta in
in v o lv e s
o f m odern
correspo nd
c o n s titu tio n a l states,
said
sh o w s
if th e
S outh
a
d is tin c tio n
o n ly to th e v a r io u s
and
th e
law o f
( G r u n d s á t z e ) , the
s itu a tio n .
A fric a
co n s titu tio n a l
w ith
van
a p p lic a tio n
p a ra lle ls
betw een
states.
B ass on
la rg e ly
W y k ’s
th e
w ith
q u a lifie s
Van
Wyk s
c o n s titu tiv e
Homm es 's
and
c o n s titu tiv e
c h a ra c te ris tic s
a m a te ria l c o n s titu tio n a l
of
fo r m a l
s t a t e may
o f the se c o n s titu tiv e p rin c ip le s
be
is g u i d e d
T h e l a t t e r show a m a rk e d s im ila r it y to th e G ru n d s a tz e
o r h ig h e r ju r id ic a l value s m e ntione d b y V an W y k .
H om m es 's d i s t i n c t i o n
state p r in c ip le s ,
1986) b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d m a t e r i a l
in te re s tin g
b u t he c la im s t h a t
by re g u la tiv e p r in c ip le s .
fo llo w in g :
i t c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d as a m a t e r i a l o n e .
T h e d i s t i n c t i o n ma de b y Homines (1 976, 1983,
c o n s titu tio n a l
th e
an i n d e p e n d e n t j u d i c i a r y ;
He sees a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e
o f fo rm a l
ce rta in
state
le g a lity ;
S i g n i f i c a n t is t h e
fa c t
tha t
b e t w e e n c o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s a p p l i e s no t
s p h e r e s o f p u b l i c law ( c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w ,
crim in a l
pro ce d u re ),
but
als o
to
c iv il
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law
p riv a te
law
and
the
328
n o n -c iv il
p riv a te
l a w 12 o f
no n -s ta te
societal
spheres.
s y s te m a tiz a tio n
o f most o f th e p r in c ip le s
V yve r,
b a s is o f t h e m a t e r i a l j u r i d i c a l
on t h e
p rin c ip le s
of
a m p lify in g
on
m odern
the se
s yste m a tiz a tio n
c o n s titu tio n a l
illu m in a tin g
id e n tifie d
states
idea s,
He t h u s
sph eres,
are
we
a rriv e s
b y Van W yk
in
w h ic h
m a n ife ste d .
s h a ll
no w
at
and Van
the
ca rd in a l
F o llo w in g
try
to
a
der
and
present
a
o f th e d if f e r e n t r ig h ts and p r in c ip le s th a t c h a ra c te riz e m odern
c o n s titu tio n a l states.
O f c a r d i n a l i m p o r t a n c e in t h i s r e s p e c t is t h e q u e s t i o n
as
t o w h i c h o f t h e s e r i g h t s a n d p r i n c i p l e s c o u l d b e m e a n i n g f u l l y e n s h r i n e d in b i l l s
of
rig h ts
and
c o n s titu tio n s
o f m odern
c o n s titu tio n a l
states.
T h is q u e s tio n w ill
b e a d d r e s s e d a f t e r t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n has be en g i v e n .
T h e i n t e r n a l p u b l i c law o f a s t a t e i n c l u d e s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e la w ,
c r i m i n a l law a n d t h e law o f c r i m i n a l p r o c e d u r e .
la w
has c o n s t i t u t i v e
c rite ria
fo r
c o n s titu tio n a l
sph ere
of
p riv a te
la w ,
a d d itio n ,
of
-
p riv a te
3 .1
sta te .
p u b lic
re g u la tiv e
w hether
legal
p rin c ip le s
we a re d e a lin g
B u t the se c r it e r ia
la w .
Because th e
the se p r in c ip le s
w h ic h
w ith
are not
con fin e d
s ta te p o s itiv is e s
m a y a ls o s e r v e
as c r i t e r i a
may
be
used
a m a terial o r
th e
in
to
the
d is tin c tiv e
p rin c ip le s
th is
as
a form al
in c i v i l
re spect.
In
t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f s t a t e a u t h o r i t y in r e s p e c t o f t h e n o n - c i v i l p r i v a t e law
no n -sta te
state
and
d e te rm in in g
Each o f t h e s e s p h e r e s o f p u b l i c
societal
im plie s
th e
spheres
- a n o th e r in d ic a to r o f a m a terial c o n s titu tio n a l
e x iste n ce and
fu n c tio n in g
of
such
no n -s ta te
sph eres
of
law .
C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f p u b l i c law
T h e f o u r s p h e r e s o f p u b l i c law ( c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w ,
law a n d t h e
law o f c r i m i n a l p r o c e d u r e ) ,
a lth o u g h
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e la w , c r i m i n a l
not d iv is ib le ,
are no ne th eless
d is tin g u is h a b le .
3.1 .1
12
C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law
S outh A f r ic a n
legal t h e o r y does n o t d i s t i n g u i s h
p riv a te
In
la w .
section
3 .3
a tte n tio n
is g i v e n
betw een c iv il and n o n - c iv il
to th e
im po rtan ce o f th is
d is tin c tio n .
329
C o n s titu tio n a l
l a w m a y b e d e f i n e d as t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r o r g a n i s a t i o n a l law o f
th e state w h ic h
re g u la te s th e fo llo w in g :
areas of c om petence:
ta s k s ; s tr u c tu r e
and i n te r r e la tio n s h ip of c e n tra l and s u b o rd in a te le g is la tiv e and
(fo r
exam ple
to w n
th e
c o u n c ils ,
p re s id e n c y ,
e tc );
th e
p a rlia m e n t,
p o s itio n
and
(in d e p e n d e n t o f th e le g is la tiv e p o w e r)
s ph eres o f c om petence;
th e ju d ic ia r y ;
th e
fra n c h is e );
and
th e
organisa tio n
of
and th e ju d i c i a r y ,
th e
rig h ts
of citize n s
c o n s titu tio n a l
b o d ie s
(fo r
a d m in is tra tio n
w ith th e ir
th e re la tio n betw een th e le g is la tu re ,
p o litic a l
p o litic a l
e x e c u t i v e c o m m i tte e s o f p r o v i n c e s ,
exa m ple a c tiv e
fu n d a m e n ta l
re s p e c tiv e
th e e x e c u tiv e and
rig h ts
and
pa s s iv e
g u a ra n te e in g
th e
fu n d a m e n ta l fre e d o m of in d iv id u a ls and n o n -s ta te in s t it u t io n s a g a in s t th e po w e r
of th e state.
M odern
c o n s titu tio n a l
states
are
c o n s titu tio n a l
law
p rin c ip le s
such
(dem ocracy),
th e
se p a ra tio n
and
an d
fu n c tio n a l
d e c e n tra lis a tio n ,
independence
of
th e
based
as
on
those
b a la n c e o f
or
of
pow ers
c o n s titu tio n a l
ju d ic ia ry .
These
grounded
in
c o n s titu tio n a l
(tria s
p o litic a l,
fu n d a m e n ta l
c o n s titu tiv e
c o n s titu tiv e
re p re s e n ta tio n
rig h ts ,
p rin c ip le s
re giona l
a r id
th e
p e c u lia r
to
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law s h o u l d a l w a y s be a p p l i e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f t h e
re s
p u b lic a ,
ju s tic e .
in
T h is
ac c o rd in g
th e
sense o f
a p u b lic
s tru c tu re
em b o d y in g
th e
p rin c ip le s
of
r e g u l a t i v e p r in c i p l e p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t th e s ta te w ill be o rg a n is e d
to th e
c o n s titu tiv e
p rin c ip le s
of
c o n s titu tio n a l sta te th is happens o n ly if,
co n s titu tio n a l
la w .
In
in s t r u c t u r i n g t h e s ta te ,
th e m odern
th e w ie ld e rs
of p o litic a l p o w e r a re g u id e d b y th e r e g u la t iv e p r in c i p l e of th e re s p u b lic a
When
th e
c o n s titu tiv e
p rin c ip le s
of co n s titu tio n a l
law a r e
in c o rp o ra te d
in to
a
m o de rn state w i t h o u t r e g a r d to th e r e g u la t iv e p r in c i p l e o f t h e res p u b lic a . one
c an a t m o st s p e a k o f a f o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e .
T h e c o n s titu tio n and system
o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w o f s u c h a s t a t e m i g h t p r o v i d e f o r t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s ,
ru le
of
la w ,
ju d ic ia ry ,
fo rm a l
d e c e n tra lis a tio n ,
o rg a n isa tio n a l
re p re s e n ta tio n ,
fun dam enta l
fo r
of
m a terial
rig h ts )
re gard
te c h n ic a litie s
b a la n ce
d e ce n tra lis a tio n ),
Prop er
p o litic a l
re p re s e n ta tio n ,
even c o n s titu tio n a l fun dam enta l
w ith
rig h ts .
no
c o n s titu tio n a l
lim ita tio n
real
But
re gard
pow ers
of th e
pow ers
in d e p e n d e n ce
of th e
th e s e measures
re m a in
fo r
a u th e n tic
(s e p a ra tio n
of
p o litic a l
powers
and
o f th e s tate (c o n s titu tio n a l
and th e like .
th e
c o n s titu tiv e
and
re g u la tiv e
p rin c ip le s
law m ake s a m o d e r n s t a t e a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e .
of
c o n s titu tio n a l
T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s may
330
a ssu m e
v a r io u s
form s
in t h e p o l i t i c a l
con ve n tio n s
and
in s t it u t io n s o f m odern
c o n s titu tio n a l states.
T h es e, a lth o u g h necessary f o r th e ex is te n c e and s u r v iv a l
o f t h e s t a t e as s u c h ,
a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o q u a l i f y i t as a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
sta te .
In
d e te rm in in g
c o n s titu tio n a l
w hether
m onarchy;
it
is
fe d e ra l
or
w hether
it
has
w ritte n
s in g le -m e m b e r c o n s titu e n c ie s
m u lti- p a r ty
system
co n ve n tio n s
and
e tc.
o r p ro p o rtio n a l
th e
in s titu tio n s
fu n d a m e n ta l
ap p ly
c o n s titu tio n a l
fu n d a m e n ta l
u n ita ry ,
a
c rite rio n
re p u b lic o r a
c o n s titu tio n
re p re s e n ta tio n ,
th e c o n s titu tiv e
law in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t i v e
S in c e
a
is
or
not,
a tw o -p a rty or a
w hether
its
p o litic a l
p rin c ip le s of c o n s titu tio n a l
re g u la tiv e p r in c ip le o f th e res p u b lic a .
rig h ts
are
c o n s titu tiv e
p rin c ip le s
of
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w , a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e can p r o p e r l y be s a i d t o e x i s t o n l y w h e n
the se
rig h ts
are
re co g n ise d
in a m a t e r i a l
s en se
in p o s i t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l la w .
They
r e p r e s e n t th e m a terial j u r id ic a l b o u n d s of s ta te p o w e r o v e r th e
ju rid ic a l
s p h e r e s o f f r e e d o m o f t h e h u m an p e r s o n a l i t y a n d o f n o n - s t a t e s o c i e t a l s p h e r e s .
These
in c lu d e fre e d o m of re lig io n and of speech,
a rb itra ry a rre s t),
(p rim a ry ,
fre edo m of re lig io u s
secondary
and
te rtia ry ).
ha b e a s c o r p u s
o rg a n is a tio n ,
The co n s titu tio n a l
w h i c h e v e r y o n e in t h e n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y
(fre e d o m fro m
a s s o c ia t i o n
and e d u ca tio n
fun dam enta l
rig h ts
to
is e n t i t l e d , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f n a t i o n a l i t y ,
do n o t i n c l u d e a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e f r a n c h i s e , w h i c h is r e s e r v e d f o r c i t i z e n s o n l y .
3 . 1 . 2 C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law
A d m in is tra tiv e
law
go verns
th e
organ is a tio n
and
a d m in is tr a tiv e o r m anage rial task o f th e s ta te .
org a n is a tio n
of
a d m in is tra tiv e
or
b u t a ls o t h e
de fence
fo re ig n
force,
ta x a tio n ,
le g a l
p o lic y ,
organs
ru le s
lex
a d m in is tra tio n .
by
th a t,
th e
in
esto )
s h o u ld
The
n o rm a tiv e
be
th e
n a t u r e of th is
ed u ca tio n
p u b lic
re g u la tiv e
re g u la tiv e
p r in c ip le
p u b lic
law i n t e r e s t s
th e
th e
and
the
suprem e
c h a ra c te r o f m odern
a d m in is te rin g
and
g o v e rn in g
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e la w p r i n c i p l e o f t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t o f
suprem a
of
sp e c ific
It con cerns not o n ly th e in te rn a l
m anage rial
a d m in is tra tiv e a d ju d ic a tio n ,
e xe c u tio n
th e
state
of
p o li c e ,
lik e .
the
The
(s a lu s p u b lic a
p rin c ip le
of
p u b lic
is d e t e r m i n e d
m a in ly
a d m in is tra tio n ,
at th e
re g u la tio n
th e
v a r io u s
w h ic h
le v e ls ,
re q u ire s
th e genera l
w e l f a r e o f a ll i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s o c i e t a l s p h e r e s s h o u l d b e p r o m o t e d as e q u i t a b l y
as p o s s i b l e .
T h e ge nera l
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law ,
th e
a b solute
sta te
s h o u ld
to
in te re s t o f th e
sta te ,
not be in t e r p r e t e d
co n s titu te
a
ra is o n
in
as a r e g u l a t i v e
the
d 'e ta t.
p rin c ip le
(M a c h ia v e llia n )
T h is
p r in c ip le
s en se
of
of
re q u ire s
331
re c o g n itio n
of
n o n -s ta te
a lw a ys c o u n t e r
s o c ie ta l s p h e r e s a n d a n y v i o l a t i o n o f t h e s e s p h e r e s is
to th e general
in te re s t o f th e
sta te .
The
re g u la tiv e
o f t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e s ta t e may mean t h a t c e r t a i n p r i v a t e
p rin c ip le
legal i n t e r e s t s
o f s u b j e c t s ( i n d i v i d u a l s o r n o r i - s t a t e s o c i e t a l s p h e r e s ) may h a v e t o b e s a c r i f i c e d
to
th e
p u b lic
in te re s t.
When
such
damage
is
of
a pe rm a n e n t,
s p e c ia l o r
a b n o r m a l n a t u r e a n d r e d u c e s t h e v a l u e o f a s u b j e c t ' s p r o p e r t y o r i n f r i n g e s his
legal i n t e r e s t s
receive
( i n a m a n n e r t h a t can b e v a l u e d in m o n e t a r y t e r m s ) ,
com pensa tion
fro m
the t r e a s u r y .
he s h o u l d
T h e c o n s t i t u t i v e p r i n c i p l e a t is s u e is
t h a t o f a g o v e r n m e n t s a c c o u n ta b ility to its s u b je c ts f o r its la w fu l a c tio n s . T h is
c o n s titu tiv e
in te re st
p r in c ip le
w o u ld
of a d m in is tra tiv e
be
ju rid ic a lly
O b s e rv a n c e of t h is p r in c i p l e means,
and,
s e c o n d ly ,
th a t
law d e m a n d s
harm onised
p riv a te
firs tly ,
in te re s ts
w ith
th a t
th e
p riv a te
th a t the p u b lic
are
p ro te c te d
ge nera l
p u b lic
legal
in te re s ts .
in te re st
is s e r v e d
by
th e
payment
of
c o m p e n s a tio n .
T h e c o n s t i t u t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law p r i n c i p l e o f w e i g h i n g p u b l i c i n t e r e s t a g a i n s t
p r iv a te c o n tra c tu a l in te re s ts
organ
and
a s u b je c t may
a d m in is tra tiv e
leg al
r e q u i r e s t h a t a c o n t r a c t b e t w e e n an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
not o b s tru c t th e
m e a s u r e de em ed
ne cessary
im ple m en tation
fo r
th e
common
of
a
le g is la tiv e
good.
W he n
or
p u b lic
i n t e r e s t is s e r v e d in an e x c e s s i v e m a n n e r a t t h e e x p e n s e o f p r i v a t e le ga l
in te r e s ts w ith o u t du e com pensa tion,
t h i s is c l e a r l y
c o u n te r
to th e
p r in c ip le
legal
ag a in s t
p riv a te c on tractu al
of th e
w e ig h in g
of p u b lic
in te re sts
c o n s titu tiv e
in te re s ts .
T h e c o n s t i t u t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law p r i n c i p l e s o f p r o p e r m a n a g e m e n t w h i c h
ap p lie d
in m o d e rn
of ca re q u a lifie d
a d m in is tra tio n .
prepare
its
c o n s titu tio n a l
are
are
in e f f e c t s i m p l y p u b l i c law c r i t e r i a
in t e r m s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law b y t h e s t r u c t u r e o f g o v e r n m e n t
E x a m p le s o f s u c h p r i n c i p l e s a r e t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s h o u l d
d e c is io n s
c irc u m s ta n c e s ,
states
and
c a re fu lly
th a t
w ith
due
re gard
a d m in is tra tiv e
d e c is io n s
to
a ll
re le v a n t
sho u ld
factors
be s u b s t a n t i a t e d
and
on
c a r e fu lly c o n s id e re d fa c tu a l g ro u n d s .
3 . 1 . 3 C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f c r i m i n a l law
C rim in a l
law
re g u la te s
in d e pen den t ju d g e )
c rim in a l
law ,
fo r
th e
im po sition
u n la w fu l
of
p u n is h m e n t
v io la tio n
s u c h as s t a t e s e c u r i t y ,
u n d e r p u b lic
law
(b y
an
o f p u b l i c la w i n t e r e s t s p r o t e c t e d b y
p u b lic o r d e r
and
good m o rals,
safe ty
of
332
pe rsons
and
re p u ta tio n ,
p ro p e rty ,
p e rsona l freedom ,
life ,
p h y s ic a l i n t e g r i t y ,
h o n o u r and
a n d f r e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t.
M o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s r e c o g n i s e t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f c r i m i n a l law
t h a t no p u n i s h m e n t m ay b e i n f l i c t e d w i t h o u t p r i o r p e n a l e n a c t m e n t ( n u l l a p o e n a
sine p r e v ia
le g e p o e n a l i ) .
In
c o n t r a s t to u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d le g a l s y s t e m s ,
th o s e
of m odern c o n s t it u t io n a l states o b s e rv e th e fo llo w in g t h r e e c o n s t i t u t i v e c rim in a l
law p r i n c i p l e s :
p u n is h a b ility
p u n is h a b ility of com p lic ity:
of
crim in a l
a tte m p t.
c r i m i n a l law is t h a t o f ne b i s i n id e m ,
o n ly
once f o r th e
same o f f e n c e .
p u n is h a b ility o f p ro v o c a tio n ;
A n o th e r
ty p ic a l
c o n s titu tiv e
and
p r in c ip le
of
w h i c h mean s t h a t o n e c an b e p r o s e c u t e d
T h e above c o n s t it u t iv e p r in c ip le s of crim in a l
law a r e o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f c r i m i n a l
law w h i c h
the
r e q u i r e s t h a t in i m p o s i n g p u n i s h m e n t c o g n i z a n c e s h o u l d b e t a k e n o f
s e v e rity
of
th e
act
c om m itted ,
th e
person
of
th e
suspect
and
th e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h i c h t h e a c t w as c o m m i t t e d .
3 . 1 . 4 C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f la w o f c r i m i n a l p r o c e d u r e
The
law o f c r i m i n a l
(su specte d
in w h i c h
doers)
procedu re
governs
of c rim e ;
sen tence
is d e t e r m i n e d ;
im ple m en tation o f p u n is h m e n ts ;
In t h e
law o f c r i m i n a l
must
p ro s e c u tio n ,
be
appeal
procedu re
in
w h ic h
th e
of
ag a in st and
susp ects
the manner
re v ie w o f
c o n v ic tio n s ;
in
m odern
accordance
c o n stitu tio n a l
s ta t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g
d u e p r o c e s s o f la w ,
n a m e ly t h a t c r i m i n a l
w ith
th e
provis io n s
of
th e
a ct;
p u b lic
i m p lie s t h a t c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n can t a k e p l a c e e v e n in t h e
absence of a p l a i n t i f f ;
sen tence d;
d e tec tion
in v e s tig a tio n and t r i a l;
etc.
c o n s t it u t iv e p r in c ip le s are o b s e rv e d :
p rocedu re
th e fo llo w in g :
p re lim in a ry
t h e s u s p e c t is de em ed i n n o c e n t u n t i l p r o v e n g u i l t y a n d
suspect
may
n o t be c o m p e lle d
to in c rim in a te
him se lf.
The
r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e law o f c r i m i n a l p r o c e d u r e t o be o b s e r v e d b y c r i m i n a l
j u d g e s is t h a t t h e y may o n l y
accused
has
accused
com m itted
been
(p u b lic
prosecutor)
w hich demands
crim in a l
im po se
pu n is h m e n t when
proved,
is
pu n is h a b le
and
th e deed
in
a
m anner.
th a t
is g o v e r n e d
the
p u b lic
cu lp a b le
th e y
the
charge
are
c o n v in c e d
The
a g a in s t th e
th a t the
p ro s e c u tin g
p a rty
b y th e r e g u l a t i v e p r in c i p l e o f no lle p r o s e q u i,
le g a l
in te re s t
served
by
th e
p ro s e c u tio n
of
a
a c t be w e i g h e d a g a i n s t a n d h a r m o n i s e d w i t h t h e p u b l i c le g a l i n t e r e s t ,
333
w h i c h may b e b e t t e r s e r v e d b y n o t p r o s e c u t i n g in i n s t a n c e s w h e r e p r o s e c u t i o n
i n c u r s g r e a t e r da m a g e t o p u b l i c i n t e r e s t t h a n n o n - p r o s e c u t i o n w o u l d d o .
3 . 2 C o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f c i v i l p r i v a t e la w
The
c iv il
rig h ts
re cognise d
in
th is
le g a l
sp h e re are
e q u a l i t y as d i s t i n c t f r o m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f u n d a m e n t a l
who
en te rs
th e
national
te rrito ry
is e n t i t l e d
c o n s titu tiv e p r in c ip le of c iv il p r iv a te
rig h ts
rig h ts .
h u m an
be in g
freedom s.
The
fre e d o m ,
w hich
in f r e e d o m
in t h e
to th e s e c i v i l
law is c i v i l
o f fu n d a m e n ta l
Any
e q u a lity
and
are in a lie n a b le hum an r ig h t s .
The
p r in c ip le o f freedom
in c i v i l
p riv a te
la w
is m a n i f e s t e d
c h o ic e o f a m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r o u t s i d e c e r t a i n d e g r e e s o f k i n s h i p ;
fre e
d is p o s itio n
ca te rin g
e n jo y m e n t
f o r o b je c tiv e
in te re s ts
w ill;
and
(rig h ts
le g a l
in t h e
e x e rc is e of
in te re s ts );
of p e rs o n a lity );
fre e d o m
freedom
th e
a d m in istra tio n
p r i v a t e law
of
ju s tic e .
is t h a t o f
h a rm o n isa tio n
of th e
iu s titia
p riv a te
The
of
of
rig h t
rig h ts
to
s u b je c tiv e
in to c o n tr a c ts
persons
in
p r in c ip le
the
legal
be fore
su b je c ts
th e
th e
is,
leg al
a n d ma ke a
in c i v i l
law a n d
g o v e rn in g
sense of
of
(th a t
The p rin c ip le of e q u a lity
all
re g u la tiv e
c o m m u ta tiva
in te re s ts
to a tte n d
to e n te r
and fre e d o m to i n s t it u t e a c iv il a c tio n .
p r i v a t e law is m a n i f e s t e d in t h e e q u a l i t y
s u b je c tiv e
th e
all
in
c iv il
m o st e q u i t a b l e
in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a n d
e x e c u t i o n o f c i v i l p r i v a t e la w .
3 . 3 T h e n o n - c i v i l p r i v a t e law o f n o n - s t a t e so cietal s p h e re s
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e n o r m s o f c i v i l p r i v a t e law a r e p o s i t i v i s e d
o rg a n s of th e sta te ,
by
th e
la w -m a k in g
a n d t h a t c i v i l p r i v a t e la w is m i s t a k e n l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e
p r iv a te
law o f n o n - s t a t e s o c i e t a l s p h e r e s , c o u l d c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e
o ffic ia l
la w -g iv e r
T h is
is t h e
is a d e n i g r a t i o n
so cietal
spheres;
in te rn a l
le g a l
of
sole s o u r c e o f p o s i t i v e
in o t h e r w o r d s ,
in t h e
n a tio n a l
te rrito ry .
no n -sta te
s ocietal
ju rid ic a l
The
c o n s t i t u t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h a r e p o s i t i v i s e d in
accordance
n a tu re of th a t sphere.
spheres
c h a ra cte r.
com prises
p a rtic u la r
of
th e ir d is tin c tiv e
lik e w is e
w ith th e
system
law
th e a u th e n tic la w - g e n e r a tin g com petence o f n o n -s ta te
Because th e y
are
not p a rt of
th e
p u b l i c o r c i v i l p r i v a t e la w s p h e r e s t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e n o t p o s i t i v i z e d a n d t h e
le g a l o r d e r s c a l l e d i n t o b e i n g b y t h e m n o t m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e o f f i c i a l l a w - g i v e r .
I t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e m e a n i n g l e s s t o h a v e t h e m e n s h r i n e d in
c o n s titu tio n s
and
334
b ills
of
rig h ts .
The
e x i s t e n c e a n d f u n c t i o n i n g o f s u c h i n t e r n a l le ga l s p h e r e s
are h o w e v e r e sse ntial to r e s t r i c t th e po w e r o f th e state o v e r th e c o n s titu tio n a l
fu n d a m e n ta l
The
r i g h t s o f t h e p r i v a t e law o f n o n - s t a t e s o c ie t a l s p h e r e s .
s tru c tu ra l
c iv il p riv a te
d iffe re n c e s
law a n d
th e
between
p u b lic
fu n dam enta l
law s p h e r e s
rig h ts
are
and
p rin c ip le s
i m p o r t a n t on
d i f f e r e n c e in f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t r i g h t s .
in t h e
acc o u n t of th e
T h e sphere of c iv il p riv a te
law a n d i t s i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l c o - o r d i n a t i o n a l le g a l r e l a t i o n s is t h e b a s is f o r c i v i l
( p r i v a t e la w )
lib e r t y w h ic h d is p la y s a p o s itiv e c h a r a c te r .
T h is en tails th a t th e
le ga l s u b j e c t m u s t g i v e i t some c o n t e n t w h e n he p a r t i c i p a t e s
by
e n te rin g
d is p o s in g
a ca dem ic
in to
le ga l
h is
p ro p e rty
of
fre edo m ,
may
le ga l
The
freedom ,
a
w ill,
in s titu tin g
c o n s titu tio n a l
c o m p e te n c e o f t h e
a c iv il
fu n d a m e n ta l
f r e e d o m o f a s s o c ia t i o n
state and
re la tio n s
etc.
d is p la y
a c tio n ,
rig h ts
of
embody
th e
in c o m p a r i s o n
l i b e r t y a n e g a tiv e c h a ra c te r because th e y make e v id e n t w h a t th e state
n o t d o v i s á v i s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o n - s t a t e s o c i e t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i f i t does
not w a n t to tr a n s g r e s s
re spect
th a t
fu n d a m e n ta l
w ith
m a k in g
etc.
re lig io u s
m a terial lim its o f th e
w ith civ il
co n tra cts,
in t h e s e
th e
chu rches
the
rig h ts
They
a d m in is tra tiv e ,
of
th e
are,
crim in a l
of
law
its
com petence.
rig h ts
le ga l
n o n -c iv il
how ever,
and
m odern c o n s t it u t io n a l s ta te s .
c o n stitu tio n a l
lim its
p u b lic
p riv a te
esse ntial
crim in al
It
als o d i f f e r
b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t g u a r a n t e e
fu n c tio n in g
e tc.
th e
o th e r
th e
law
fo r
procedural
is
p re c is e ly
fro m
absence of
spheres
the
of
of
and
does
not
in te rfe re n c e
d e lim it
th e
of
p u b lic
T h e r i g h t t o v o t e a n d t o be e le c t e d
c o m p e te n c e
th is
u n iv e rs itie s ,
esta b lish m e n t
branches
in
th e c o n s titu tio n a l
s ta te 's
the
law
in
is a s p e c ia l
c o m p e te n c e
e x t e r n a l l y b u t is an e le m e n t o f t h e i n n e r o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e .
A f t e r h a v in g
r e v i e w e d some o f t h e r i g h t s
p u b lic and c iv il p r iv a te
as t o w h i c h
o f these
and
p rin c ip le s
th a t c h a ra c te riz e th e
law s p h e r e s o f m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s ta t e s t h e q u e s t i o n
r i g h t s and p r in c ip le s c o u ld be m e a n in g fu lly e n s h r in e d
b ills of r i g h t s and c o n s tit u t io n s
of a d e v e lo p in g
state
like
S outh
A fric a
in
c o u ld
be a d d r e s s e d .
4.
THE
IM P O R T A N C E OF A F U N D A M E N T A L R I G H T S L E G A L C U L T U R E
THE
The
I M P L E M E N T A T I O N OF A B I L L O F R I G H T S
c o n s titu tiv e
p rin c ip le s
of
p u b lic
and
because th e y a re c o n d itio n e s sine qua no n,
c iv il
i.e .
FOR
IN S O U T H A F R I C A
p riv a te
ne cessary
law a r e c o n s t i t u t i v e
c o n d itio n s,
fo r
th e
335
e x is te n c e o f a m odern
the p u b lic
w ith o u t
are,
law a n d
these
c o n s titu tio n a l
c iv il
p riv a te
p rin c ip le s
how ever,
rig h ts
con d itio n e s
quam,
e x is te n c e of a m a terial c o n s titu tio n a l
state.
th e c o n s titu tiv e
rig h ts
a m odern
or
i.e .
c o n s titu tio n s ,
because th e
th is
s u ffic ie n t
The
le ga l
co n d itio n s
la tte r o n ly
c u ltu re
comes
fo r
in to
th e
b e in g
law a r e p o s i t i v i z e d
be g u a r a n t e e d
ca se w i t h
id e a s /p rin c ip le s
in
s ta t e
These p r in c ip le s
r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s e legal
is n o t t h e
la tte r are a ctu a lly
of th e
d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g in e
c o n s titu tio n a l
a n o th e r.
A lt h o u g h th e c o n s t i t u t i v e p r in c i p l e s c o u ld
and
as p a r t
is t h e r e f o r e
of
p r in c ip le s of p u b lic and c iv il p r iv a te
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t i v e
sph eres.
It
in o n e f o r m
per
when
not
and
sta te .
law s p h e r e s
a co u n try
th e
in
re g u la tiv e
o f j u s t i c e 13 w h i c h
b ills
of
p r in c ip le s
c o u ld
o n ly
p la y th e ab o ve -m e n tio n e d re g u la tiv e
r o l e . When a le g a l c u l t u r e e m b o d y i n g t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s do es n o t e x i s t ,
t o e n s h r i n e th e m in a c o n s t i t u t i o n w o u l d be o f no a v a i l .
an a t t e m p t
T h e s e idea s o f j u s t i c e
c o u l d o n l y h a v e t h e d e s i r e d r e g u l a t i v e e f f e c t i f t h e w i e l d e r s o f p o l i t i c a l a n d leg al
p o w e r are c om m itted
o f th e c itiz e n s
th e re fo re
to them .
of th a t
choose p o litic a l
re g u la tiv e
a c h o ic e i f t h e y
co u ld o n ly
s tate
leaders
(a n d e v e n tu a lly a ju d ic ia r y
to the se
T h is
p a rtic u la r
at th e
a p p o in te d
p rin c ip le s .
a ls o
The
be t h e
have
p o lls
by
case w h e n t h e m a j o r i t y
fa ith
in o r d e r
th is
in
to
the se
g o vernm ent)
c itiz e n s w o u ld ,
th a t
ho w e ver,
w o u ld
c o n s titu tio n a l
adhere
o n ly make such
i.e .
rig h ts
p o litic a l
h is to rie s
co u ld
and
show
le g a l
how
They
u se t h e i r d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t s ,
in o r d e r t o b r i n g a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e i n t o e x i s t e n c e o n
fu n d a m e n ta l
and
h a d a p o l i t i c a l a n d le g a l c u l t u r e e m b o d y i n g t h e s e i d e a l s .
can in o t h e r w o r d s o n l y m a ke p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e s ,
a
id e a ls
have a go vernm ent
c u ltu re .
The
im p o rta n t th e
th e
E n g lis h
b a s is
and
of
French
d e velopm ent of
such
a
l e g a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e is f o r t h e c o m in g i n t o b e i n g o f a m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
s ta te .
The
necessary
id e a t h a t
de m ocra cy o r
b u t also a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d itio n
co n s titu tio n a l
re g u la tiv e
n a iv e
s tate
p rin c ip le s
c h a ra c te ris e m o dern
is
th e re b y
in th e
m a te ria l
fo r
re fu te d .
sph eres
of
u n iv e rs a l
In
p u b lic
co n s titu tio n a l
th e
de ve lo p m e n t
v ie w
and
states,
fra n c h is e
it
of
th e
c iv il
is
is
not o n ly
of
a
m a terial
c o n s titu tiv e
p riv a te
law
im p o rta n t to
a
and
w hich
c o n s id e r
t h e p l a c e a n d r o l e o f d e m o c r a c y - in t h e s e n s e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
re p re s e n ta tio n
- in
th e
in s titu tio n a lis a tio n
of
th e
c o n s titu tiv e
p rin c ip le s
in
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e g u l a t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f p u b l i c a n d c i v i l p r i v a t e la w .
13
V a n Wyk
(1 9 7 9 ,
1980) c a l l s th e m h i g h e r j u r i d i c a l v a l u e s o r G r u n d s a t z e .
336
S a r t o r i w r e s t l e s w i t h t h e dilem m a o f t h e u n a t t a i n a b i l i t y o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l .
He c o n c l u d e s
t h a t " i n a d e m o c r a c y t h e t e n s i o n b e tw e e n f a c t a n d v a l u e r e a c h e s
th e h ig h e s t p o in t,
s i n c e no o t h e r ideal is f a r t h e r
has
(S a rto ri,
to
operate"
d is tin g u is h in g
d e s c rip tiv e
and
a
operates
He
a p re s c rip tiv e
factual
ba s is
d iffe re n tly
d e fin itio n .
W ith o u t
the
idea ls
the
as su m es
lim ita tio n
p o litic a l
re a lity
solve
in w h i c h
th e
it
pro b le m
by
T h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n idea ls a n d
of
s itu a tio n s ,
p rin c ip le
system
demands
tw o m e a n i n g s .
po w e r;
can
In
a
in a d e m o c r a c y
s u rv iv e
can
e v e r be a t t a i n e d a n d
id e a ls a r e s e l f - n e g a t o r y .
in d i f f e r e n t
d e m ocra tic
p ra c tic e
the
to
no d e m o c r a c y
n o n -d e m o c ra tic system o r when f u n c tio n in g
fo rm
fro m
trie s
b e t w e e n t h e is a n d t h e o u g h t t o b e o f d e m o c r a c y b y m ean s o f a
r e a l i t i e s is i m p o r t a n t .
w ith o u t
19 62:4 ).
as
a
fo r
T h e d e m ocra tic
in s ta n c e
in
in a d e m o c r a t i c f o r m .
"all
po w e r to th e
n o n -d e m o cra tic
it demands
dem ocracy
o n ly
if,
pe o p le ",
it
w h ich
a c ts
power.
w ith
a
In its p u r e s t
system
u n lim ite d
ideal
c o u n te ra c tin g
th e
in
as
a
H ence a
p ro g re s s iv e
a c h i e v e m e n t o f d e m o c r a c y , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f " a l l p o w e r t o t h e p e o p l e " is g r a d u a l l y
m o d i f i e d t o " a l l p o w e r t o no o n e " .
is u p h e l d
"it
w ill
p e rfe c tio n is tic a lly
end
by
re p re s e n ta tiv e
and
un d e rm in in g
go v e rn m e n t".
If t h e p r in c i p l e of "all p o w e r to th e people"
u n y ie ld in g ly ,
c o n s titu tio n a l
Thus
S a rto ri
(1962:67)
gu a ra n te e s
and
th e
foresees
that
te c h n iq u e s
of
S a rto ri d e m onstrate s t h a t dem ocracy can not
be an e n d in i t s e l f a n d a f f i r m a t i v e l y q u o t e s J o h n S t u a r t M i l l ,
who argues
th a t
people s h o u ld
m ay g o v e r n ,
but
have
p o litic a l
rig h ts
'"n o t
in o r d e r
in o r d e r t h a t t h e y may n o t be m i s g o v e r n e d "
A ron
(1968:82)
dem ocracy:
asks
an
im p o rta n t
w e re p o p u la r ? " T h is q u e stio n
a
qu e stio n
" W e re c o n s t i t u t i o n a l - p l u r a l i s t i c
m u ltip lic ity
of
p a rtie s ,
i m p lie s
e lectoral
th a t th e y
(S a rto ri,
1 9 6 2 :4 0 6 ) .
c o n c e rn in g
regim es
n o t m e re ly
le g itim a c y
th e
and
th e
place and
c o n s titu tio n a l
in te rre la tio n s h ip
th e
r o le
of
b e fo re th e y
c o n s titu tio n a lity
betw een
of th e
e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r , b u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h a h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n o n , n a m e ly
th a t o rig in a lly
a u th o rita ria n
c o n s titu tio n a l fo rm s .
th e cre a tio n o f c o n s titu tio n a l
go vernm ents.
a
m u lti- p a r ty
c o n s titu tio n a lly
system s
For several
com pariso n
th e
p o litic a l
d e v e lo p m e n t
s tru g g le
to w a rd s
ce n tre d
on
ru le s to c u r b th e a r b i t r a r y po w e rs o f m o n a rch ica l
He p o i n t s o u t t h a t p o w e r may be w i e l d e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y w i t h o u t
system
or
d e m o c ra tis a tio n .
at a tim e when
th e
a n d no p a r t i e s e x i s t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e
His
m a n ife st a g ra d u a l
c e n tu rie s
of th e
fra n c h is e
in
Thus
was
e l e c t io n
B rita in
was
ru le d
c o n f i n e d t o a small m i n o r i t y
cam paign s
am ong t h e
ma sses .
p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e lead s t o an
illu m in a tin g c o n c lu s io n :
337
D em o cratiza tion,
of
th e
in
cre a tio n
th e form
of th e
p a rtie s
follo w e d
of
e x te n s io n
in
of
E n g la n d
th e
rig h t
upon
th e
to vo te
e v o lu tio n o f th e e x e rc is e o f p o w e r.
T h e fun dam enta l d iffe re n c e
p o litic a l
France
e v o lu tio n
in
B ritia n
and
be tw een the se tw o ph enom ena.
came b e f o r e
In
h is
v iew ,
c o n s titu tio n
th e re fo re ,
s im ila r
to
in
(A ro n ,
th e
th a t
France
use o f p o w e r in B r i t a i n
i t was d e l a y e d
by
re v o lu tio n a ry
1 9 6 8 :6 0 ) .
French
a lre a d y
b e tw e e n
lies in t h e d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n
The c o n s titu tio n a l
d e m o c ra tiz a tio n ;
a tte m p ts at d e m o c ra tiz a tio n
in
and
co n s titu tio n a l
re v o lu tio n
e x is tin g
attem pted
in
B rita in .
to
in tro d u c e
The
a
re v o lu tio n a ry
t e m p e s t t h a t f o l l o w e d s w e p t all c o n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i t a n d was f o l l o w e d b y a s e r ie s
of governm ents
- re p u b lic a n ,
re v o lu tio n a ry ,
im p e ria l
- w h ich
exe rcised
a r b itr a r ily and d ic ta to ria lly .
He f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t d u r i n g
c e n tu ry
re sp e cte d
w e ll,
th e
c o n s titu tio n
was
in
B rita in ,
and
e v e n t h o u g h e l e c t o r a l laws w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y
power
th e n in e te e n th
a t ti m e s
in
F r a n c e as
re s tr ic tio n s and
visib le
p o w e r was in t h e h a n d s o f a small m i n o r i t y .
M ekkes
(1 9 4 0 )
p o in ts
de m o c ra tic system
out
(in th e
th a t
th e
m odern
de ve lo p m e n t
sen se o f t h e
of
a
proper
in d iv d u a l
pa rlia m e n ta ry
p o litic a l
fr e e d o m s
of
B r i t s h c i t i z e n s ) o n l y t o o k p l a c e in t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h e " G l o r i o u s R e v o l u t i o n "
of
1689,
when
th e
co n s titu tio n a l
m o narch y
was
e s ta b lis h e d ,
re s u ltin g
in t h e
g u a r a n t e e n o t m e r e l y o f i n d i v i d u a l c r i m i n a l a n d c i v i l p r i v a t e law l i b e r t i e s u n d e r
t h e r u l e o f la w ,
b u t a ls o o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s o f p a r l i a m e n t .
p o litic a l p a r tic ip a tio n
w ith
of
th e
in tro d u c tio n
asso cia tio n
and
R ig h ts
of
f o r o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n s w e r e n o t e s t a b l i s h e d u n t i l a f t e r 1689
o f th e
asse m bly
freedom o f
and
th e
press,
the fra n c h is e
freedom
(w h ic h
was
of p e titio n ,
re s tric te d
rig h t
to
th e
a r i s t o c r a c y u n t i l 1832 a n d t o males u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e s o f t h i s c e n t u r y ) .
A ron
and
d e m o n stra te
Thus
th a t
ne cessary
or
c o n s titu tiv e
and
c iv il
M ekkes,
in
dem ocracy
s u ffic ie n t
p rin c ip le s
p r iv a te
la w ,
in
th e ir
(o n
analyses
t h e b a s is o f
c o n d itio n
fo r
th e
accordance w ith
but
th a t
i t w as
th e
of
B ritis h
u n iv e rs a l
p o litic a l
fra n c h is e )
in s titu tio n a lis a tio n
re g u la tiv e
m o re a ca se o f
h is to ry ,
was
of
p rin c ip le s
not
a
th e
o th e r
of
p u b lic
in s titu tio n a lis in g
the
c o n s titu tiv e p rin c ip le s
u n d e r th e g u id a n c e of th e r e g u la tiv e p r in c ip le s a d h e re d
to
p o litic a l
by
th e
happened
w ie ld e rs
under
o n e man o n e v o t e .
of
go ve rn m e n ts
and
le ga l
th a t w ere
power.
In
t h e c ase o f
not p o p u la rly
elected
in
E n g la n d
th is
th e sense of
T h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s f o r t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n in S o u t h A f r i c a
338
is not that un ive rsal fra n ch ise should be postponed in d e fin ite ly while the main
wielders of p o litica l and legal power (who at th is stage happen to be w h ite)
commit themselves to the above-mentioned re g u la tive princip le s and reform the
present system in accordance w ith them w ith the hope tha t a fundamental rig h ts
political and legal c u ltu re would spontaneously develop out of th is .
In the second section it was stated tha t the stra te g y of negotiation (as proposed
by Du Plessis and the South A frica n Law Commission) is to be p re fe rre d .
When
the main strategies fo r the implementation of a b ill of rig h ts are considered,
the
question
of
legitim acy
(especially
among
those
who
are
p re se n tly
disen fra nchised ) is of the utmost importance. Those who propose the immediate
in tro d u ctio n
of
a
fu ll-fle d g e d
uncompromising way.
b ill
of
rig h ts
would
b ill
of
rig h ts
underscore
th is
in
an
The immediate in tro d u c tio n o f a fu ll-fle d g e d ju sticia b le
mean
th a t
un ive rsal
fra n ch ise
must
be
introduced
immediately w ith the e ffect th a t the present pola rizatio n, hatred and fe a r w ill
be reflected at the polls.
The proponents of the o th e r two strategies realise
th a t a b ill of rig h ts cannot be in tro du ced
in
a p o litic a lly
and
ideologically
polarized society in which the idea of fundamental rig h ts and the implementation
of a b ill of rig h ts are clouded w ith suspicion and fe a r.
Moreover the so rt of
legal and po litica l c u ltu re th a t should su p p o rt the fu n c tio n in g of a b ill o f rig h ts
is to ta lly lacking in some q u a rte rs and in its in fa n cy in o th e rs.
of
the
tra c k
record
of
the
present
governm ent
(w ith
In the lig h t
reference
accommodation of black aspirations and especially the entrenchm ent of
to
the
racism
in the present c o n stitu tio n in the name o f reform ) the immediate in tro d u c tio n
by the present governm ent o f a lim ited b ill of rig h ts (m arred o r not by the legal
fic tio n of ethnic gro up rig h ts ) could be the midas touch fo r any fu tu re b ill of
rig h ts .
The stra te g y of negotiation is to be p re fe rre d because the idea of a
b ill of rig h ts would not be compromised and the depolarized atmosphere created
by education and negotiation could be the cradle and k in d e rg a rte n of a b ill of
rig h ts legal c u ltu re in South A fric a , com prising the abovementioned re g u la tive
prin cip le s of p u blic and c iv il p riv a te law.
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L .C .
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van
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S u id -A frik a .
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kon s titu sio n e le
(In
Jacobs,
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