Bond University
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Humanities & Social Sciences papers
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
January 1999
The Effect of Different Work Schedules on Role
Strain of Australian Working Mothers : a Pilot
Study
Belinda Seib
Bond University
Juanita Muller
Queensland University of Technology
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Recommended Citation
Belinda Seib and Juanita Muller. (1999) "The Effect of Different Work Schedules on Role Strain of
Australian Working Mothers : a Pilot Study" ,, .
http://epublications.bond.edu.au/hss_pubs/104
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The effect of different work schedules on role strain
of Australian working mothers: A pilot study
Belinda Seib
School of Humanities & Social Sciences.
Bond University, Gold Coast
Juanita Muller*
Post Doctoral Research Fellow
Centre for Cognitive Processes in Learning
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, AustraLia
* (Request for reprints)
Flexible work schedules, such as part-time, jobsharing, and flexitime, have been identified in the
literature as beneficial in reducing levels of role
strain in working mothers. Role strain is the
perceived difficulty in achieving role obligations
and has been related to negative psychological and
physical effects. Forty-four Australian working
mothers from Commonwealth Government
agencies completed scales to determine levels of
role strain and family management in relation to
their work schedules. Analyses indicated that
mothers in the job-share option (n = 6) experienced
significantly lower levels of role strain and greater
ease in managing the family role followed by
mothers in the part-time option (n = 12), flexitime
option (n = 14) and fixll-time option (n = 12)
respectively. A negative relationship between role
strain and family management was also found.
Implications, limitations and areas for further
research are discussed,
(n = 12), flexitime option (n = 14) and full-time
option (n = 12) respectively. A negative relationship
between role strain and family management was also
found. Implications, limitations and areas for fu~her
research are discussed.
Flexible work schedules, such as part-time~
job-sharing, and flexitime, have been identified in
the literature as beneficial in reducing levels of role
strain in working mothers. Role strain is the perceived
difficulty in achieving role obligations and has been
related to negative psychological and physical effects.
Forty-four Australian working mothers from
Commonwealth Government agencies completed
scales to determine levels of role strain and family
management in relation to their work schedules.
Analyses indicated that mothers in the job-share
option (n = 6) experienced significantly lower levels
of role strain and greater ease in managing the family
role followed by mothers in the part-time option
Role conflict occurs because of the
incompatibility of pressures that arise within the
different work and family roles (Sieber, 1974). In the
’case of employed mothers, role conflict manifests itself
as perceptions of the work role interfering with the
demands of the family role (Sieber, 1974). The more
roles one accumulates the greater the amount of role
overload and role conflict experienced and the greater
the likelihood that working mothers will not have
enough time to do everything that they feel obliged
to do (Sieher, 1974).
In the past decade one of the most dramatic
socioeconomic changes has been the increased
participation of mothers in the work force
(Hemmelgam ~ Laing, 1991). Unfortunately, the
interaction of family responsibilities with
employment seems to be paradoxical in that rather
than being beneficial, it can result in stress and
eventually role strain in many employed mothers
(Hemrnelgam & Laing, 1991).
Role strain is defined by Goode (1960) as" the
felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations" (p. 483).
Sieber (1974) postulates that role strain consists of
two main aspects; role overload and role conflict. Role
overload is when obligations of one role impinge on
the time needed to meet the obligations of other roles.
For example, an increase in the work role demands of
a mother will result ~n a decrease in the time that she
has available to spend with her children and on
household tasks.
The persistence of role strain can effect an
individual’s overall well-being, leading to a
deterioration of physical and mental health
...... Volume 1 Number 2, 1999. 9
(I-lemmelgarn & Laing, 1991). On an individual
level symptoms such as depression (Brown & Bifulco,
1990; Clay, 1995), guilt (Gilbert, Knvalie-Holahan,
& Manning 1981; Shaw & Burns, 1993),
psychological distress (Barnett & Marshall, 1992),
anxiety, fatigue, ambivalence, low self esteem,
deterioration of interpersonal relationships, and a
general dissatisfaction with life have been found
(Coverman, 1989; DeSalvo-Rankln, 1993). Davis
(1993) found that 41% of Austtalian mothers felt that
their time at work interfered with the time that they
should be spertding with their children.
Furthermore 30% fek that after worktbey simply did
not have enough energy to be the kind of mothers
that they would like to be.
On an organisational leve! role strain in
employees has been found to lead to decreased job
satisfaction and performance and less organisational
commitment (Coverman, 1989; O’Driscoll, i]gen, &
Hildreth, 1992; Thompson & Blau, 1993).
Even though some employed mothers
experience role strain, they suffer less symptoms of
depression and amdety than non-employed mothers
(Barnett & Marshall, 1992). For the employed
mother, work can increase the economic resources of
the family, improve her status and self esteem, and
provide personal satisfaction as well as enabling social
interaction with peers (Barnett & Rivers, !992).
These benefits have been found to improve general
mental health (Barnett & Marshall, 1992) and buffer
some of the negative effects of role strain in some
cases (Kandel, Davies, & Ravels, 1985).
Mthough a mother’s gratification from the
work role can have positive effects on the family, ffthe
levels of role strain are too high these benefits can be
neutralised (Brown & Bifulco, 1990; DeSalvoRankin, 1993).
It is hard to know what is best for mothers
when employment has both positive and negative
consequences. As some mothers neither have the
option or the inclination to stay at home, ~nding ways
to reduce role strain are becoming increasingly
Moen and Dempsrer-McCtain (1987) suggest
that dealing with the source of role overload can
reduce role strain. In the work-family situation role
overload in employed mothers is often the result of
excessive time demands from the work role. For the
employed mother, working within the standard
structure of the full-time workers week is very
difficult and the source of immense strain and
psychological distress (Barnett & Marshall, 1992). It
has been argued that reducing and!or rescheduling
the hours that a mother works may alIeviare role
strain (Du.xbury, Lee, Higgms & Mills, 1992).
Goldberg, Greenberger, Hamill, and O’Neil
(1992) and Voydanoff (1988) report a direct
relationship between the number of hours mothers
work and role strain. The total hours spent at work
each week is the most reliable predictor of role
overload, family strain, and work-family conflict
according to the findings of Duxbury et al. (1992).
Volume 1 Number 2, 2999 ......
Galambos and Waiters (1992) and Warren and
Johnson (1995) report that the scheduling of work
hours also affects role strain and that increased
flexibility in the work role can help employed mothers
to better balance their time between their multiple
Role strain was found to be tess among
employees who had control over the time and stress
associated with their work activities (Duxbury,
t-liggins & Lee, 1994) and that the more discretion
employees had in choosing their work hours, the
greater the positive effects (Pierce & Newstrom,
1982). Because the implementation of flexible work
schedules helps employed mothers fulfil their
obligations to their families and their need to be good
mothers, their levels of strain decline and their
attachment to their organisation increases (Pierce &
Newstrom, 1982). Warren and Johnson (1995)
report that such findings may be due to the
perception that organisations with flexible work
schedules are more supportive of family issues.
Hochschild (1989) believes that employer provided
work options such as pard-dine work with benefits,
job-sharing, and flexitime will benefit all workers,
but particularly employed mothers, by redesigning
the ’clockwork of careers’.
Between 1981 and 1996 the number of dualearner families in Australia increased by 13%, from
41% to 54% and the number of single mothers has
increased by 50% from 311,800 to 467,200
(Australian BureauofStatistics, 1997). Of these,22%
of married mothers work full-time and ! 8% of single
mothers work full-time (ABS, 1997). Full-time work
is that which involves more than 30 hours per week
of employment (Industrial Relations Commission
of New South Wales, 1996). This work option is the
most time consuming and is believed to be
responsible for the highest levels of role strain in
working mothers (Duxbury et al. 1994; Goldberg et
al., 1992; Voydanoff, 1988).
’ Part-time work is the most widely used work
option by Australian mothers with young children
(Gregory, 1995). In total, 35% of married mothers
work part-time and 22% of single mothers work partdine (ABS, 1997). Between 12 and 30 hours per week
is considered part-time work (Industrial Relations
Commission of New South Wales, 1996). Barnen
and Rivers (1992) report that women who work fewer
than 20 hours a week do’not get the mental health
benefits of employment, probably because they
operate under the mistaken belief that they can retain
full responsibility for child care and home
maintenance. Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) report
that part-time work may produce similar amounts of
role strain to full-time work for this reason.
Job-sharing is a form of part-time work in
which two people take on the responsibilities of one
full-time job and share the salary and benefits which
it provides. Workers arrange the division of the work
between themselves so as to achieve the best possible
outcome. Some people choose to divide the work by
task while others choose to work half a week each,
alternate days or weeks, or even halfa year each in
some cases (McRae, 1989). There are no apparent
statistics for the Australian population that
participates in this work option and it is assumed
that they are included in the part-time category.
McRae (1989) describes flexkime as a form of
full-rime work in which employees are required to
be present during a core time in the middle of the
day but with flexibility to arrive and depart’at times
which suit them best. Employees who undertake
fle.,dtime still usually have to be present at work for
eight hours a day but some organisation~ allow
compressed weeks with more hours being done over
less days to create three day weekends. Once again,
there are no apparent statistics for the Australian
population that participates in this work option and
it is assumed that they are included in the full-time
category.
The aim of this research was to investigate
which work schedule (part-time, job-share, or
flexitlme) results in the least amount of role strain in
Australian working mothers. Although there is
research into the effects of each individual work
schedule in comparison with traditional full-time
work schedules, there is no apparent study that
compares them all in order to determine which
results in the least amount of role strain. Such
knowledge will provide mothers with information
to make more informed decisions about their work
schedules and alternatives that may reduce role strain.
This research will also identify avenues for further
investigation.
The present study has been design(d to test
the following hypotheses: (i) role strain wi]l vary
across different work schedules; (il) mothers in the
full-time work option will have significantly:higher
levels of role strain than those in the fiexirime, parttime, and job-share options; (iii) the group with the
highest level of role strain will have the greatest
difficulty in managing the family role; and (iv) role
strain will have a negative relationship with ease of
family management.
Method
Participants
Fifty-five working mothers were recruited via
a questionnaire distributed by the Human Resource
Offcer from various government agencies that offered
the four work schedules (full-time, flexitime, parttime, and job-share) under investigation. Eleven of
the participants’ responses were incomplete and
therefore have been excluded leaving a total of 44
participants.
’
Full-timepartidpants. The sample (n = 12)
for the full-time work schedule group had an average
of 2.45 children bev,veen the ages of one and 17 and
consisted of 10 partnered mothers and two single
mothers. The mean number of hours worked per
week by the mothers in this group was 38£7.
Flexitime participants. The sample (n = 14)
for the flexirime work schedule group had an average
of 2.2 children between the ages of one and 18 and
consisted of 11 partnered mothers and three single
mothers. The mean number of hours worked per
week by the mothers in this group was 38.5.
Part-time participants. The sample (n = 12)
for the part-time work schedule group were all
partnered mothers and had an average of 1.83
cbSldren between the ages of two and 14. The mean
number of hours worked per week by the mothers in
this option was 21.
]ob-shareparticipants. The sample (n = 6) for
the job-share work schedule group had an average of
2.17 children between the ages of three and 12 and
consisted of five parmered mothers and one single
mother. The mean number of hours worked per week
by mothers in this group was 20.83
The Job-Family Role Strain Scale. This 19 item
Likert scale is used to assess the general worries that
individuals may have about fulfilling their obligations
to both their work and family roles (Bohen & ViverosLong, 198 I). Respondents were directed to indicate
on a five point continuum, ranging from always (1)
to never (5), the frequency with which they feel that
one role impinges on the time needed to fulfil the
other role. Lower scores on this scale indicate higher
levels of role strain. Test-retest reliability (r = .71) of
this scale was established by Bohen and Viveros-Long
(1981). Content validity was established by
consultation with a panel of experts in the field of
work-family interaction (Bohen & Viveros-Long,
198 I). Construct validity of the scale was confirmed
by a principal components with varimax rotation
factor analysis (Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981).
The Job-Family Management Scale. This 21
item Likert scale is used to assess an individuals
feelings of ease or difficulty in managing family
activities in consideration of the time constraints
imposed by the work role (Bohen & Viveros-Long,
1981). Respondents were directed to indicate on a
five point continuum whether it is very easy (1) to
very difficult (5) to arrange time for certain activities,
for example, "To take your children to and from
school". Lower scores on this scale indicate greater
ease in managing family activities. Test-retest
reliability (r = .91) was established by Bohen and
Viveros-Long (1981). Content validity was
established by consultation with a panel of experts in
the field of work-family interaction (Bohen &
Viveros-Long, 1981). Construct validity of the scale
was confirmed by a principal component with
varimax rotation factor analysis (Bohen & Viveros-
Long, 1981).
The Family Worl~ Measure. This measure
assessed the number of hours a week an individual
spends in activities related to home chores and childrearing (Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981). Assistance
from partner, children and others (such as a cleaner,
baby sitter, friends or extended family) was also
ascertained.
Background Information Sheet. A background
information sheet was devised by the researcher to
determine participants relationship status, number
...... Volume 1 Number 2, 1999.
III
and age of children, current work schedule, work
schedule preference, schedule flexlbifit); total hottrs
worked per week and preference for working less
honr$.
Procedure
During staffmeetings at the various agencies
an introductory letter was distributed by the Human
Resource Manager to explain the nature and purpose
of the research. Working mothers who were interested
in participating were a~ked to complete a consent
form and all fore" of the measures. Responses were
then returned in reply paid envelopes.
Statistical Analysis
Means and descriptive statistics were
computed for the Job-Family Role Strain Scale; the
lob-Family Management Scale, the Family Work
Measure and particular items on the Background
Information Sheet. Scores on the Job-Family Role
Strain Scale and the Job-Family Management Scale
were subject to separate analyses of variance. Post
Hoc Scheffe tests were used to further analyse any
statistically significant differences in both scales and
todiscoverwherethosedifferenceslay. SPSS6.1 for
Windows Student Version (1994) was used to analyse
all data.
Results
Job-Family Role Strain Scale
The mean role strain scores of mothers in the
full-time (n = 12, M = 50.92, SD = 7.49), flexitime
(n = 14, M = 56.29, SD = 5.18), part-time (n = 12,
M = 58.58, SD = 8.32), and iob-share work options
(n = 6, M= 76, SD = 3.44) suggested that full-time
work resulted in the highest levels of role strain as
hypothesised.
An analysis of variance of mean role strain
scores confirmed a significant effect of work schedule
on role strain (see Table 1).
Post hoc Scheffe tests determined that role
strain in mothers in the job-share work option was
significandy less than in mothers in all of the other
options examined. F values for each test were as
follows; job-share and full-time, F(3,40) = 18.379, p
< .01, job-share and flexitime, F(3,40) = 12.19, p <
.0!, and job-share and part-time, F(3,40) = 9.06, p
< .01.
Table 1
Analysis of Variance for the Job-Family Role
Strain Scale
Sour¢~
Sum of Squares df
Between Groups
W~hin Groups
Tc~
2590.49
1785.7
4367,18
3
40
43
MS
F
863.5
44.64
19.34"
’p < ,01.
12
Volume 1 Number 2, 1999 ......
Job-Family Management Scale
The mean family management scores of
mothers in the full-time (n = 12, M = 70.83, SD -10.65), flexitime (n = 14, M = 69.57, SD = 13.34),
part-time (n = 12, M = 63.42, SD = 13.38) and jobshare (n = 6, M = 46.67, SD = 6.25) work options
suggested that mothers in the full-time work option
expetienced the greatest difficulty in managing family
activities as hypothesised.
An analysis of variance of mean family
management scores confirmed a significant effect of
work schedule on family management (see Table 2).
Post hoc Scheffe tests determined that family
management was significantly easier for mothers in
the job-share option than those in the full-time and
flexitime work options, but not than those in the parttime option. F values for each significant test were as
folJows; job-share and full-time, F(3,40) = 5.32, p <
.01, and job-share and flexitime, F(3,40) = 5.01, p <
Table 2
Analysis of Variance for the lob-Family
Management Scale
Source
Between Groups
Within Groups
T¢~d
Sumof Squares ~
2747.08
3
5853.~5
,~
8860,43
&3
MS F
915.69 626*
146.33
"p < .01.
Relationship between Role Strain and
Family Management
It was hypothesised that as role strain increased,
family management would become more difficult.
A Pearson correlation confirmed the relationship
between the two measures to be sigaificant (r = 0.99, p < .005).
Family Work Measure
Mothers ha the job-share work option spent
an average of 32 hours per week doing things with
their children. This was the greatest amount of time
mothers spent doing thiugs with their children each
week followed by 30 hours for mothers who worked
paw-time, 22 hours for mothers in the flexitime
option and 19 hours a week for mothers who worked
flail-time.
Mothers who worked full-time where found
to spend the least amount of time doing home chores,
an average of 19 hours per week, and received an
average of 13 hours per week assistance from others.
Mothers in the flexitime option spent an
average of 20 hours per week in housework and
received an average of 12.5 hours per week of help
Part-time working mothers spent an average
of 23 hours per week doing home chores and received
the most help from others each week, an average of
14.5 hours.
Mothers in the job-share option ~pent an
average of 21.7 hours in housework and had an
average of 10.8 hours help from others each week.
Discussion
In this sample ofworldng mothers role strain
was found to vary significantly across the different
work schedules. Role strain and family management
were found to be negatively correlated, with family
management becoming less easy with increasing
levels of role strain. Both of these findings support
the hypotheses of this research.
The mothers in the full-time work option
experienced the highest levels of role strain and the
greatest difficulty in managing the family role as
hypothesised. The job-share mothers had the lowest
levels of role strain and the greatest ease in managing
the family role followed consecutively by the mothers
in the part-time and flexitime options. These
finding~ support those ofGoldberg et al. (1992) and
Voydanoff (1988) in which a direct relationship
between time spent in paid employment and role
strain were found. Duxbury et al. (1994) concurs
with these findings that full-time work schedules are
the most time consuming and therefore are
responsible for the highest levels of role strain in
working mothers. As the number of hours decreased
in each work schedule, so too did the levels of role
strain. Such findings are in agreement with those of
Duxbury et ak (1992) and Moen and DempsterMcClain ([987) who found that the total number of
hours spent at work each week is the most reliable
predictor of role overload, family strain, and workfamily conflict.
The finding that mothers in the part-time
work schedule experienced the second lowest levels
of role strain does not agree with the findings of
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985). They found that
people who work part-rime may experience similar
amounts of role strain as those in full-time work
options because of the mistaken belief that they work
less and can therefore srill take full responsibi!i~y for
everything that needs to be done for their children
and around the home. The mothers in this work
option did do the greatest mean number of,~hours
per week in housework and spent the second highest
mean rime with their children but they also received
the greatest mean hours in help from others. Such
assistance with childcare and housework and
different attitudes about responsibility for the same
may be amenable for lower levels of role strain.
In addition to total hours worked per week,
schedule flexibility and degree of personal control
over scheduling were influential on levels of rote
strain. Similar findings have been made by Duxbury
et aL (1992), Duxbury et al. (1994), Galambos and
Waiters (1992), Pierce and Newstmm (1982) and
Warren and ]ohnson (1995).
All of the mothers in the flexitime, part-thne
and job-share options indicated that the scheduling
of their work hours was somewhat flexible. The jobshare option granted mothers the greatest flexibility
and control over scheduling as it was the
responsibility of the workers to arrange the division
of the workbetween themselves. Mothers in the parttime option had control and flexibility in being able
to designate which days they preferred to work but
no control over the actual hours worked. Flexitime
mothers had flexibility and control over the time they
arrived at and departed from work but were still
required to be at work the equivalent of a full-time
workers week. Lower levels of role swain and easier
management of the family rote is linked to Pierce
and Newstrom’s (1982) finding that the more
discretion employees have in choosing their work
hours, the greater the positive effects. This can be
seen in the increasing levels of role strain and difficulty
in managing the family role across the work schedules
as flexibility and control decreases.
There are, however, a number of limitations
in the study which confine generalisations to working
mothers in government agencies. Firstlg the sample
was not randomly selected. Secondly, group sizes
were small due to a poor response rate (55%) and the
minimal number of job-share positions available to
the Australian workfome. Thirdly, group and
individual demographic variables were not matched
due to the small sample.
Another point that should be noted is that
construct validity of the Job-Family Role Strain Scale
and the Job-Family Management Scale was
established by a principal components factor analysls
with varimax rotation (Bohen & Viveros-Long, 1981 ).
This method of factor analysis, known as the "litde
jiffy" method, has been shown to be inferior to
common factor analysis with obhque rotation (Boyle,
1988; Cartell, 1973). Reanalysis of the scales using
this method would improve the efficacy of there use.
Further research into more effective and
objective scales for measuring role strain is needed as
many of the scales in use are becoming outdated and
have never had norms for the popularions in which
they are being used. New scales should include items
that gauge mothers’ attitudes about their roles;
measures of susceptibility to stress in general, not just
from the strain that arises in the work-family
interaction; measures of psychological and even
physical health; and indicators of the effectiveness of
.coping strategies that are being used. Such improved
measures would allow future research to move ahead
in a more empirical and well-rounded fashion.
Longitudinal studies of mothers in flexible work
schedules would also give an idea as to the long-term
benefits that such options can provide.
The use of closely matched groups in the areas
of marital status, age and number of children~ job
type, hours worked per week, and job satisfaction are
recommended for future studies.
...... Volume 1 Number 2, 1999. 13
Overall, time spent at work and the degree of
flexibility and control over the work schedule are
prominent indicators of role strain levels with large
proportions of time spent at work, inflexibility and
lack of control over scheduling creating the greatest
degree of strain. For the working mother, role strain
can be reduced by being in a position that is not as
time consuming, or is flexible and offers some control
in organising work and family roles in ways that result
in less role conflict and overload. The results of this
study suggest that job-sharing is the best option for
meeting these requisites in order to alleviate role
strain. The job-share option is followed by the parttime option and then the iqexitime option in
producing lower levels of role strain. However, for
the availability of choice between these options to
become a reality organisations need to implement
flexible work practices that can allow mothers to be
great mothers and better workers, committed to the
employers who are understanding of their needs.
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