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The Great Plains Indians
Early Indians
3
Buffalo and Horse
4
Rise of the Horse Culture
6
Kiowa
8
Comanche
10
Arapahoe
11
Cheyenne
13
Sioux
14
Home
16
Clothing
17
Social Structure
18
Religion
20
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2
Early Indians
People have occupied the Americas for perhaps as long as 40,000 years. Over these
years, they have created great civilizations equaling1 any found in Europe, Asia and
Africa.
In North America, Paleoindians2 hunted the mammoths3 and mastodons4. They were
replaced by archaic Indians who lived from 5,000 to 1,000 BC.5 They left behind
remarkable cave art6. In at least one instance they hunted bisons, the species known
as the American buffalo, by driving them into kill sites on the eastern Colorado plains.
But these hunter-gatherers were moving towards becoming agricultural societies.
Prior to the arrival of Europeans in 1492, the transition to agrarian cultures had been
nearly completed. Indian nations extended across North America. A network of cities
flourished as a part of a mound7 building culture in the East. In the Southwest, the
Anasazi8 and their contemporary cultures built equally remarkable dwellings.
Then, in the historical blink of an eye, they all disappeared and were replaced by the
configuration9 of tribes in place at the start of the 17th century, many of which then
vanished as a result of European diseases and settlement.
1
equaling – to equal – to have the same size, quality, status etc. – gleichkommend
Paleoindians – Stone Age Indians – Indianer, die in der Steinzeit lebten
3
mammoth – das Mammut
4
mastodon – das Mastodon
5
BC – before Christ; AD – Anno Domini – in the year of the Lord
6
cave art – prehistoric pictures on the walls of a cave – die Höhlenmalerei
7
mound – a heap or pile of earth built for burials or fortifications – der Hügel, Wall
8
Anasazi – ancient Pueblo People or ancestral Puebloans. A prehistoric Native American civilization centered
around the southwestern United States (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado);
Pueblo Indians – a Native American Indian people who lived in present day New Mexico and Arizona. Pueblo
comes from the Spanish, meaning Town. When the Pueblo were discovered by the Spanish around 1500 they
were a settled tribe living in towns. They were not nomadic like some of the other local tribes.
9
configuration – an arrangement of the parts of something – die Anordnung
2
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During this time, the great cities were replaced by small agricultural villages. Then, as
the Europeans expanded across the continent, the surviving tribes were pushed ever
westward into a constantly redefined and shrinking Indian territory.
However, during the middle of the 18th century two parallel events occurred on the
North American continent:
The creation of a new type of nation – The United States of America and
the creation of a new kind of Indian culture – the warrior10 horse culture:
Two remarkable human transformations that would eventually clash in bitter conflict.
Buffalo and Horse
Two large mammal species11 played an equally critical role in creating the
remarkable Plains Indians culture. One was the horse, an animal brought to the New
World by the Europeans. The other, a member of the cattle family, was the American
buffalo, indigenous12 to the continent.
The American buffalo can trace its ancestry13 back to the Pleistocene14 era when its
relatives roamed15 among the mastodons, mammoths, giant wolves and lions.
10
warrior – a person who fights in battle – der Krieger
mammal species – a class of animals that give birth to live babies and feed them on milk from the breast – die
Säugetiere
12
indigenous – belonging naturally to a place – einheimisch
13
ancestry – people or race from which one is descended – die Abstammung, Herkunft
14
Pleistocene – an ice age period – die Pleistozänzeit
15
roamed – to roam – to move about without any definite aim or destination – umherstreifen
11
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In fact, the buffalo is the lone survivor from that ancient time.
A herd animal, the buffalo is covered with long dark brown woolly hair. It has a
massive head, high humped16 shoulders and a tufted17 tail. Fully grown, buffaloes are
five to six feet high at the shoulders and can weigh as much as a ton. Like other
members of the cattle family, they thrive on grasses.
Prior to the 1800s, it is estimated that the buffalo population ranged somewhere
between 60 to 80 million. They were found wherever prairie grasses grew, from
Canada to Texas and from the Rockies to Ohio and Kentucky. It was said that when
one of the vast herds moved through an area it kicked up a cloud of dust darkening
the sky.
For 10,000 years buffalo had been hunted on foot by the Native American tribes but
were never the principal source of food and material for the Indians as the deer or elk
were. That changed with the arrival of the Europeans and their horses.
The horse was particularly important to the Spanish in their conquests18 and
explorations19. The Spanish Iberian mustang was not a huge grain-fed animal like the
horses from northwestern Europe and the British Isles. It was a desert-bred animal
that could live entirely off grasses and go for long periods without water. It was
capable of carrying a man in heavy armor20 over miles of burning desert and dry high
plains.
In 1680 there was a massive uprising by the Pueblo Indians against their Spanish
overlords21. When the surviving Spanish fled they left behind their sheep, cattle and
horses.
The Pueblo, a sedentary22 people having little use for the thousands of Spanish
horses, simply let them roam free. These horses thriving on the short grass prairies
formed the nucleus23 of the great mustang herds of the Southwest and Southern
Plains.
This great horse dispersal24 produced perhaps the most rapid cultural transformation
hitherto25 ever witnessed on the planet. Within 100 years, a number of native
American tribes on both sides of the Great Plains had transformed themselves into
nomadic buffalo hunting horse cultures; horse cultures with names like the
Cheyenne, the Sioux, the Comanche, the Kiowa and the Arapahoe.
16
humped – a hump – a round projecting part on the back of an animal – buckelig
tufted – a tuft – a bunch of hair, feathers etc. growing or held together at the base – gebüschelt
18
conquests – to conquer – to take possession and control by force- die Eroberungen
19
explorations – to explore – to search through or travel through new lands for discovery – die Erforschungen
20
armor – a protective metal covering for the body worn when fighting – die Rüstung
21
overlords – people with supreme powers over many others – die Oberherren, Herrscher
22
sedentary – settled in one place – sesshaft
23
nucleus – the central part of something – der Kern
24
dispersal – to disperse – to go in different directions, to spread over a wide area – die Verbreitung,
Verstreutheit
25
hitherto – until now – bis jetzt
17
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Rise of the Horse Culture
100 years after the great horse dispersal started, most of the remaining North
American tribes had horses but only a few tried the grand economic experiment of
developing a true nomadic horse culture.
At the same time, the short grass prairie offered a huge unoccupied region for
expansion26. While unfit for permanent settlement, it was ideal for any group that
moved easily with the wanderings of the millions of buffalo. The horse provided the
vehicle and the buffalo provided a virtually inexhaustible27 supply of high quality
protein28 giving the tribes, willing to venture29 onto the Plains, the chance for rapid
population growth. Each of these tribes has a unique story of its transformation into a
horse culture.
The WHY has long been lost but the journey has been recorded. Looking at the
Great Plains as a sea of prairie grass all the eventual and nomadic tribes started in
the North, three from the Eastern shore and four from the Western shore.
Unlike the other horse cultures, the Navajo and Apache moved into their 18th and 19th
century homelands prior to the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century. They
were part of a very large sub-arctic group generally referred to as the Athabascan30
(or Athapascan) speaking Indians.
26
expansion – to expand – to become greater in size – die Ausdehnung, Erweiterung
inexhaustible – something that will always continue, never finished – unerschöpflich, unendlich
28
protein – das Protein, das Eiweiss
29
to venture – to dare to go somewhere dangerous or unpleasant – sich vorwagen
30
Athabascan – an American Indian linguistic stock including languages of the far northwest, of the Pacific coast
and of Arizona and the Rio Grande basin
27
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Their ancestral home31 covered a large part of Canada’s Northwest Territory.
Anthropological records indicate that these people lived in small family groups, were
nomadic, and hunted caribou32.
Sometime between 900 and 1400 A.D.33 a group identified as the Southern
Athabascans migrated south into present day West Texas, New Mexico and
Arizona.
When the Spanish arrived in 1540, they were already split into two distinct groups,
the Apache and the Navajo. Each had their own territories and customs, and
because of their close proximity34 to the Spanish they were the first to tame35 horses.
In fact, in 1659 the Navajo were the first Indians to attack Europeans using horses. At
the same time their Apache relatives used the horse for food and as a beast of
burden36.
The Navajo were more settled than the Apache. Like most tribes who had names for
themselves such as “The True Ones”, “Only Ones”, “Real People” and “Human
Beings”, the Navajo referred to themselves as Dene, meaning “The People”.
They lived in permanent dwellings37 known as Hogans. These eight-sided buildings
were perfect for the desert southwest remaining hot in the winter and cool in the
summer.
Capturing38 horses, sheep and goats from the Spanish, the Navajo established herds
of their own. They became excellent weavers39 and their rugs and blankets became
highly valued trade goods.
The most important person in the Navajo family was the woman who owned the land,
the home and the livestock40. All Navajo life centered around the family, including
religious ceremonies. One of the most important was a healing ceremony known as
the Night Wake.
In this ceremony the Navajo used sand paintings like this one to heal the sick.
Shamans called singers created these sacred pictures using crushed rock of many
colors. While the Navajo practiced more settled activities like farming, the Apache
preferred raiding41 and hunting. Indeed, the Apache moved seasonally42 with the
antelope, elk, deer and buffalo. Traveling in small groups or as individual families,
they would set up a circular hut known as a Wickiup. Each Wickiup housed a family.
31
ancestral home – see ancestry above – der Stammsitz
caribou – der Karibu
33
A.D. – Anno Domini – in the year of the Lord
34
close proximity – to be near somebody or something in space or time – die unmittelbare Nähe
35
to tame – to change animals from the wild or savage state – to make easy to control – zähmen, bändigen
36
beast of burden – an animal used for carrying heavy loads on its back – das Lasttier
37
dwellings – dwelling -a place of residence, a house – die Wohnhäuser
38
capturing – to capture – to take a person or an animal as a prisoner – gefangennehmen, (ein)fangen
39
weavers – weaver – a person who weaves cloth – die Weber
40
livestock – animals kept on a farm for use or profit – das Vieh
41
raiding – to raid – to make a surprise attack – überfallen, plündern
42
seasonally – the season – the 4 seasons, spring, summer, fall and winter – von der Jahreszeit abhängig,
saisonbedingt
32
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From these camps the Apache raided the Spanish or other tribes capturing sheep
and goats which they ate, and mustangs which they used primarily as pack horses.
The Apache – though they numbered less than 5,000 – were among the most
warlike43 of the Indians and had long running feuds44 with almost every other tribe of
the Southwestern Plains and desert Southwest. They formed no religious institutions
but looked for spirituality in everyday life.
The famous Chiricahwa leader Geronimo45, who was also a healer explained:
“We had no churches, no Sabbath day, no holidays and yet we worshipped46.
Sometimes the whole tribe would assemble to sing and pray. Sometimes in a smaller
number of perhaps only two or three. Sometimes an aged person prayed for all of
us.”
And like later arrivals to the plains, neither the Apache nor the Navajo formed any
significant military alliances47 with other tribes.
Kiowa
The Kiowa’s journey onto the plains began somewhere in the Kootenay region of
British Columbia, Canada. From there they migrated48 into western Montana in the
43
warlike – aggressive; showing a desire for conflict or war – kriegerisch
feuds – the feud – a long and bitter quarrel between 2 people – die Fehden
45
Geronimo – Apache Indian chief, ~ 1834-1909
46
worshipped – to worship – the practice of showing respect for God or a god eg. by praying or singing –
anbeten, vergöttern, verehren
47
military alliances – military unions for mutual benefits – Militärbündnisse
48
migrated – to migrate – to move from one place to go to live in another – abwandern, ziehen
44
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1600s. Around 1700, they reached the Yellowstone River area. Ten years later after
acquiring the horse from the Crow49 they found a home in South Dakota’s Black Hills.
Very quickly the Cheyenne and the Sioux drove them from this home. Again they
moved south where they fought a bloody war with the Comanche.
However, by the beginning of the 19th century the Kiowa formed a strong military
alliance with their former adversary50. This alliance was at the center of the battle for
the Southern Plains. Their language is believed to be part of the Aztec-Tanoan
linguistic stock51. It is a language group spoken by many Mexican Indians.
Like all the nomadic Indian nations, the twin centers of Kiowa life were hunting and
war. Though small in numbers the Kiowa were known for their exceptional bravery52,
strict military organization and strong warrior societies.
The Kiowa were also known for their incredible53 storytelling pictographs54. Indeed
they came very close to developing a written language. Much history of the Indian
Wars comes from their pictographic records, written on buffalo hides as a kind of
yearly calendar.
Another nation later called the Kiowa-Apache accompanied the Kiowa as they
migrated south. Though unrelated genealogically55 to either the Kiowa or the Apache
they had the cultural traits56 of the Kiowa and spoke an Athabascan-based language
like the Apache. Hence57 the Kiowa-Apache designation58.
49
the Crow – a North American Indian Plains tribe belonging to the Siouan linguistic stock, located in eastern
Montana
50
adversary – an opponent in a contest, argument or battle – der, die Gegner(in), der, die Kontrahent(in)
51
linguistic stock – language group – Sprachbestand
52
exceptional bravery – unusual, outstanding courage – aussergewöhnliche Tapferkeit, Mut
53
incredible – difficult to believe – unglaublich
54
pictographs – pictograph – pictogram – das Piktogramm (fachspr.)
55
genealogically – genealogy – concerned with one’s ancestors and family history – genealogisch
56
cultural traits – distinguishing cultural characteristics – die Kultureigenschaften
57
hence – for this reason – daher
58
designation – naming, nomination – die Bezeichnung
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Comanche
The Uto-Aztecan language places the Comanche as part of the Shoshone nation that
occupied a large part of the Great Basin area59 of Wyoming, Utah and Nevada.
Sometime in the 17th century, a small band of Shoshone from the mountainous
region of Wyoming migrated south along the Rocky Mountains.
59
The Great Basin area – a region without drainage to the ocean in the western United States
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Around 1700 they acquired60 horses and by 1720 they were in present-day Kansas.
By this time they had become the finest horse breeders61 on the plains, owning the
largest and richest herds of Indian ponies in the West.
For the next 150 years the Comanche would lord over62 the most expansive native
American empire the continent would ever see. Master horse warriors, the
Comanche fought and defeated the Apache and the Spanish. It is said that the
Comanche killed more Whites than any other Indian tribe. Eventually they formed
military alliances with the Kiowa and the Southern Arapahoe and the Southern
Cheyenne.
Although the Comanche controlled a large empire that stretched across the Southern
Plains, they were less organized socially than their Kiowa allies. But organized in
small bands of 100 or so warriors the Comanche rivaled63 the Spanish
Conquistadors64 in wealth and power. Like the Spanish they were also slave traders65
and profit seekers66.
Of all the Plains nations the Comanche were the most open to new ideas. It was
perhaps their greatest strength according to historians Joseph Cash and Gerald
Wolfe in their book “The Comanche People”. The Comanche, by bringing in captives
from so many different groups kept their nation vigorous67 and far-seeing68.
But while the Comanche were far-seeing they also recognized the value of the old
traditions such as using spider webs69 to tell when a storm was approaching,70 thus
enabling them to use the weather to their advantage during raids or hunting.
A second group of Indians moved onto the Plains, not from the Northwest as did the
Apache, Navajo, Kiowa and Comanche but from the Northeast.
Arapahoe
At one time both the Cheyenne and the Arapahoe were part of a large village
dwelling group of Indian nations known as the Woodland71 culture72 that lived in the
upper Great Lakes region of the United States.
The Cheyenne and the Arapahoe were Algonquian speaking people. The exact
ancestral homeland of the Arapahoe is unknown but many believe they once lived
along the banks of the Red River between the border of North Dakota and
Minnesota.
60
acquired – to acquire – to obtain, to buy or be given something – angeeignet, erworben
horse breeders – to breed horses – to keep horses to produce young ones – die Pferdezüchter
62
lord over – to lord over – to rule over – Herr sein über
63
rivaled – to rival – to compete with somebody – mit jemanden konkurrieren
64
Conquistadors (span.) – die Eroberer
65
slave traders – slave trade – the business of dealing in slaves – die Sklavenhändler
66
profit seekers – seeking an advantage or benefit from something – gewinn- oder profitorientiert
67
vigorous – strong, active or full of energy – kräftig, robuste Gesundheit
68
far-seeing – seeing future problems and possibilities clearly and planning for them – weitsichtig,
vorausschauend
69
spider webs – nets (or webs) built by some spiders (Spinnen) to trap insects as food – die Spinnennetze
70
approaching – to approach – to come near or nearer in distance or time – herannahend
71
woodland – an area covered with trees – der Wald, das Waldland
72
woodland culture – the customs, arts, social institutions of the woodland Indians – die Kultur der Waldindianer
61
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Sometime in the 1700s the Arapahoe arrived near the head waters73 of the Missouri
River. From the head waters of the Missouri the Arapahoe pushed south towards the
Black Hills. Though they made a military and economic alliance with the Cheyenne
they warred74 with the rest of the Plains tribes including the Sioux, Pawnee,
Comanche and the Shoshone. In fact it was by stealing their horses that the
Arapahoe became a full-fledged75 horse culture.
The Arapahoe practiced and perhaps originated the sun dance. An annual76 event,
the sun dance was a test of endurance for the participants as they had to dance and
perform rituals for days, often staring into the sun.
While the Arapahoe were fierce77 fighters, they were known more for their welcoming
ways than their warlike nature. This characteristic stemmed78 from their form of
government which used consensus79 to make decisions for the tribe. Usually
consensus was reached among the adult men and some of the elderly women.
Unlike the Comanche who did not allow women to have any authority at all, elderly
Arapahoe women held the authority on religious matters. When a child was born the
umbilical cord80 was placed in a special beaded81 case and attached to the child’s
cradle82 as an amulet. When a child learned to walk he or she carried the amulet83
with them wherever they went.
73
head waters – a stream or streams forming the sources of a river – die Quellflüsse, das Quellgebiet
warred – to war – to fight against – Krieg führen
75
full-fledged – completely developed or established – ausgereift
76
annual – yearly – jährlich
77
fierce – strong, intense, violent – heftig, stürmisch, erbarmungslos
78
stemmed – to stem from – to have something as its origin or cause – zurückzuführen auf
79
consensus – a general agreement about a matter of opinion – die Übereinstimmung, der Konsens
80
umbilical cord – the tube connecting a baby to its mother before birth – die Nabelschnur
81
beaded – the bead – any small, usually round piece of glass or other hard material with a hole through it, to be
put on a string with others or to be sewn onto material – mit Perlen besetzt
82
cradle – the cradle – a small bed for a baby – die Wiege
74
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Cheyenne
The first historical record of the Cheyenne was in 1680 when a group of Cheyenne
encountered84 the French explorer LaSalle in present-day85 Illinois. Shortly after this
encounter the Cheyenne moved westward separating from their Woodland
neighbors. Still living in permanent86 villages they farmed along the Missouri River in
North and South Dakota during the mid 1700s but at century’s end they had lost the
corn87 – as their legend told – and became a true nomadic horse culture.
For a brief period they occupied the Black Hills only to be pushed out by the Sioux.
Perhaps the most important Cheyenne ceremony was the Medicine Arrow Rite88 also
known as the Arrow Renewal Ceremony. At the end of spring the Cheyenne
arranged their tepees89 in a crescent90 with a great medicine lodge91 at its center.
Then for four days the entire tribe concentrated on renewing the power of their
weapons through four sacred92 arrows which were thought to have supernatural
power over men and buffalo.
In the 1830s some Cheyenne and Arapahoe gravitated93 to the trading post at Ben’s
Fort on the Arkansas River while others preferred to trade on the Missouri inland.
83
amulet – the amulet – a piece of jewelry, etc. worn about a person as protection from witchcraft, accident or ill
luck – das Amulett
84
encountered – to encounter – to find or be faced with something, especially something new, strange or
unpleasant – jemanden (unerwartet) treffen oder begegnen
85
present-day – as it exists today – im heutigen
86
permanent – lasting or expected to last for a long time or forever
87
corn – the corn – der Mais
88
rite – the rite – a religious or other solemn ceremony – das Ritual
89
tepee – the tepee – das Indianerzelt
90
crescent – the crescent – shaped like the moon in its first quarter – die Mondsichel, sichelförmig
91
lodge – the lodge – a small house, hut – das Wigwam
92
sacred – connected with God or a god, or considered to be holy – heilig, geheiligt
93
gravitated – to gravitate – to move towards something or somebody gradually but steadily – angezogen
werden, sich hingezogen fühlen
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The two groups eventually made an informal division. Eventually the Northern
Cheyenne and Arapahoe would ally themselves with the Sioux in the battle for the
Northern Plains and the Southern Cheyenne and Arapahoe would ally themselves
with the Caddoan and the Comanche in the battle for the Southern Plains. It has
been said that no tribe suffered more during the Indian wars than the Cheyenne.
Sioux
Horse mounted94, riding into battle against the cavalry, wearing long buffalo robes,
smoking the peace pipe in a colorfully painted tepee, for most Americans today these
are the images of what the American Indian was like.
These are actually images of only the Plains Indians, more than likely the Sioux. The
Sioux also known as the Lakota, the Dakota and the Nakota were originally a
Woodland Indian tribe that dominated the southern two-thirds of Minnesota as well as
parts of Wisconsin, Iowa and North and South Dakota.
Unlike their neighboring Algonquian speaking Woodland Indians, the Sioux spoke
their own language, Siouan.
There were four ancestral branches of the Sioux:
The Santee, which was made up of four distinct bands95.
The Yankton, with only one band.
The Yanktonai, formed from three bands and the largest and best known band of the
Sioux:
The Teton, also known as the Lakota. It included the Ogalala band, the Brul, the
Hunkpapa and the Miniconju and three lesser known bands.
94
95
horse mounted – on a horse – beritten, hoch zu Ross
band – an Indian band – a division of a nomadic tribe, a group of people who move and camp together – die
Gruppe
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It was the Lakota band that first tamed the horse and spread west to the Black Hills
and beyond. It was the Teton branch that became one of the most formidable96
combatants97 in the Indian Wars. And it was the Teton who had the greatest number
of warriors on the plains and inflicted98 the greatest defeats on the United States
cavalry. Aside from their war like prowess99 among the Plains nations, the Sioux
were known for their kindness, charity100 and brotherhood101.
Each Plains nation had its own creation myths and its own sacred person or spirit
who came to earth and gave it the traditions necessary for healthy life. According to
Sioux legend a white buffalo maiden102 came to them bearing a pipe and instructions
on how to live. The pipe represented the covenant103 between the Sioux and the
buffalo.
Like the Kiowa, the Sioux kept a pictographic record of their history known as the
winter count. Drawn on buffalo skins it recorded the momentous104 events of the year
with a single picture.
Three other tribes became expert horsemen living at the edges of the Great Plains.
They were the Crow, the Blackfeet and the Pawnee.
While they participated in the Indian Wars, they never developed a truly nomadic life
style. By the start of the sustained105 fighting that culminated106 in the final phase of
the Indian Wars the Plains Indian tribes had settled into stable107 territories.
96
formidable – causing fear, anxiety or admiration – furchterregend
combatants – the combatant – a person involved in fighting a war – die Kämpfer
98
inflicted – to inflict – to make somebody or something suffer – jemanden etwas zufügen
99
prowess – the prowess – outstanding skill or ability – die Fähigkeiten, das Können
100
charity – kindness and sympathy towards others – die Freundlichkeit und Barmherzigkeit
101
brotherhood – friendship and understanding between people – die Brüderlichkeit
102
maiden – the maiden – a young woman who is not married, a girl – ein Mädchen
103
covenant – the covenant – legal agreement or contract – das Abkommen, das Bündnis
104
momentous – very important, serious – bedeutsam, folgenschwer
105
sustained – to sustain – to maintain, to keep going – anhaltend, fortdauernd
97
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By this time the seven tribes, while retaining108 a number of distinctive109 features110
such as language, shared many customs and ways derived111 from becoming
nomadic buffalo hunting horse oriented cultures.
Home
There was no more dramatic sight on the plains than hundreds of tepees silhouetted
against the setting sun. Life on the plains for the Indian nations that followed the
buffalo required a living structure that was big enough to hold a family, was hot in the
winter and cool in the summer, sturdy against the fierce prairie winds and perhaps
most importantly the Plains Indians needed a structure that was readily transportable,
easily assembled and disassembled.
The tepee fit their needs perfectly. In the Sioux language tepee meant dwelling.
The upper Great Lakes tribes had smaller versions of the tepee, seen in historic
photographs. The tepee size for those early Indians was restricted112 by the lack of
carrying capacity of the domestic dogs, that were used for transportation. That
restriction was removed with the arrival of the horse. The materials for a tepee came
from the buffalo and the large poles113 came from pine114 woods.
106
culminated – to culminate – to reach the highest point or specified conclusion – gipfeln, den Höhepunkt
erreichen
107
stable – firmly established, not likely to change – dauerhaft, beständig
108
retaining – to retain – to continue to have something, to hold – beibehalten
109
distinctive – characteristic – unverwechselbar, deutlich
110
features – the feature – a distinctive aspect or characteristic – die besonderen Merkmale
111
derived – to derive from – to draw or receive from, to obtain – abgeleitet von, herkommen, herrühren von
112
restricted – to restrict – to put a limit or control on something – eingeschränkt, begrenzt
113
poles – the pole – a long, round, thin piece of wood or other material – die Stangen
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Gathering these materials, hunting the buffalo and cutting and trimming the large
poles was done by the men, the rest of the work was done by the women. Not only
did the women tan the hides115 and sew116 them together, they were also responsible
for putting up the tepee.
The basic design of a tepee was remarkably simple: Buffalo hides stretched over a
framework of large poles. Erecting the tepee was simple as well. First, three poles
formed the tripod117 base to which additional poles were added. When this was done,
the cover perhaps made up of as many as 20 buffalo hides was lifted into place and
secured at the top. The bottom edge was pegged118 to the ground and the entrance
flap119 was put in place with more wooden pegs. The last two poles were used to
control the smoke flaps.
Clothing
The unexpected sight of even a lone warrior appearing at the horizon struck fear in
the hearts of travelers and cavalry soldiers alike. The paintings on his horse and the
number of feathers in his hair showed how powerful a fighter he was. Dressed in the
colorful regalia120 of his tribe wearing the war paint that indicated that he was ready to
die in battle. This single warrior might mean hundreds more may lay hidden121 in the
ambush or he might just want to trade.
Like the tepee whose shape was both practical and symbolic, so were the Indians’
clothes. In summer the breech clout122 and simple leggings were perfect for the
desert-like heat of the Plains. In winter the heavy fur and tough hide of the buffalo
kept him warm in even the most frigid conditions.
The markings on his clothing indicated which tribe he was from and his prowess123 as
a warrior. The animal skins used to make his garments124 showed which spirit guides
he looked to for personal power. While a warrior took the utmost care with his
appearance when on a raid, it was the women who made all the clothing for the
family.
The buffalo, the all-purpose beast of the plains was the source of most clothing. Deer
and antelope also provided skins for garments. As trade with the white man
increased, factory made cloth, blankets and even boots were used by the Plains
Indians.
114
pine – an evergreen tree that produces cones and has thin, sharp needles – die Kiefer
tan the hides – to tan – to make animal skins (hides) into leather – gerben
116
sew – to sew – to join or mend cloth or leather with a needle and thread – nähen
117
tripod – tripod base -an article or utensil having three feet or legs – ein Stativ, ein Grundgestell
118
pegged – to peg – to fasten or attach with a peg – mit einer Klammer (hier mit einem Zelthering) festmachen
119
flap – a flap – a piece of material which covers an opening or hangs down from something – der Lappen, die
Lasche
120
regalia – the special clothes worn and objects carried at official ceremonies – die Aufmachung, in voller
Montur
121
hidden – to hide – to keep oneself from being seen – versteckt
122
breech clout – a cloth worn for riding etc. covering the hips and thighs, also breechcloth – das Reittuch,
Reitgewand
123
prowess – the prowess - outstanding skill or ability – das Können, die Leistungsfähigkeit
124
garments – a garment -an article of clothing – die Bekleidungsstücke
115
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Still, the buffalo remained the most important source of clothing right up to the end of
the Indian Wars. The buffalo’s tough hide was used to make robes, caps, moccasins,
mittens125, leggings, coats and dresses. Women left the fur on for winter garments
and removed it for summer clothes.
While in camp men and women dressed simply for freedom of movement. However
on important ceremonial days they dressed in their finest clothes with the tribe’s
distinctive quill126 and bead work on display. In colder weather the warrior wore
leggings for warmth. He also wore leggings when hunting or on a raiding party to
protect his legs: leggings were colorful and profusely127 decorated with paint, bells,
shells, quills or beads. It was as a warrior in a raiding party that the men displayed
their finest garments. Within each tribe distinctive decorations indicated specific
warrior societies. However, individual warriors used paint to show their personal war
honors.
Ceremonial shirts generally known as a war shirt were extensively decorated and
worn during raiding parties. These shirts hung loose and fell well below the waist.
The Northern tribes such as the Sioux had the most glorious war shirts. The
Arapahoe, Cheyenne and Kiowa painted celestial128 symbols on their war shirts.
Generally the Southern tribes were less adorned.
An Indian’s hair was deemed129 directly related to the soul and as such was treated
as an adornment130. While on a raid it was often decorated with beads and colors to
make it distinctive. Warriors who had counted coups131 in the battle would wear eagle
feathers as a mark of their bravery. The Sioux wore their hair loose as a sign of
humility132, some southern and Central Plains tribes shaved their heads except for a
short tuft. They often then painted the head as well as the face red. In the golden age
of the Plains Indians warrior culture their costumes were among the finest ever made
showing distinctive beauty and personality.
Social Structure
It was the well-ordered social structure of the southern Indian nations that enabled
them to thrive133 in the harsh environment of the plains and desert and battle the U.S.
military to a standstill for nearly 40 years. It was a social structure that was organized
into groupings within groupings. At its base was the family, the next largest group
was the extended family called the clan. After the clans came camps or villages. A
camp could be made up of a single clan or a band which consisted of multiple clans.
Sometimes these clans would be related by marriage and sometimes not. Villages in
turn were spread out over a tribe’s territory.
125
mittens – a type of glove covering four fingers together and the thumb separately – die Fausthandschuhe
quill – a large feather from the wing or tail of a bird – die Feder
127
profusely – profuse – in large amounts – stark, überreichlich, übermässig
128
celestial – (attrib) of the sky – Himmels129
was deemed – to deem – to consider, to regard – galt als
130
adorned – to adorn – to make more attractive or beautiful especially by adding some type of ornament –
geschmückt, verziert
131
counted coups – (from the French) a warrior who had killed someone in battle and took his scalp – a heroic
warrior – ein besonders erfolgreicher Krieger
132
humility – a modest or low opinion of one’s own importance – die Demut, Bescheidenheit
133
to thrive – to live and grow well and vigorously – gut gedeihen, florieren
126
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Depending upon the time of year, the village could be as small as 20 or fewer people
or large enough to stretch along a river for 15 miles. Life in camp revolved around the
tepee. Women did all the tasks that made the household run. They collected fire
wood and cooked meals, gathered suitable roots and fruits, scraped134 buffalo and
antelope hides, prepared buffalo meat for drying and made all the clothing from
moccasins to breeches.
The women took care of the children until five or six years of age, often nursing them
for the whole time. At that point, young boys went to help their fathers with the pony
herds and young girls followed their mothers learning what it meant to be a good wife
and mother. But while seemingly engaged in menial tasks,135 women were not
considered servants; they had their role in the scorn136 of a man’s help.
The man was the head of the household. His job was to hunt and fight, tasks that
inevitably137 took their toll138. So much so that there were many more women than
there were men in a typical clan. The result was that tribes practiced polygamy139 and
a man, if he survived the hunt and battle, could have several wives in order to
maintain population numbers of a clan at a functional level. In fact, clans and bands
operated with a great deal of independence particularly when it came to interactions
with other Indians and Whites.
Because Indian nations were spread out over a large area it was important to have
events that brought them together to solidify their tribal and band identity and to plan
tribal and band activities such as warfare. These events took the form of ceremonies,
feats140 and dances. For example, celebrations meant huge bonfires141, drumming
and dancing far into the night. During summer encampments bonfires might go on for
weeks at a time as the entire community gathered to witness feats of daring142
through the dance steps of the participants.
The throbbing of the drums and the movements of the dancers celebrated victories,
hunts, narratives143, planting seasons and harvests144. Indians had a song for every
event from odes145 to a warrior’s horse, to a death song that he might sing during a
battle. It was all part of their own unique religion.
134
scraped – to scrape – to clean or remove something using a sharp tool – (ab)kratzen, (ab)schaben
menial tasks – (of work) not requiring much skill and often boring – die niederen Tätigkeiten
136
the scorn – refusing something because one is too proud – die Verachtung
137
inevitably – impossible to avoid, certain to happen – unvermeidlich
138
took their toll – to take its toll – to cause damage, injuries or deaths – forderten ihren Tribut
139
polygamy – the custom of having more than one wife – die Polygamie
140
feats – the feat – an achievement needing skill, strength or courage – die Heldentaten, Kunststücke
141
bonfires – the bonfire – a large fire made outdoors as part of a celebration – die Freudenfeuer,
Scheiterhaufen
142
daring – to dare – to be brave enough to do something – kühn, wagemutig
143
narratives – the narrative – the account of an event, a story – die Erzählungen, Schilderungen
144
harvests – the harvest – the cutting and gathering of grain and other food crops – die Ernten
145
odes – the ode – a poem addressed to a person or thing, or celebrating some special event – die Oden (f)
135
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Religion
To the Plains Indians everything in the world served a purpose in their lives. The sun,
the mountains, the animals, the rivers, the trees. Everything in the warrior’s natural
environment had a connection to the creator and therefore was filled with its own
mysterious force.
God or the Creator of the great spirit was not separate from the earth. This meant
that everything was sacred. The many rituals and ceremonies of the tribe connected
its members to the earth and everything on it as well as to the creator of all things. As
a result, the Plains Indians believed that they could through ritual directly connect
and participate with God or the spirit.
The most important ritual for every warrior was the vision quest146. The quest lasted
from two to four days and included fasting147, staying awake and crying for help from
the spirits.
„That drum is the centrepiece of the whole power. It’s like the earth. The earth
is round and everything in it. In that circle it touches.“
„When you go in, like we are right now, you go in, you come in, enter it, but
when it closes up you can’t see, hear or anything, so what’s gonna happen,
(you know), once somebody tells you, you’re in your mother’s womb and you
have no qualities naked, so when you go out, when this opens up, you don’t
run out, you’re gonna crawl out, I guarantee you, because of what happened in
here, so when you crawl out, you crawl out like when you were a baby, (see),
so you take the water and spit it on yourself, you take everything and put it
back in, so you start anew.“
Vision quests were used by warriors to provide them with a direct link to the spiritual
world and to aid them in finding supernatural protection. The dance and the beating
of the drum were and still are of great importance to the Plains Indians. By 1840
economic and social transformation of the Plains Indians from agricultural and
sedentary societies to nomadic warrior hunters was complete.
The military alliances among the tribes and their territories would not change over the
next 50 years span on the Plains. This period was called the Indian Wars. Ironically
at a time when much of the Western World was experiencing the Industrial
Revolution, the Plains Indians’ horse culture had completed a grand experiment in
producing a true warrior society, one that would nobly148 fight for its land and way of
life.
146
the vision quest – a warrior’s search for visions of the past or future while in a state of ecstasy or trance
fasting – to fast – to eat little or no food for a period of time, especially for religious reasons – fasten
148
nobly – noble – showing fine personal qualities e.g. honor and honesty – edel, nobel
147
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