Vol. 44 No. 8
SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D)
August 2001
Primary study on pattern of general circulation of atmosphere before uplift of the Tibetan Plateau in eastern Asia
JIANG Xinsheng (Þí›), PAN Zhongxi (ì}) & FU Qingping (Â<)
Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chengdu 610082, China
Correspondence should be addressed to Jiang Xinsheng (email: [email protected])
Received April 5, 2000
Abstract The Tibetan Plateau is a key factor for the pattern of the general circulation of the atmosphere (GCA) in eastern Asia. The pattern of the GCA after the uplift of the plateau is well
known, while the pattern of the GCA before the uplift of the plateau is lack of direct evidences.
Based on the knowability of desert, a section recording wind directions across the Cretaceous
northern hemisphere mid-low latitude desert belt is measured and the pattern of the GCA in the
Cretaceous is revealed. The result shows that the eastern Asia was really controlled by the planetary circulation before the uplift of the plateau, i.e. westerlies in the north and northeast trades in
the south. The convert belt between westerlies and trades had drifted northwards and southwards.
The possibility of existence of paleo-monsoon is also dealt with and a possibly imposed paleo-monsoon is suggested.
Keywords: before the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, the Cretaceous desert belt, the pattern of the general circulation of
the atmosphere in eastern Asia.
1 Statement of the problem
The present pattern of the GCA in eastern Asia is apparently seasonal and regional. The seasonal one is presented by distinct alternation of winter and summer monsoons and seasonal conversion of winter arid and summer humid climates. While the regional one is formed by the monsoon being stronger than that of other regions of the same latitudes and subtropical high pressure
belt is located norther than that of other regions, and the pattern of the GCA is constructed by
westerlies, northwesterlies, southeasterlies and southwesterlies, being quite different from the pattern of a planetary wind system. Although the cause of the pattern is still debatable, that the Tibetan Plateau is the key factor for the pattern has been got to a common view. Naturally, it can be
logically deduced that if there were no the plateau, there would be no the pattern mentioned above
and it should be an ideal pattern (fig. 1). That is to say, before the uplift of the plateau, eastern
Asia must be controlled by planetary wind system. The support for the logical deduction mainly
comes from circulation modeling and indirect geological records[1
10]
. In fact, the modeling is also
one kind of logical deduction, and the reliability needs to be tested by geological records. While
the indirect geological evidence comes from latitudinal distribution of varieties of climatic substitute indexes (indicators) such as red-bed, evaperites, coal, organism, desert, loess and so on, which
also includes relatively large amount of logical deduction and cannot be direct evidence of the
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681
GCA. The human cannot perceive nature without logical deduction, but the less the logical deduction is and the more the evidence is contained, the more accurate the understanding is. Therefore,
this paper is trying to make a primary study on the pattern of the GCA before the uplift of the plateau by using direct record of the GCA and make the understanding closer to the objective truth.
Fig. 1. Ideal pattern of planetary wind circulation (after Gao Guodong et al., 1988).
2 The record of the pattern of the GCA before the uplift of the plateau
Zhang Linyuan[10], based on the uplift height of the plateau and the evolution of many kinds
of climatic substitute indexes in different stages of uplift, divides the evolution of the GCA in
eastern Asia into planetary wind (non-monsoon), paleo-monsoon and modern monsoon stages,
and suggests that before the Early Tertiary, the plateau, less than 1000 m high, should be not high
enough to block the GCA, so there must exist planetary wind circulation. Liu Dongsheng[11] also
states that “During the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary, China underwent a long crust stable
period, topographic relief was low and even and peneplains widely developed. Therefore the topography had less influence on the pattern of the GCA, in addition, together with the climatic adjustment of Neotethys Ocean and Pacific Ocean, as a result, the pattern of the GCA was planetary
wind circulation during the early Early Tertiary.” The two points of view all stress topographic
influence and believe that before the plateau reached certain height, the GCA must be planetary
wind circulation. Jiang Xinsheng et al.[6
8]
, Cooke et al.[9] and Dong Guangrong et al.[12], based on
the latitudinal distribution of the Cretaceous deserts and their causes, suggest that there existed a
subtropical high pressure belt in eastern Asia and consequently a planetary wind circulation, but
have not found direct circulation evidence. In fact, before the Early Tertiary, not only organic
world but also inorganic world, i.e. both biogeography and lithogeography prove strong latitudinal.
This, however, can only indicate that latitudinal climate was evident at that time. Of course, as the
climate is the result of the influences on the earth by belt of the circulation, it is reasonable to deduce the existence of latitudinal wind circulation, i.e. the existence of the planetary wind circulation, from the latitudinal climate. But it would be much beter if direct record of planetary wind
circulation were found. Prevailing winds are main geological agent for desert which must leave
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deep stamp in desert. The stamp in modern desert is reflected by dune migrating directions and in
paleodesert by foreset dip directions. This stamp is apparent in the Sahara Desert, north Africa.
The convert belt of westerlies and northeast trades (so called wheel round latitudes) is drawn distinctly by dune’s arrangements and migrating directions. In the north of the convert belt, as the
westerlies are prevailing, the dunes are migrating eastwards; while in the south of the belt, as the
northeast trades are prevailing, the dunes are migrating southwestwards[13]. According to our study,
the wind direction roses of the Cretaceous deserts in Ordos Basin, Sichuan Basin and Simao Basin
also show this characteristics (fig. 2). In order to dispel the affects caused by clockwise rotations
of the basins, based on the paleomagnetic data (table 1), the roses of Ordos Basin and Sichuan
Basin have been rotated 15
anticlockwise and the roses of Simao Basin have been rotated 45
anticlockwise. The data in table 1 also indicate that the three basins happen to arrange from north
to south, forming a cross section of middle and low latitude GCA records (fig. 3).
Fig. 2. Wind direction roses of the Cretaceous deserts in the Ordos Basin, Sichuan Basin and Simao Basin. (The stratigraphic
division is after ref. [25]; directional data from Simao Basin are after ref. [26]).
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Table 1 Averaged paleomagnetic data from studied basins
Age
Sichuan Basin
Ordos Basin
paleobearing
paleolatitude
paleobearing
paleolatitute
E
12.4°
36.5°N
K2
15.6°
29.6°N
12.1°
41.0°N
K1
10.5°
25.5°N
7.2°
32.6°N
J2
13.5°
30.8°N
This table is made based on refs. [14 23] and measured data by the authors.
Simao Basin
paleobearing
paleolatitute
48.6°
36.2°
47.6°
27.6°
21.8°
20.9°
Fig. 3. Location of studied basins.
Before distinguishing wind direction from roses, it should be made clear that first, the extending lines of dunes are not straight, the foresets are curved surfaces, so that the data from different parts are certainly different; second, the curved surfaces vary with different types of dunes,
resulting in different spreads of vectors; third, wind directrions sometimes have a small angle with
dune migrating direction; fourth, the wind direction obtained from some small dunes are unreliable; fifth, influenced differently by the Coriolis force and local topography, the wind direction
vectors themselves are of certain divergent range. Thus, the vectors between north and southeast
are combined into eastern vector group and the vectors between south-southeast and west into
southwestern vector group. Fig. 2 shows that the directional indicators measured in Luohandong
Formation and the upper parts of Luohe Formation in Ordos Basin and the upper part of Jiaguan
Formation in Sichuan Basin are confined in eastern vector group, meaning that the dunes were
migrating eastwards and therefore the westerlies were prevailing. While the directional indicators
measured in the lower parts of Luohe Formation and Jiaguan Formation are confined sometimes
in eastern vector group and sometimes in southwestern vector group, meaning that the dunes were
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migrating sometimes eastwards and sometimes southwestwards and therefore the westerlies and
sortheasterlies were prevailing alternatively.
The directional indicators measured in Pashahe Formation in Simao Basin are nearly all confined in southwestern vector group, implying that most dunes were migrating southwestwards and
therefore the northeasterlies were prevailing. According to the model of planetary wind circulation
(fig. 1),westerlies are the products of westerly belt and northeasterlies are the products of northeast trade belt, indicating that the direction model mentioned above is basically coincident with
the realized model of planetary wind circulation. Meanwhile, it shows that Ordos Basin in the
north appears to have most active westerlies, Sichuan Basin in the middle appears to have moderate active westerlies, while Simao Basin in the south is less influenced by westerlies and controlled by northeast trades. This trend is
also coincident with the distribution of
planetary wind circulation. When the
roses are marked bed by bed, they show
that the desert of Ordos Basin (fig. 4)
and Sichuan Basin (see fig. 9 in ref. [24])
experienced a period of alternation of
westerlies and northeast strades in early
stage and was completely controlled by
westerlies in late stage. The wind direction alternation in early stage indicates
that the GCA had drifted sometimes
northwards and sometimes southwards
with short cycles, and the wind direction
Fig. 4. Rose column of foreset dips of dunes in the Early Cretaceous conversion in late stage indicates that
Luohe Formation in Ordos Basin (revised by 15 anticlockwise rotation).
Above bed 22 is the product of westerly belt and below bed 22 is the the GCA had drifted southwards with a
alternative products of northeast trade and westerly belts. The overlying
[24]
strata are the Early Cretaceous Huanhe-Huachi Formation (K1h) and the long cycle . As the desert of Ordos
underlying stratum is the middle Jurassic Anding Formation (J2a).
Basin initiated earlier than that of Sichuan Basin, the movement of desert belt also suggests the westerly belt’s southwards drifting.
While the desert sediments in late stage of Sichuan Basin (upper part of Jiaguan Formation) and
the desert sediments of Simao Basin (Pashahe Formation) were deposited at the same period[25,26],
but Sichuan Basin in the north presents very strong westerly colour, while Simao Basin always
shows northeast trade colour. It indicates that the southwards drifting of the westerly belt stopped
between the two basins, forming a perfect middle and low latitude GCA pattern of planetary wind
circulatrion in space. It must be noted that in the lower part of Luohe Formation, basides the roses
in southwestern vector group and eastern vector group, south eastern vector group is also remarkable, indicating a possible north-northwest airflow, which is not well coincident with the planetary
wind model.
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3 Existing possibility of paleo-monsoon
Monsoon is a comprising part of the GCA, therefore discussing the pattern of the GCA must
deal with monsoon circulation. Whether there existed monsoon or not before the uplift of the plateau or during planetary wind circulation period is controversial. Someone, based on arid climate
in the Early Tertiary, suggests that there should be “no monsoon circulation”[10]. While someone
else argues that the monsoon circulation naturally existed, only because the plateau had not uplifted, the vertical thickness of “pure ocean-continent monsoon” was too small to elevate the air
particle high enough to condensation level and could not form monsoon rain. When the plateau
uplifted to 1000 m high, the plateau monsoon established, the existing “pure ocean-continent
monsoon” (southwest and southeast monsoons) began to have monsoon rain and to become the
monsoon of modern significance[29]. Although the Cretaceous ocean-continent framework was
little different from the Tertiary framework, they both belonged to planetary wind circulation stage,
located in middle and low latitudes of north hemisphere and underwent the period before the uplift
of the plateau, therefore, the existing or not of the Cretaceous monsoon will help to resolve the
controversy. To do this, five aspects namely monsoon’s concept, kinds, imperfect preservation,
influence on planetary winds and existing possibility in the Cretaceous have been analyzed by the
authors.
Monsoons are large scale wind system in which directions and atmospheric pressure systems
change greatly with seasons[27,28]. With seasonal conversions of wind direction and pressure system, climate and weather will change remarkably[28]. Therefore, the existence of monsoon is
mainly based on whether prevailing wind direction and atmospheric pressure system have seasonal conversions. As to the result, the climate, weather and the records may be variable. It means
that whether there is “monsoon rain” or not is not merely a criterion for the existence of monsoon.
While the wind direction and atmospheric pressure system conversion is easy to be rebuilt by paleo-desert deposit.
Actually, there are two kinds of monsoons, ocean-continent monsoon and planetary monsoon.
Ocean-continent monsoon is caused by ocean-continent thermal difference. The wind direction is
related to the arrangement of ocean and continent. If the continent is in the west and ocean in the
east, wind direction will deviate from the course of planetary winds (such as southeast monsoon),
and if the continent is in the north and ocean in the south, the wind direction will impose on the
course of planetary winds (such as southwest monsoon). The former is easier to distinguish than
the latter. The planetary monsoon is a circulation caused by seasonal drifting of planetary wind
belts, in which direction is imposed on the course of planetary winds and can only be distinguished by the seasonal southwards and northwards drifting of the planetary wind belts.
The record of monsoon is selective and not perfect. First, the geological records would undergo reformation afterwards and would lose large amount of information and even all information. Second, the formation of geological records is selective. For example, in summer monsoon
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dominant stage, paleosol and drainage develop well, while in winter monsoon dominant stage,
desert and dust deposits develop well.
Strong monsoon activity would destroy the pattern of planetary circulation[27]. For example,
the modern averaged high atmospheric pressure regions are generally located at 30 —35 N
(January). Because of the strong monsoon, the averaged high atmospheric pressure regions of the
Eurasia are located at 50
55 N. This indicates that the polar easterly region is replaced by
westerly belt in eastern Asia while the region usually being planetary westerly belt is occupied by
the easterly belt.
According to the above analyses, before the uplift of the plateau, there possibly existed
monsoon circulation in eastern Asia.
First, the wind directions recorded in the Cretaceous desterts of Ordos Basin (fig. 2) and Sichuan Basin (fig. 9 in ref. [24]) indicate that convert belt between westerly and northeast trade
belts had drifted southwards and northwards several times, meaning that the wind directions and
atmospheric pressure system had transformed periodically, which is coincident with the planetary
monsoon phenomenon mentioned above.
Second, the wind direction roses (fig. 2) show that the westerly vector tends to deviate
southeastwards and the northeast trade vector tends to deviate southwards, which may be caused
by the interference of southeast to northwest and south to north ocean-continent monsoons which
changed the pattern of planetary wind circulation. Comparatively, Ordos Basin shows the most
remarkable monsoon characteristics, because the basin is located in the interior of the continent
and has the greatest thermal difference from the equator Pacific Ocean in the southeast and the
Neotethys Ocean in the south.
Third, based on the studies, there existed relatively concentrated wet interdune even locustrine sediments in the Cretaceous desert successions. It indicates that there were several condensed
periods of precipitation which may be caused by monsoon rain formed during strong summer
monsoon and weak winter monsoon dominant stages resulting from the northwards drifting of the
planetary circulation. This is similar to the climate in the Quaternary. It is believed that based on
the present information, the Quaternary monsoon model is the best model to interpret the
arid-humid cycles in the Cretaceous.
Fourth, there are a lot of supper and first order bounding surfaces which indicate large
amount of erosion and reformation, which lose a lot of information. Perhaps the lost information is
just the evidence of monsoon. In other words, there may exist a typical ocean-continent monsoon
pattern, but the following strong planetary circulation reformed and the monsoon records eliminated.
Summarily, before the uplift of the plateau, planetary wind circulation was dominant but
ocean-continent monsoon and planetary monsoon may exist.
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Discussion
There are two practical indicators for the study of paleo-wind direction and strength, scalar
geological indicators and directional geological indicators. The former includes bed thickness,
grain size, sorting and mineral composition, the latter includes dune type, Yardan, deflation valley,
cross-bedding, windblown tree, ripple, adhesion ripple etc.[30]. Precisely, only scalar geological
indicators were used in previous studies on the pattern of the GCA before the updift of the plateau.
However, directional geological indicators are used here, consequently, the existence of planetary
wind circulation in eastern Asia before the uplift of the plateau is confirmed more directly.
Whether the Cretaceous monsoon existed or not also depends on whether the Cretaceous had seasonal climate or not. The classical view on the Cretaceous climate was uniformally warm. While
the recent studies show that the climate was changeable and even seasonal[31]. The main evidences
are from the ice rafting pebbles, flora and growth ring of seasonal climate. It is interesting that ice
rafting sediments are also discovered in eastern Asia[32], also indicating that before the uplift of the
plateau, especially during the Cretaceous, the warmest period of geological history, seasonal climate also existed in eastern Asia. Therefore, based on the paleoclimate, monsoon circulation possibly existed.
Another factor for the monsoon existence is whether geographical condition for seasonal
conversion of ocean-continent thermal difference existed or not. Geographically, except for that
there did not exist the plateau at that time, the paleogeography was similar to the present geography. The Pacific Ocean was in the east and southeast and the Neotethys Ocean was in the south.
Therefore, because of the seasonal difference of solar radiation, seasonal conversion of
ocean-continent thermal and atmospheric pressure fields may exist between southeast and northwest or between south and north, consequently, and south-east and southwest monsoons may exist.
Only because of no reinforcement of geographical factor of the plateau, the southeast monsoon
may not be distinct and the southwest monsoon may be imposed on the course of the northeast
trades, which makes it difficult tell the monsoon from the trades. So, based on the paleogeography,
monsoon circulation may possibly exist.
Acknowledgements We are in debt to Academician Liu Baojun, Pan Guitang, Director of the institute, and Prof. Chen
Zhiliang for their encouragement and supervision. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No. 49572113).
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