Erikson1
Erikson’sTheoryofPsychosocialDevelopment
MoinSyed
UniversityofMinnesota
KateC.McLean
WesternWashingtonUniversity
Toappearin:E.Braaten&B.Willoughby(Eds.),TheSAGEEncyclopediaofIntellectualand
DevelopmentalDisorders
Contact:[email protected]@wwu.edu
Erikson2
ErikErikson’stheoryofpsychosocialdevelopmentisthefirst,andarguablymost
influential,lifespantheoryofdevelopment.Erikson’swritingsareextensiveand
complicated,coveringquiteabitofconceptualground.Hemixeddetailedtreatmentswith
vagueproclamations,andreturnedtothesamethemesrepeatedlythroughouthiscareer.
Thesequalitiesofhisworkhaveledsometorefertohisworkashaving“Rorschach‐like”
qualities,wheredifferentreadersgleanandinterprethiswordsbasedontheirown
interestsandviews.Thus,itisafool’stasktoattempttorepresentEriksoninfullorto
detailthe“true”natureofErikson’stheory.Accordingly,thisarticlecontainsadescription
oftheprimarythematicelementsofthetheory.
EriksonwashighlyinfluencedbyFreud’spsychoanalytictheoryofdevelopment,but
extendeditintwosubstantialways.First,Freud’sfocuswaslimitedtochildhood,arguing
thatthebulkofpersonalityisformedaroundagefive(followingthephallicstage).In
contrast,Eriksondevelopedalifespantheory;thatis,hetheorizedaboutthenatureof
personalitydevelopmentasitunfoldsfrombirththrougholdage.Second,Freud’stheoryis
consideredapsychosexualtheoryofdevelopment,emphasizingtheimportanceofsexual
drivesandgenitaliainhowchildrendevelop.Erikson’stheoryisconsideredpsychosocial,
emphasizingtheimportanceofsocialandculturalfactorsacrossthelifespan.Despite
Erikson’sdeparturefromthesexualprimacyofFreud’stheorizing,Erikson’stheoryis
undoubtedlyapsychoanalytictheorystronglyinfluencedbyFreud.Yet,althoughsocial
tensionsarehighlightedabovesexualtensions,Erikson’theorystillaccordsaprominent
roleforinfantilesexuality,lifelonglibidinaldrives,andtheunconscious.Thus,Erikson’s
theoryisquiteabitmoreexpansivethanFreud’s.Itaccountsforagreaterrangeof
psychologicaldomains(e.g.,sexualandsocial)aswellasamuchlargerchunkofthe
lifespan(i.e.,allofit).
Themostwell‐knownaspectofErikson’stheoryishisdescriptionofeightfundamental
psychosocialtensionsthatindividualsmustbalancethroughouttheirlives(Figure1).For
thisreason,wefocusonthisaspectofhistheoryinthischapter.Theeighttensionsare
frequentlyreferredtoas“stages.”Usingthestageconcepttocharacterizethetensions,
however,hasledtowidespreadmisunderstandingofacriticalaspectofErikson’stheory.
Thinkingofthetensionsasstagescanleadtoabeliefthatthetensionsoccurinaparticular
sequence,notbecomingrelevantuntiltheiranointedtime,andnolongerbeingofconcern
oncethetensionhasbeen“resolved.”Thisisfarfromthecase.Rather,Eriksonarguedthat
alleightofthetensionsarepresentwithinindividualsatallpointsinthelifespan,butthat
specifictensionsaresalientatdifferentpointsintime.Thus,aspecifictensionwillmanifest
priortoitsprimarydevelopmentalperiod,andwillcontinuetoberelevantafter.Figure1
providesavisualrepresentationofthisfeatureofErikson’stheorywiththeuseof
continuousarrows.
Tensionfive,identityvs.roleconfusion,providesaclearexampleofthiscontinuity.Erikson
suggestedthattheperiodofadolescenceandyoungadulthoodwastheprimary
developmentalperiodtoresolvetheidentitytension.However,identity‐relatedissuescan
certainlyarisepriortoadolescence,whichissupportedbyextensiveresearchonmirror
self‐recognition,self‐otherintegration,androlepreferences;issuesthatarisefrominfancy
Erikson3
throughchildhood.Likewise,individuals’identitiesarenotachieved,completed,or
unchangingfollowingyoungadulthood.Bothnormative(e.g.,marriage,children)andnon‐
normative(e.g.,divorce,job‐loss)eventscanleadtocontinuedidentitynegotiationin
adulthood.Ingeneral,fromanEriksonianperspective,noaspectofdevelopmentisever
actually“complete.”
Inmodernterms,theeightpsychosocialtensionscanbethoughtofasdevelopmentaltasks.
Developmentaltasksareprevalent,ifnotuniversal,psychologicalissuesthatindividuals
mustconfrontandresolveinordertorealizehealthydevelopment.Thinkingoftheeight
tensionsasdevelopmentaltaskshelpsusunderstandthepsychologicalissuesthatare
particularlysalienttoindividualsatdifferentpointsintheirlives.
AquestionthatoftencomesupistheroleofageinErikson’stheory.Asmentionedearlier,a
keyfeatureofthetheoryisthatitcoversthelifespan.Becauseitisalifespantheory,
consistingofeightage‐gradedtensions,thereisoftenadesiretoassignspecificageranges
toeachofthetensions.However,thisisnotpossible.Therearenohardandfastagesat
whicheachtensionrisestoprominenceandfallstothebackground.Thisistrueforthree
mainreasons.First,asmentioned,alleighttensionsarepresentatallpointsin
development.Second,thereareindividualdifferencesinthelengthandintensitywith
whichindividualsengageineachtension.Forsome,theidentitytensionisparticularly
challengingandlong‐lasting,whileforothersitistheintimacytensionthatisprolonged.
Third,despitewidespreadbelief,Eriksonpaidcloseattentiontotheculturalcontextofthe
life‐course,particularlyamongmarginalizedgroupsintheU.S.(e.g.,women,African
Americans,NativeAmericans),andhowculturalfactorsmodulatedthelifecourse.
Thus,howlongindividualsseriouslyengagewitheachtensiondependsontheirown
personalsituationsandculturalcontexts.Thatsaid,therearegeneralageperiodsinwhich
eachtensionrisestoprominence,andwedescribethesebelow.Moreover,thetensions
haveasequentialqualityinthatthereasonableresolutionofatensionisnecessaryto
successfullyresolveasubsequenttension.Toputitanotherway,unresolvedtensions
earlierinlifecanleadtochallengesdowntheroad.Wewillprovideexamplesofthis
process,too.
Trustvs.Mistrust(infancy).Thebasicandfundamentalpsychologicaltaskisforinfants
todevelopasensethattheircaregiversandenvironmentsareresponsive,reliable,and
consistent.Inotherwords,thattheycantrustthattheirbasicneedswillbemet.Basictrust
isfacilitatedbyaresponsivecaregiver.Wheninfantsareindistress—whetheritbedueto
hunger,exhaustion,injury,oradirtydiaper—cantheyexpectthatacaregiverwillattendto
theirneeds?Thisdevelopmentaltaskhasbeenextensivelyelaboratedintheoryand
researchonattachment,mostnotablybyJohnBowlbyandMaryAinsworth.
Autonomyvs.ShameandDoubt(toddlerhood).Followinginfants’understandingofan
predictableenvironment,thattheycandependonothers,toddlerhoodischaracterizedby
theinitialsteptowardsdevelopingasanindividualperson;thatis,developingasenseof
autonomy.AswithallEriksoniantensions,themanifestationofthistaskisassociatedwith
contemporarybiologicalandculturalcircumstances.Accordingly,theprimaryroute
Erikson4
throughwhichtoddlersbegintoestablishasenseofautonomyisthroughdefecationand
theprocessoftoilettraining.Inaworldinwhichtoddlershaveverylittlecontrol,thisis
onedomaininwhichtheybothhavesomecontrolandareexpectedtoexerciseit.Erikson
discussedtoilettrainingasthebeginningsofunderstandingtheprocessesof“holdingon
andlettinggo,”whicharefundamentaltofuturedevelopment.
Initiativevs.Guilt(earlychildhood).Thethirdtensiontakesautonomyonestepfurther.
Inearlychildhood,childrenlearntotakegreaterrisksinseparatingfromtheircaregiver,
activelyengagingwiththeirenvironmentsontheirownterms—takinginitiative.Thismost
oftentakestheformofindependentplay,withchildrendemonstratingtheabilitytoengage
withconcretematerialsortheirownimaginations.Thenegativepole,guilt,correspondsto
theguiltassociatedwithengaginginworkthatisnotintricatelytiedtothecaregiver—that
initiatingindependentplayservesasabetrayaloftheestablishedbond.
Industryvs.Inferiority(middlechildhood).Thefourthtensionisadirectextensionof
theprevious.Indeed,althoughalleightofthetensionsformasuccessivedevelopmental
sequence,tensions2‐4representaclearsequenceinthedevelopmentofautonomy.
Buildingupontheabilitytotakeinitiative,industryistheabilitytoseeprojectsthroughto
completion.Itischaracterizedbyhavingtheinterest,skills,andmotivationtopersistata
task,andisrelatedtogainsinself‐regulation.Importantly,thisistheprimeperiodfor
developingproficiencyinculturally‐specifictechnologies.Whatitmeansto“create”will
varyduetoparticularculturaldemandsandexpectations,andsuccessfulresolutionofthis
taskinvolvesamasteryofthesetechnologies.
Identityvs.RoleConfusion(adolescenceandemergingadulthood).Atthedawnof
adolescence,individualsbegintoengageinanewandspecialkindofproject:themselves.
IdentitywasacentralconceptinErikson’sthinking,andhiswritingshavemadeahuge
impactonsubsequenttheoryandresearch,aswellaspopularculture.Indeed,Eriksonwas
thefirsttowriteabout,andusetheterm,“identitycrisis.”Althoughthistermispartofthe
everydayvernacularinmanypartsoftheworld,thiswasfarfromthecasepriortoErikson.
Intimacyvs.Isolation(emergingadulthoodandadulthood).Asyouthmoveeven
deeperintoadulthood,developingintimaterelationshipsbecomesparticularsalient.
Importantly,intimacyhereinvolvesbothromanticandplatonicrelations—itisabout
sharingoneselfwithothers.Indeed,onceindividualsdevelopareasonablesenseof
identity,theyarethenpreparedtosharethatidentitywithothersinordertodevelop
successfulintimaterelations.Ideally,whentwoindividualsdevelopanintimate
relationship,theyestablishanidentityfortherelationshipwhileeachmaintaininghis/her
ownindividualidentities.Herewecanseeaclearexampleofhowthetensionsbuildupon
eachother.Ifanindividualwhodoesnothaveaclearsenseofidentityattemptstoengage
inarelationship,thereisadangerofthatpersondefiningoneselfintermsofthe
relationship,withnoindividualidentitydefinedapartfromit.Ifthatrelationshipends—
anditlikelywill—itcanhavedestructiveeffectsbecausetheindividualhaslittletofallback
on.
Erikson5
Generativityvs.Stagnation(adulthood).Onceindividualsmoveintoadulthoodproper,
theybegintothinkaboutwhattheywanttoleavebehind.Thatis,nowthattheyhave
developedanidentityandshareditwithotherpeople,whatofthemselvesdotheywantto
passontofuturegenerations?Thisisthethrustofgenerativity.Formany,generativity
takestheformofhavingchildren,asreproductioncontributestosurvivalofourspecies
andallowsindividualstotransmittheirculture.However,reproductionisnottheonly
expressionofgenerativity.Engaginginactivitiesthatwillbenefitfuturegenerations,
includingmentoring,teaching,artisticventures,civicparticipation,andactivism,areall
waysinwhichpeoplecandevelopasenseofgenerativity;thattheyhavesomethingworth
passingalongtosubsequentgenerations.
Integrityvs.Despair(oldage).Inoldage,theprimarydevelopmentaltaskbecomesa
reflectiveone.Dopeoplefeellike,whentheylookbackontheirlife,thattheydidthingsthe
rightway?Thattheylivedthebestlifethattheygood?Oraretheyfilledwithregrets,
askingthemselveswhethertheycouldhavemadedifferentchoicesthatledtobetter
opportunities.Thisistheessenceofthefinaltension.Itishasamarkedlydifferentfeelthan
theotherseventensions,asitsprimaryfunctionisevaluativevs.productive.Thatis,itis
moreaboutbeingthanitisaboutdoing.
Asapartingpoint,itisimportanttounderstandthattheconceptofbalanceiscentralto
Erikson’stheory.Eachoftheeighttensionsconsistsoftwoopposingpoles,a“positive”end
anda“negative”end.Whenindividualsareengagedinthedevelopmentaltaskassociated
witheachtension,theirprimarypsychologicalworkinvolvesfindingasenseofbalance
betweenthesetwopoles.Theywillbepulledtowardsboththepositiveandnegativepoles
duringthistime,andthegoalistoarriveatafeelingofsuccessfulresolutionofthepositive
andnegativeelements.Inourdescriptionsaboveweemphasizedthepositivepoles,butthe
idealstateistoretainsomeaspectsofthenegativepolewhilerealizingmostofthe
positive.TakeBasicTrust:itisnotconsideredadaptivetobeall‐trusting,butrathersome
degreeofmistrustcanserveindividualswellintheirlives.Insum,thereisagreatdealof
complexityinErikson’stheory,andweinvitetheinterestedreadertoengagewithsomeof
thesuggestedreadingtolearnmoreaboutit.
SuggestedReadings
Erikson,E.H.(1950).Childhoodandsociety.NewYork:WWNorton&Co.
This is the most complete articulation of Erikson’s theory, and a good starting point for
those interested in engaging in his ideas. Although some find his prose to be terse and thus
difficult to digest, there is no substitute for the original source material if one is truly interested
in Erikson’s complex ideas.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
This book is a collection of Erikson’s essays on the subject of identity, which ultimately
was his greatest scholarly focus and undoubtedly his greatest contribution to psychology.
Erikson6
Friedman, L. J. (2000). Identity's architect: A biography of Erik H. Erikson. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
The definitive biography of Erikson and his life’s work.
McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (Eds.). (2015). The Oxford handbook of identity development. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Containing 34 original chapters, this handbook represents the state-of-the-field of
contemporary theory and research on Erikson’s theory of identity development and related
approaches.
Erikson7
Initiative
vs.
Guilt
Industry
vs.
Inferiority
Identity
vs.
Confusion
Intimacy
vs.
Isolation
Autonomy
vs.
Doubt
BasicTrust vs.
Mistrust
Infancy
Integrity
vs.
Despair
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Adolescence
OldAge
Figure1.DepictionofErikson’seightpsychologicaltensions,highlightinghowalltensionsarepresentatallpointsin
development,butthatcertaintensionsaresalientatparticulardevelopmentperiodsinthelifespan