ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
CHARCOAL PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL
ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WORLD
PRESENTATION MADE AT THE
2011 ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR
TROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION AND SOCIETY
FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
JUNE 12-16, ARUSHA, TANZANIA
BY
EMMANUEL N CHIDUMAYO
Manager/Ecologist
g
g
Makeni Savanna Research Project
Lusaka, Zambia
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Q
2. CHARCOAL PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES
3. IMPACTS ON FOREST CONDITION
Deforestation and forest degradation
Post-harvest forest regeneration
Impacts on soil
G
Greenhouse
gases emissions
i i
during
i
carbonization
y
gy
Effects on catchment hydrology
4. IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
5. POLICY AND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES
INTRODUCTION
Tropical
T
i l forest
f
t ecosystems
t
off
the world are diverse and range
from closed moist (rain) forests
to open
p woodlands and scrub
Central
America
Tropic
of Cancer
Asia
Tropic of South
America
Capricorn
p
Oceania
Africa
Tropical forest
ecosystems are found in
at least 114 countries and
cover 1915 million ha
900
821
800
734
Million ha
700
600
(43%)
500
400
360
(38%)
300
200
(19%)
100
0
Asia
Africa
America
Unesco (1978)
Regional distribution of tropical
y
forest ecosystems
CHARCOAL PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUES:
TYPES OF KILNS
The bulk of the charcoal in
tropical ecosystems is made
in earth kilns
PIT EARTH KILN (FAO)
SURFACE EARTH-MOUND KILN
Wood pile is covered with leafy or
herbaceous material and soil before
ignition
OTHER KILNS
Modified forms of the surface earth
kiln may have ventilation channels,
y (e.g.
( g Casamance
such as chimneys
kiln).
Other kilns are made of bricks
(brick kilns) or metal (metal kilns)
Wood
d-to-charco
oal conversio
on rate
40
ANOVA: F=0.91; P = 0.47
30
Overall Mean = 23%
20
10
0
Mound
Pit
Steel
Brick
Drum
WOOD-TO-CHARCOAL
WOOD
TO CHARCOAL CONVERSION
RATE
Significant differences between
mound & pit kilns (0.19) and other
kilns ((0.28):
) T-test = 4.98;; P <
0.0001. (Different data)
IMPACTS OF CHARCOAL
PRODUCTION ON FOREST
CONDITION
Deforestation and forest
degradation
In almost all countries where charcoal is
produced there have been reports
highlighting concern about deforestation
and forest degradation linked to charcoal
production.
production
DEFORESTATION AND FOREST
DEGRADATION
Forest degradation refers to less
obvious changes
g in the woody
y
canopy cover
Deforestation is the complete loss of
forest cover
DEFORESTATION AND FOREST
DEGRADATION
Forest clearing for charcoal
production varies spatially
p
p
y within
and among countries
DEFORESTATION AND
FOREST DEGRADATION
Generally the impact of producing
a specified amount of charcoal
depends
depe
ds p
primarily
a y oon::
•wood stocking rate
•tree-cutting
t
tti system
t
•site history
•land tenure and
•policy
p
y and legislation
g
DEFORESTATION AND
FOREST DEGRADATION
Selective cutting is common in West
Africa
Forest degradation
Clear cutting at small spatial scales is
common in east & southern Africa
Small scale deforestation
Shelterbelt and strip-cutting system in
Zambia
On a larger landscape scale charcoal
production
p
Forest degradation
g
ESTIMATING DEFORESTATION
CAUSED BY CHARCOAL
PRODUCTION
Deforestation2009 (ha) = (charcoalproduced
((1/0.19))/biomass
))
density
Where 0.19
0 19 is the wood-to-charcoal
wood to charcoal
conversion rate for earth kilns and
biomassdensity is the country wood biomass
stocking rate (FAO, 2005).
ESTIMATED DEFORESTATION CAUSED
BY CHARCOAL PRODUCTION
Zimbabwe
Papua New Guinea
Hondrus
Indonesia
Ecuador
Cambodia
Bolivia
Myanmar
Venezuela
Mexico
Brazil
Zambia
Cameroon
Philippines
D.R. Congo
Nigeria
Tanzania
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Proportion (%) of total deforestation
CONTRIBUTION OF CHARCOAL PRODUCTION TO
TOTAL DEFORESTATION
POST-HARVEST FOREST
RECOVERY
Many tropical
M
t i l forest
f
t species
i have
h
the potential to regenerate after
clearing
l i for
f charcoal
h
l production
d ti
POST-HARVEST FOREST
RECOVERY
Rotational harvesting of wood for
charcoal production of same sites have
been reported in West, East and
Southern Africa.
Cutting cycles range from 8 to 23 years
POST-HARVEST FOREST
RECOVERY
However, forest
H
f
t regeneration
ti rates
t are
a function of:
•forest type,
•cutting
g system,
y
,
•climate (rainfall),
•fire management and
•grazing intensity
Ab
boveground w
wood biomasss (t ha-1)
180
160
140
120
1
100
80
60
2
40
20
3
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Age (years) after woodland clearing
Effect
ff off good (1),
(1) moderate (2) and
poor (3) management on post-harvest
biomass recovery in miombo
woodland, Zambia
Permanent deforestation on kiln
sites due to extreme heat
IMPACTS ON SOIL
I
Increased
d nutrients
t i t &b
better
tt
hydrological properties
GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSIONS
DURING CARBONIZATION
GREENHOUSE GASES
EMISSIONS DURING
CARBONIZATION
Charcoal production affects global
warming
i through
th
h th
the production
d ti and
d
emission of greenhouse gases, such as
•carbon dioxide (CO2),
•carbon monoxide (CO) and
•methane (CH4).
Metal shelter for kiln before
monitoring emissions
Canister
C
i t sampling
li systems
t
for earth kilns
Emission factors (g greenhouse gas/kg
charcoal produced) of 1788±337 for
CO2, 319±86 for CO and 32±5 for CH4.
Effects on catchment hydrology
Small catchments
•More runoff
•Increase in peak flow
•Shortened flow duration after rainfall
events
•Less water uptake,
•Less evapotranspiration and
p
p
due
•Fast recoveryy of evapotranspiration
to secondary forest regrowth
Effects on catchment hydrology
Large catchments/Basins
No negative impacts
h
have
b
been observed
b
d.
IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
Goods provided by tropical forest
ecosystems include timber,
woodfuel
wood
ue (firewood
( ewood aand
d ccharcoal)
a coa )
and non-wood products, such as
bush meat,
bus
e , honey,
o ey, bees wax,
w , edible
ed b e
insects, fruits, tubers and medicines
that contribute to human well
being.
IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
Deforestation and forest
degradation caused by charcoal
production negatively affects
the quality and quantity of
these ecosystem services.
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES
Concerns over the role of wood fuel
extraction in tropical deforestation and the
wood fuel shortages reached a peak in the
late-1970s and the 1980s.
But except in a few cases, policy and
programme interventions failed to
effectively deal with the problem of
charcoal-based deforestation and its
associated environmental concerns.
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES
Charcoal industry has great
potential to contribute to rural
development because production
utilizes locally available and
potentially renewable resource.
The charcoal industry can generate
employment and local income in
both rural and urban areas.
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES
For this to happen new policies should be
developed and implemented that provide
for the following:
1. Recognition
g
of charcoal as a key
y
source of energy.
2 Establishment of specific institutions to
2.
implement wood energy policies.
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES
3. The effective regulation of charcoal
production from both plantations and
natural forests.
4 Strong public and private sector
4.
participation.
5 Establishment
5.
E t bli h
t off clear
l
marketing
k ti
arrangements and rules.
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES
6. Mechanisms for government to raise
royalties
y
and taxes,, which are reinvested
in forest management.
7 Establish secure tenure and encourage
7.
sustainable forest management.
THANK YOU
FOR LISTENING