INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN O F BACTERIOLOGICAL
NOMENCLATURE AND TAXONOMY
Volume 6
No. 3
July 15, 1956
pp. 101-110
VERBAL STEMS IN LATIN COMPOSITION
R . E . Buchanan
The u s e of Latin v e r b a l s t e m s i n formation of m o d e r n
Latin specific epithets i n s p e c i e s n a m e s is a continuing
s o u r c e of perplexity to those dealing with biological nomenc l a t u r e . A r e compound w o r d s having a v e r b a l s t e m as the
final component to be identified as adjectives o r as nouns?
A review of c l a s s i c a l and modern u s e s of the Latin v e r b a l
s t e m col derived f r o m the v e r b colo ( t o dwell, to inhabit)
will i l G t r a t e . In modern Latin a r e found compound s p e c i f i c epithets which have -cola, definitely r e g a r d e d as a noun
ending, a s the l a s t component; o t h e r s in which the ending is
adjectival i n f o r m , often with the n e u t e r ending (-colum).
It is contended, since t h e r e is no c l a s s i c L a t i n p r e c e d e n t f o r
formation of s u c h adjectival compounds of col-, that words
adjectival i n f o r m should b e c o r r e c t e d t o n o u n s ending i n
- c o l a . This view is widespread among botanists. It m a y be
i l l u s t r a t e d by a quotation f r o m Wakefield and Moore (1):
-
"With r e g a r d to the s p e c i e s of Myxosporium causing
canker of apple, s i n c e the mistake is s o often made,
it s e e m s d e s i r a b l e to point out that the specific epithet
should be c o r t i c o l a and not corticolum, as was wrongly
u s e d by Edgerton.
Latin words ending i n -*a,
as
incola, agricola, t e r r i c o l a a r e not adjectives but nouns
of common gender, f o r m e d f r o m the s t e m col-. T h e r e
is no corresponding adjectival f o r m . The s p e c i f i c epithet c o r t i c o l a is thus a noun i n apposition, meaning an
inhabitant of the b a r k ; it cannot be declined like an
adjective. "
This point of view a g r e e s with the opinion of many botan i s t s , who r e g a r d the formation of compound adjectives with
endings -colus, -cola, o r -colum a s s o l e c i s m s which should
be c o r r e c t e d .
GradenC l a s s i c Latin precedent should be determined.
wite, i n his L a t e r c u l i vocum l a t i n a r u m (1904) lists 4 0 Latin
w o r d s which end i n -#&a;
all a r e nouns of masculine o r
common gender. No Latin words with t h e s t e m
end i n
-colus o r -colum.
-
col
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INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN
Several questions should be answered.
1. How consistently have biologists, in compounding specific
epithets, followed the Latin precedent of using the verbal
only as -cola to form masculine o r commongender
stem
nouns? A study of 1006 microbiological specific epithets
which included the verbal stem
in the final component
reveals the following:
col
col
a. Specific epithets ending in -cola associated with feminine generic names. Inspection in this case cannot
determine whether the specific epithet is a noun in
apposition o r a modifying adjective, there is no difference in spelling; 775 specific epithets of the total 1006
a r e in this class and cannot be identified by observation.
b. Specific epithets ending in -cola associated with masculine or neuter generic names. These a r e , of course,
nouns in apposition; 117 of the total number of epithets
studied belong here.
c. Specific epithets ending in -colus o r -colum. Two
epithets ending in -colus following masculine generic
names and 112 ending in -colum following neuter names
were definitely indicated a s adjectives by their authors. A total of 114 epithets appear in this category.
In summary, of the 231 identifiable specific epithets,
about half (117) cowld be recognized definitely as nouns, and
half (114) as adjectives. The l i s t was from names of microorganisms only (fungi, algae, and bacteria), with no ferns
or flowering plants. In all but two cases the adjectival specific epithets were neuter.
It is evident that in fields such a s mycology, the Latin
precedent of always forming nouns ending in-cola to beused
a s specific epithets has been frequently disregarded.
2. Should the adjectives ending in -colus and -colum be
regarded a s solecisms to be corrected to nouns ending in
-cola? Several items should be considered.
-
a. The custom of using the adjectival form seems well
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BACTERIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
AND T A X O N O M Y
established, p a r t i c u l a r l y with n e u t e r generic n a m e s .
It is evident that the adjectival f o r m , r a t h e r than the
noun, h a s been chosen deliberately. The suggestion
made by one philologist that the u s e of the adjectival
f o r m s -colus, -cola, -colum may be due to confusion
with the diminutive endings -culus, -cula, -culum
displays an unwarrantedly gloomy view of biological
Latin and can be d i s m i s s e d as wholly i m p r o b a b l e . It
has a l s o been suggested that many of the adjectives
originated with Saccardo and a r e to be r e g a r d e d as
"the coinage of one notoriously inept in his L a t i n . "
-
-
- -
b. All nomenclatural codes forbid a change i n spelling
except i n a c l e a r c a s e of a lapsus o r an unintentional
orthographic e r r o r . T h e r e i s no code provision that
c l a s s i c usage f o r each v e r b a l s t e m m u s t be followed.
T h e r e s e e m s to be no legal w a r r a n t f o r c o r r e c t i o n ,
even though s u c h may be a s s u m e d a s n e c e s s a r y by
some workers.
Very commonly Latin v e r b a l s t e m s other than & a r e
u s e d in the construction of modern Latin specific epithets.
This custom i s well explained by Clements ( 2 ) in his analysis
of the formation of compounds f r o m Latin s t e m s . He s a y s
of such compounds:
"If the l a s t t e r m is a v e r b a l s t e m , the compound may be
a noun of the f i r s t o r t h i r d declension, o r a n adjective of
t h r e e terminations o r one termination. I '
Clements c l e a r l y recognized the formation of both nouns and
adjectives f r o m any Latin v e r b a l s t e m a s legitimate.
In modern languages having l a r g e Latin content, as Engl i s h , the Latin v e r b a l s t e m i s r e g u l a r l y u s e d i n f o r m a t i o n of
adjectives derived f r o m the Latin, a s i n arenicolous, l i m i colous, lignicolous, and silvicolous.
It m a y be contended
that to forbid the formation of s i m i l a r m o d e r n Latin adjectives may be quite u n r e a l i s t i c .
2 . Do the s a m e p r o b l e m s noted above, a r i s e when v e r b a l
a r e employed i n forming modern Latin
s t e m s other than
compounds to be u s e d as specific e p i t h e t s ? Did the Latins
t r e a t all v e r b a l s t e m s i n the s a m e m a n n e r ? S e v e r a l such
col
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s t e m s m a y be examined, s o m e u s e d extensively by the Lati n s as well as i n m o d e r n w o r d formation. The following
fer,
additional v e r b a l s t e m s will be noted: c e p s ,
fic, frag, fug, E n , E r , p a r , 5,
and =r.
I t is believed
that this l i s t constitutes a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e . The data
with r e f e r e n c e to u s e of t h e s e v e r b a l s t e m s a r e taken l a r g e l y
f r o m the " L a t e r c u l i " of Gradenwitz.
g,
Ceps,
-
fex,
cipis f r o m capio (to take into possession, to a c c e p t )
Masculine nouns as manceps (hand t a k e r , p u r c h a s e r ) and
adjectives with a single ending as p r i n c e p s ( f i r s t taken, f i r s t )
w e r e u s e d by the L a t i n s . Such words w e r e r a t h e r r a r e l y
f o r m e d , p e r h a p s because of the confusion with nouns and
adjectives ending i n - c e p s , -cipitis derived f r o m the noun
caput, c a p i t i s , the head.
Two adjectives only, ending i n
- c e p s , -cipis, have been found among modern microbiologic a l specific epithets, p r i n c e p s and pseudoprinceps.
All
other specific epithets ending i n -ceps have cipitis i n the
genitive, and a r e derived f r o m caput. Of these, 65 a r e adjectives, one is a noun.
--
- -
C A f r o m caedo (to cut, to kill)
T h e r e is 1 masculine Latin noun ending i n -cidus ( m u r i cidus mouse k i l l e r , coward); and 16 masculine o r common
Latin nouns ending i n -%a
(as m a t r i c i d a mother k i l l e r ) ,
T h e r e a r e no Latin adjectives ending i n -cidus, -c=a,
-cXu m . P e r h a p s such w e r e avoided b e c a u s e of the existing
adjectives withwhich they might be confused, s u c h as acidus,
lucidus d e r i v e d f r o m o t h e r s t e m s .
A total of 2 6 words u s e d as specific epithets i n composition of m o d e r n Latin specific epithets have as a final component a n ending derived f r o m z d . Of t h e s e , 13 end i n - c i d a
and a r e a s s o c i a t e d with feminine g e n e r i c n a m e s ; whether
these a r e intended to b e nouns, o r adjectives cannot be det e r m i n e d . Nine end i n *
a
and a r e u s e d with masculine o r
n e u t e r g e n e r i c name 8 ; t h e s e specific epithets a r e definitely
labeled as nouns. Two end i n -cidus (with a masculine gene r i c n a m e ) and two i n -cidum (with a n e u t e r g e n e r i c n a m e )
and s e e m definitely to be intended as adjectives. Usage both
in c l a s s i c and i n m o d e r n Latin s e e m s to emphasize the f o r mation of nouns of masculine o r common gender ending i n
-
-
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- -
-cidus, -cida, o r -cidum.
of -cola.
Fer
-
This u s a g e closely p a r a l l e l s that
from fero (to bear, c a r r y )
Gradenwitz l i s t s 193 Latin words which have f e r i n the
l a s t component. All but t h r e e a r e adjectives with t h r e e endings, -fer ( o r - f e r u s ) , - f e r a , - f e r u m . T h r e e feminine nouns
end i n - f e r a , i. e . , flabellifera, conifera, and p r o f e r a . In a
l i s t of 2 r m o d e r n Latin specific epithets with a final comf e r and 5 in - f e r u s f o l ponent derived f r o m f e r , 45 end i n - lowing masculine g e n e r i c n a m e s , and 53 i n - f e r u m following
n e u t e r g e n e r i c n a m e s . It is possible t h a t s o m e of t h e s e
specific epithets may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s nouns, but s e l f evidently m o d e r n usage i s quite definitely i n accordance with
Latin precedent, i . e . , compounds f o r m e d f r o m the v e r b a l
a r e u s u a l l y a d j e c t i v e s . However, t h e r e a r e 2 c a s e s
stem
i n which specific epithets ending i n -fer follow neuter nouns
(as i n T r i c e r a t i u m r o t i f e r ) and 2 i n which words ending i n
- f e r a follow neuter nouns; s u c h specific epithets may be
Biological custom i s quite definitely
r e g a r d e d as nouns.
o r i e n t e d to formation of adjectives f r o m the v e r b a l s t e m f e r .
- - -
fer
-
Fex, ficis
-
f r o m facio ( t o make, to p r o d u c e )
-fex,
Twenty-two Latin nouns end i n
all with the meaning
of m a k e r o r p r o d u c e r . There'are no adjectives. Two mode r n Latin specific epithets have been noted, flaccidifex and
spinifex. They m a y be r e g a r d e d e i t h e r as nouns o r adjectives.
Spinifex, Tubifex, and Pontifex a r e among g e n e r i c
n a m e s recognized.
-
F i c f r o m facio (to make, to produce)
One hundred and one Latin adjectives end i n -ficus, fica,
Of 13 specific epificum and 7 Latin nouns end i n -fica.
thets in m o d e r n Latin, all m a y be r e g a r d e d as adjectives,
3 ending i n -ficus, 6 i n -fica, and 4 i n -ficum. In m i c r o biology, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n bacteriology, the p a r t i c i p i a l f o r m
-ficans s e e m s to have p r e f e r e n c e , 16 specific epithets with
t h i s ending have b e e n noted.
-
-
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F r a g f r o m frango (to b r e a k )
T h r e e Latin nouns end i n - f r a a c a l c i f r a a o s s i f r a a,
and saxifraga). One Latin n o u n d
Eight Latin adjectives end in -fragus, -fraga, o r -fragum.
Of 4 specific epithets i n m o d e r n Latin, t h r e e a r e n e u t e r
adjectives; one following a feminine g e n e r i c name ends i n
- f r a g a and m a y be r e g a r d e d either as a feminine noun o r a n
adjective.
i(nd{k&)*
Fug f r o m
-
fugio (to f l e e )
T h e r e a r e 13 Latin nouns
(one who shung light), and
Latin nouns ending i n -fuga have common o r masculine gend e r . Four Latin adjectives end i n -fugus, -fuga, -fugum, as
lucifugus (light shunning) o r profugus (banished, fugitive).
Among 6 specific epithets, one adjective, solifugus, c a n be
identified, as a l s o the noun v
t r a n s f u a a . The remaining 4 end
i n -fuga and m a y be r e g a r d e d e i t h e r a s nouns o r adjectives.
Gen f r o m gigno (
-
v
~ o (to
) beget, to b e a r , to produce)
T h e r e is a l s o the G r e e k s t e m gen (from genneo to beget,
to b e a r , to produce) to be found i n many Greek w o r d s . The
Latin s t e m a p p e a r s in the l a s t component of compounds i n
the f o r m of the adjective endings -genus, -gena, -genus o r
a s the noun ending -gens. The G r e e k s t e m usually a p p e a r s
i n adjectives ending in -genes, -genes, -genks and i n nouns
ending i n -gen;s.
T h r e e words i n H a r p e r ' s Latin dictionary
which end i n -genes ( p r i m i g e n e s , t r i g e n e s , and monogenes)
a r e taken f r o m the G r e e k .
T h e r e a r e 32 Latin adjectives ending i n -genus, -gena,
-genum and 37 Latin nouns which end i n -gens. T h e r e a r e
no Greek words ending i n -genus ( - enos). T h e r e a r e 1 9 9
G r e e k adjectives (Buck and P e t e r s o t m v v h i c h end i n -genes.
In a list of 177 specific epithets ending i n -genes, -$ena,
-genum of Latin derivation, 175 a r e probably adjectives, 2
' a r e nouns ending i n -gena. Of the 175 adjectives, 99 a r e
compounds i n which the f i r s t component h a s a Latin stern,
and 76 a G r e e k s t e m . Of the 73 adjectives ending i n -genes,
55 have f i r s t components with Greek s t e m s a n d l 8 with Latin
stems.
-
-
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BACTERIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
AND TAXONOMY
While i n c l a s s i c Latin adjectives f r o m the v e r b a l s t e m
E n i n the final component end i n -genus, -gena, o r g e n u m ,
and while i n c l a s s i c Greek, adjectives f r o m the s t e m E n i n
the final component end i n -genes, little attention has been
paid to c l a s s i c usage i n the f o r m a t i o n of m o d e r n Latin s p e cific epithets, and both Latin and G r e e k suffixes have been
added t o Latin and to G r e e k s t e m s .
G e r f r o m g e r o (to c a r r y , to b e a r )
Not all Latin words ending i n -=r
a r e derived f r o m
- g e r o . Nearly a l l with the v e r b a l s t e m -=r
end i n -i e r .
Of these, about ninety adjectives end i n
(2 i n -ger%,
- g e r a , - g e r u m . S e v e r a l nouns end i n -=r.Of 8 7 specific
epithets noted f r o m the v e r b a l s t e m - E r , 14 a r e adjectives
ending i n - E r , 4 i n - g e r u s , 50 i n - g e r a , and 19 i n - 8 e r u m .
No nouns ending i n - g e r a a r e noted with c e r t a i n t y .
-=
Par f r o m p a r i o (to bring forth,
-
to b e a r )
---
Eight Latin adjectives end i n - p a r u s , p a r a , p a r u m , and
3 Latin nouns in - p a r a . Of 12 specific epithets noted, a l l
a r e probably adjectives ending i n - p a r u s , - p a r a , - p a r u m ,
though s o m e of the 6 ending i n - p a r a might be i n t e r p r e t e d
a s nouns.
-
Vag f r o m
-
vagor {to r a m b l e , to w a n d e r )
T h e r e a r e 23 Latin adjectives ending i n -vagus, -vaga,
-vagum. No Latin nouns end i n -vaga. Of 5 m o d e r n Latin
specific epithets noted, none is a noun ending i n -vaga, 1 i s
a n adjective ending i n -vagus, 2 adjectives end i n -vaga and
2 i n -vcigum.
-
Vor f r o m voro ( t o devour)
T h r e e Latin adjectives end i n - v o r u s ,
c a r n i v o r u s flesh-eating). Of 3 9 modern
thets, 9 a r e adjectives, ending i n -vorus,
a r e probably adjectives, possibly nouns
- v o r u m and a r e adjectives.
- v o r a , - v o r u m (as
Latin specific epi19 ending i n - v o r a
i n p a r t , 11 end i n
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A sampling of compound v e r b a l nouns and adjectives
f r o m Latin and m o d e r n Latin (specific e p i t h e t s ) suggests the
following :
1. The Latins f o r m e d compoundsadjectives and nouns i n
which the final components w e r e derived f r o m many v e r b a l
stems.
col
-
fi
2 . F r o m the v e r b a l s t e m s
and
they uniformly d e r i v e d
nouns ending i n -cola o r -cida.
However, i n m o d e r n Latin
or
which
t h e r e a r e many specific epithets including
w e r e definitely fixed by t h e i r authors a s nouns, i n other
c a s e s as adjectives. Is the adjectival ending to be r e g a r d e d
a s an orthographic e r r o r and c o r r e c t e d ? Among botanical
nomenclators dealing with higher plants t h e r e is a tendency
to change all such adjectives (even hundreds i n n u m b e r ) to
nouns conforming t o Latin precedent, to t r e a t adjectives as
s o l e c i s m s o r unintentional orthographic e r r o r s and to c o r r e c t them. F o r example, it is urged that all specific epithets which end i n -colum (of which t h e r e a r e many among
the fungi) and a g r e e as adjectives with the n e u t e r g e n e r i c
name should be c o r r e c t e d to nouns ending i n -cola i n apposition with the g e n e r i c name. A r e s u c h changes w a r r a n t e d ?
-
col
fi
3 . In u s e of m o s t other i m p o r t a n t v e r b a l s t e m s (as fer, fic,
f r a g , fug, E n , E r , par, vag, v o r ) i n the final components of
compounds, the Latins developed both adjectives and nouns
i n the fashion outlined by Clements, forming nouns of the
f i r s t o r t h i r d declension o r adjectives of t h r e e terminations
o r one termination.
4 . In c l a s s i c Latin t h e r e a p p e a r s to have been no r u l e cons i s t e n t l y applied to d e t e r m i n e whether compounds f o r m e d
with a v e r b a l s t e m i n the last component a r e to be t r e a t e d
as adjectives o r nouns. F r o m s o m e v e r b a l s t e m s custom
dictated that only nouns should be formed, f r o m s o m e o t h e r s
$predominantlyadjectives, f r o m o t h e r s both nouns a n d a d j e c t i v e s . In coining new epithets o r i n recognizing old epithets
f o r m e d f r o m v e r b a l s t e m s , m u s t the c l a s s i c t r e a t m e n t of
e a c h v e r b a l s t e m be recognized, o r may one f o r m epithets
f r o m all v e r b a l s t e m s e i t h e r as nouns o r a d j e c t i v e s ?
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BACTERIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
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5 . The Botanical and the Bacteriological Codes c l e a r l y s t a t e
that changes should not b e made i n the spelling of w o r d s
when the spelling u s e d was the c l e a r intent of the author.
6 . The extent to which changes would be r e q u i r e d i n w o r d s
which i n microbiological l i t e r a t u r e show c l e a r d e p a r t u r e
f r o m c l a s s i c precedent may be well i l l u s t r a t e d by c o n s i d e r ation of m o d e r n Latin words which have i n the final component the v e r b a l s t e m g e n . The Latins invariably u s e d the
endings -genus, -gens, and -genum i n formation of adjectives, the G r e e k s a s consistently u s e d -genZs, -genes, and
Classically,
8enE.s i n the formation of G r e e k adjectives.
-genus, -a,
- -5m should be u s e d i n formation of adjectives
f r o m Latin s t e m s and - g e n e s , - E s , - 8 s f o r adjectives f r o m
Greek s t e m s . However, the endings i n p r a c t i c e a r e u s e d
quite interchangeably, both f o r m s with e i t h e r G r e e k o r Latin
f i r s t components.
- -
7 . Various proposals may be made to end misunderstanding
and t o f u r t h e r uniformity.
a. I t might be r u l e d that each m o d e r n Latin compound
specific epithet including a v e r b a l s t e m i n the l a s t
component shall end i n a, be r e g a r d e d as a masculine
o r common noun i n apposition with the g e n e r i c name.
This would be consistent with c l a s s i c Latin usage f o r
a few v e r b a l s t e m s s u c h as col a n d z d but would be
c l e a r l y inconsistentwith c l a x c usage f o r u s e of m o s t
o t h e r Latin v e r b a l s t e m s .
-
b. It might be r u l e d that all s u c h words should be r e g a r d e d as adjectives agreeing with the g e n e r i c name
i n gender.
This would be inconsistent with c l a s s i c
usage which recognizes both nouns and adjectives.
C.
I t might be r u l e d t h a t f o r e a c h v e r b a l s t e m c l a s s i c
usage should be d e t e r m i n e d and followed. This logically should be the point of view of those who i n s i s t
t h a t Latin precedent forbids the u s e of the adjectival
endings -colus, -cola, -colum. This would m e a n that
f o r guidance i n nomenclature a tabulation of v e r b a l
s t e m s would be n e c e s s a r y indicating f o r each whether
nouns, adjectives, o r both m a y be f o r m e d .
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P a g e 110
INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN
d. Clement's recommendation might be approved, to the
effect that i n f o r m i n g o r using m o d e r n Latin specific
epithets with v e r b a l s t e m s i n the l a s t component, the
author is f r e e to employ them as nouns o r adjectives
without r e g a r d to the specific Latin precedents f o r
each v e r b a l s t e m .
This conforms reasonably well to
current practice.
e . It might be ruled that when a specific epithet i s f i r s t
u s e d by an author i n a binary combination with c l e a r
indication as to whether i t is a noun o r an adjective,
the decision of the author s h a l l be binding. F o r example, i f an o r g a n i s m is f i r s t named Bacillus r a d i c i cola the word radicicola is fixed as a noun. If the status of the specific epithet is not fixed by f i r s t usage,
whether it is an adjective o r noun is t o be d e t e r m i n e d
by the first subseqneut author who i n t r a n s f e r r i n g to
another genus finds a decision n e c e s s a r y .
-
T h e r e is no f i r m a g r e e m e n t i n biology as to the " p a r t of
speech" resulting f r o m the u s e of Latin v e r b a l s t e m s i n the
coining of new compound specific epithets. Is i t not possible that a common decision could be reached by a g r e e m e n t
among bacteriologists, botanists, and zoologists ?
REFERENCES
1 . Wakefield, E . M . and W.C. Moore. Notes on c e r t a i n
changes i n nomenclature in the second edition of
the list of common n a m e s of B r i t i s h plant d i s e a s e s .
T r a n s . B r i t . Mycol. SOC. 20:97. 1936.
2 . Gradenwitz, Otto. L a t e r c u l i v o c u m Latinarum.
Voces latinas e t a fronte e t a t e r g o ordinandas
c u r a v i t . S. Hirzel, Leipzig 1904.
3 . Clements, F r e d e r i c k . G r e e k and Latin i n biological
nomenclature. Univ. Nebraska Studies, pp. 44-46.
.
1902.
4 . Buck, C.D. and Walter P e t e r s e n . A R e v e r s e Index of
G r e e k nouns and Adjectives. Chicago. (Undated probably 193 9. )
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