Defining Chinese eroticism in Gu Jianlong's Emperor
Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei Bathing
Unlike Japanese erotic prints, Chinese erotic painting did not enjoy the
nineteenth and early twentieth century popularity its counterpart benefited from
in Western artistic milieux. If one looks at the historiography of art history,
Chinese erotic painting only holds a small place in scholarship, both Chinese
and Western. There are two main reasons which could explain this situation.
The first one lies in Chinese art history itself, traditionally painting is judged on
the basis of its relationship, or absence of, with the literati circles, and the quite
specific types of painting they produced and wrote about. Thus, a certain bias
can be identified, which has been consciously or unconsciously reproduced in
modern studies.
The second possible cause is the Western understanding of erotic art. As this
essay will show, Western art has a developed tradition of erotic art focusing
mainly on the nude, a concept that Western critics have found lacking in
Chinese art. In fact, Western art historians have had a tendency to disregard or
disparage Chinese erotic painting because it did not measure up to their
Western notions of what eroticism should be. By putting into context Chinese
erotic painting, and contrasting it with Western perception of eroticism, this
essay will attempt to give a clearer analysis of Chinese eroticism. A close
inspection of Gu Jianlong's painting Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei
Bathing (Figure 1) will highlight how eroticism functions in visual terms.
Contrasting Western and Chinese eroticism is quite an ambitious
endeavour and deserves more space than this essay can offer if one wishes to
be exhaustive. Therefore, only the most relevant elements will be discussed
1
here. The term Western although quite vague refers here to areas of aesthetic
focus which have developed throughout the historical evolution of artistic
traditions in Europe. The word Chinese is used to characterise cultural, social
and artistic ideas specific to the Chinese culture and in contrast with Western
beliefs. This is not to say notions of body, sex, aesthetics and eroticism did not
change within Chinese history, but for the sake of clarity this essay will
concentrate on selected principles influential in Chinese culture in the first part,
while specific historical context will be provided in the study of Gu Jianlong's
Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei Bathing. Since the nude and the
human form in general occupies such an important place in Western erotic art, it
will be the main focus of this section which notions of gender and sexual
intercourse will inform as the argument progresses.
Representation of the body in art has two inseparable dimensions: the
body as materiality which is a cultural construction in the sense that each
culture views the body in its own way, art refers to it and takes part in it; the
body as an art work, the body is transformed and commented upon through the
spectrum of art.1 As a result each artistic trend has its particular vision of the
body.2 Or as constructionism theory puts it 'our notions of sexuality and identity
are a function of our culture and society'.3 Therefore the perception of the body
in Western art is different from that in Chinese art.
The nude is a representation of a naked figure in art and is generally a
Western subject matter. In Western art the nude originated in Greece and is the
result of the merging of Renaissance and Neoclassical aesthetics.4 As a result,
1
Hay 1994, 45.
Hay 1994, 45.
3 Goldin 2002, 3.
4 Rodgers [21/10/12]
2
2
in the Western nude tradition the emphasis is put on realism when depicting the
body and thus, there is particular attention to modeling and anatomy.
Indeed, thinking about the body in Western art automatically brings to mind the
nude.5 Influenced by feminist criticism, paintings such as Alexandre Cabanel's
Birth of Venus (Figure 2) are associated with the objectification of women. The
pseudo-mythological subject matter is an excuse for an overtly erotic depiction
of the female body with the putti reflecting the viewer's voyeurism. The nude is
also a symbol of artistic frustration for women since academic painting is
particularly linked in Western art to the female nude, and women were excluded
from academies just as they were not legally allowed to use live models to study
anatomy.6
Looking at Chinese art there is no nude genre that corresponds to the
nude of the Western tradition.7 For John Hay this can be explained by the fact
the nude did not exist in Chinese culture.8 In fact, until the nineteenth century
the question of the nude did not occur in Asia, it was an import of Orientalist
perspectives on Asian cultures.9 This was linked to the Orientalists' fascination
with the exotic as essentially erotic. Since this concept of nude was absent from
Chinese art, many Western critics feel Chinese erotic art and representations of
naked bodies lack the sexual connotations that seems quite common in
Western art.10
The body and nakedness are not absent from Chinese culture. There are
numerous examples of graphic erotic descriptions in Chinese literature.11 The
5
Hay 1994, 42.
Parker 1981 27, 35.
7 Hay 1994, 43.
8 Hay 1994, 43.
9 Hay 1994, 43.
10 Hay 1994, 45.
11 Hay 1994, 50.
6
3
female body is also a source of inspiration for Chinese artists. An anonymous
painting called Beauty about to Bathe (Figure 3) is an example of this.
Nonetheless, it is useful to remember that Chinese culture had an extremely
developed system of propriety, and what was appropriate in one context was
completely inappropriate in another.12 Therefore, one could not as easily find
the mixtures of genres that are present in Cabanel's painting where mythology
is associated to eroticism. It could then be argued that contrary to these
scholars' views eroticism is extremely clear and effective in Chinese art, but
they apply Western critical criteria instead of trying to understand how Chinese
eroticism functions in itself, as a cultural and historical mechanism.
Another accusation of Western origin is that Chinese painters are not
interested in the texture of flesh.13 It is true that if the Birth of Venus and Beauty
About to Bathe are compared, the disparity in the treatment of flesh is obvious;
Cabanel's meticulous attention to the shading and coloring of Venus's body is
key to the spectator's titillation. By contrast the depiction of the female figure in
the Chinese picture is quite bland. However, focusing on the flesh in Chinese
painting is to misunderstand the aims of representation and the aesthetic
conception that produced it. Indeed, Western art tends to consider the
recipient's point of view more than that of the artist.14 Whereas Western art is
concerned with what the viewer sees, giving a major role to mimesis, Chinese
art focuses more on what the artist is expressing, how can the artist's presence
and his energy (ch'i) be detected . As a result, the line is extremely important in
Chinese art. It reflects the author's presence or ji (lit. physical trace).15
Calligraphy and painting are closely linked, and the focus on linearity, and by
12
Hay 1994, 50.
Hay 1994, 67.
14 Fong 2003, 259.
15 Fong 2003, 259.
13
4
consequence linearity of the body, comes from calligraphy.16 Hay argues that
because clothes afforded the best opportunity for linearity, there was a tendency
to represent bodies through their garments.17 In addition, in Chinese thought the
body is viewed as the microcosm of the macrocosm of humanity.18 Following
this idea, the folds of cloth reflect the linearity of the body's underlying arterial
system, providing the most convincing way of depicting what gives the body life
on paper (linearity of brush strokes) and in reality (arteries).19 Viewed through
this perspective, the gracefulness of the sitting woman's limbs, and the
transparent fabric whose drapes fall flatteringly around her is extremely
evocative, making the Beauty about to Bathe just as exciting as its Western
counterpart.
An interesting factor to take into account in the comparison of Western
and Chinese erotic art is the conception of gendered bodies. The distinction
between female and male bodies in Chinese culture is not as strict as in
Western culture; they are not viewed as opposites so much as complementary;
each gender holds elements of the other.20 Observing Couple in the Bath by Gu
Jianlong (Figure 4) it is difficult for a Western viewer to tell the difference if one
ignores the genitals and the woman's bound feet. The muscles and the breasts
are not emphasized. The engraving after Giulio Romano's I Modi offers a more
blatant distinction between the genders (Figure 5). Even if in typical Mannerist
fashion musculature is overemphasized in both partners, the woman's anatomy
is clearly differentiated.
16
Hay 1994, 67.
Hay 1994, 67.
18 Hay 1994, 65.
19 Hay 1994, 67.
20 Hay 1994, 52.
17
5
The belief, that both female and male bodies are complementary has
consequences for the perception of sexual intercourse. According to Chinese
thought, all beings are made of ch'i, (lit. vapor or undifferentiated matter) which
is present in the world in two complementary kinds, yin and yang. Human
beings are supposed to contain ching or refined essence, a kind of concentrate
of ch'i which the body emits when it experiences an orgasm.21 Men's ching is
semen or ch'i in its yang state; for women, ching is vaginal secretion or ch'i in
it's yin form.22 A balance of the two is necessary for a healthy life. One of the
best ways to get the opposite sex's element is through sexual intercourse.23
Indeed, by having sex it is possible to absorb his or her ching. For intercourse to
have any medical value both partners must orgasm.24 This has an influence on
the perception of eroticism; theoretically at least both partners are equal. Erotic
paintings were also said to be shown to women to arouse them and inspire new
ways of making love.25
So far, the differences in perception of the body and its representations
as well as sexual intercourse have been made clear to show how Western
critical appreciation of Chinese erotic often falls short of what can be treasured
in this art. A closer look at the painting Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei
Bathing will underline how an understanding of cultural and historical
parameters brings to light the full potency of Chinese erotic painting.
The late Ming-early Qing period was one of consequent economical and
social change.26 The expanding market in the late Ming dynasty (late sixteenth
21
Goldin 2002, 6.
Goldin 2002, 6.
23 Goldin 2002, 6.
24 Goldin 2002, 6.
25 Cahill 2010, 129.
26 Cahill 2010, 19.
22
6
to first half of the seventeenth century) had led to the spread of places
dedicated to entertainment which middle class males in the cities frequented
with the assiduity of those eager to adopt the elites' lifestyle.27 Widespread
education and literacy coincided with a break with Classical Chinese themes,
and the production of vernacular literature.28 The prominence of courtesan
culture in the late Ming period led to the ideal of romantic love becoming
commonplace in society.29 An affair with a courtesan was the archetype of
romantic love since the Tang dynasty.30 Erotic art had a lower status in Chinese
art history than landscape painting but it proliferated widely at this time.31
Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei Bathing was attributed to Gu
Jianlong or a close follower on the basis of style.32 Gu Jianlong (1606-88 or
after) was a professional studio artist native of Taicang in Jiangsu and active as
an artist mostly near Suzhou.33 He spent his later years in Beijing as a court
painter to the Kangxi Emperor.34 Gu Jianlong is known for his innovations and
his use of Western influenced techniques.35 An interesting feature of Gu
Jianlong's working method is that he drew numerous sketches or mogu fenben
from older paintings (Figure 6).36 A forty-six leafed album of his survives to this
day which is extremely valuable for art history since few similar albums are still
extant.37 He used these images as reference much like a pattern book; an
approach which contrasts with the literati tradition.38 In this painting, the
27
Cahill 2010, 6,149.
Cahill 2010, 16.
29 Cahill 2010, 150.
30 Cahill 2010, 150.
31 Cahill 2010, 14.
32 Cahill 2010, 9.
33 Cahill 2010, 9.
34 Cahill 2010, 9.
35 Cahill 2010, 82.
36 Cahill 2010, 9.
37 Cahill 2010, 9.
38 Cahill 2010, 9.
28
7
women's robes were made to look old, and the artist probably referred to his
collection of sketches for accurate details.39 Interestingly enough, they do not
correspond to the mid-Tang costume which they were supposed to represent.40
The painting depicts the eighth-century Emperor Xuanzong spying on his
favorite consort Yang Guifei, a popular motif in Chinese art and literature. The
young woman is depicted in the middle ground behind a bamboo screen with
two female servants on attendance to her left. The Emperor is shown peeking in
the upper right corner. The scene is one of intimate luxury which is conveyed
through the extravagant use of gold and heavy pigments.41 The artist has used
screens to arrange the architectural space, emphasizing its function as a
framing device to separate the concubine's activity from the Emperor.42 Screens
were also used in Chinese culture to give a sense of privacy which makes the
Emperor even more of a voyeur.43 The painting might have hung in a man's
room or a courtesan's chamber in which its sensual subject matter would have
fit perfectly.44
The painstaking efforts to give a sense of depth, with the use of
successive elevated platforms and receding lines to suggest their volume, show
Western influence in matters of space and composition.45 Paintings of beautiful
women in their chambers such as this might have been influenced by foreign
paintings like this Dutch seventeenth-century painting imported from abroad
(Figure 7).46 Moreover, the attempt at shading by using a slightly red pigment to
underline the contours of Yang Guifei's limbs and the color of exposed flesh is
39
Cahill 2010, 9.
Cahill 2010, 9.
41 Cahill 2010, 10.
42 Hung 1996, 38, 51.
43 Hung 1996, 39.
44 Cahill 2010, 9.
45 Cahill 2010, 68.
46 Cahill 2010, 82.
40
8
also of Western inspiration.47 This also contradicts Hay's pronouncement
concerning Chinese artists' disinterest in depicting skin texture.
Yang Guifei is shown in a moment of 'autoeroticism', conscious of her
body as she disrobes for her bath (Figure 8). Annette Kuhn notes that women
are often portrayed in this way; a feature Chinese art shares with Western art in
which bathing scenes are popular in erotic representations.48 The intertwined
scarfs and limbs highlight the contrast between hidden and uncovered flesh. In
fact, Mario Perniola suggests eroticism lies in the possibility of progression from
clothed to unclothed.49 Hay says this is not relevant to Chinese imagery in the
same sense as Western iconography, but one could argue it does in this
example.50 For Anne Hollander, awareness of eroticism implies an awareness
of clothes.51
An important erotic feature in this scene is the double voyeuristic gaze of the
Emperor and the spectator. As Kuhn notes the pleasure of the voyeur comes
from the fact the person he is observing is unaware of his presence; it is the
pleasure of power and control by looking.52 Yang Guifei's glance goes out of the
picture frame, but it is ambiguous whether it is self-engrossed or aware of the
attention paid to her. If the latter is the case then her direct look has an
acknowledged sexual connotation as enticement.53
47
Cahill 2010, 78, 149.
Khun 1985, 29.
49 Hay 1994, 57.
50 Hay 1994, 57.
51 Hay 1994, 57.
52 Khun 1985, 29.
53 Khun 1985, 42.
48
9
By paying close attention to the cultural perception and significance of
the naked body in Chinese art, this essay sheds light on Western
preconceptions concerning Chinese erotic art which hinder comprehension.
Ideas on gender and sex also informed the discussion which culminated with
the analysis of Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei Bathing. Although
there are certainly common aspects in the way eroticism works in Western and
Chinese art, there are certain cultural elements specific to Chinese civilization
which one must not forget when considering Chinese erotic painting. These
ideas are crucial to the understanding of Chinese eroticism as well as how the
paintings are to be read. Furthermore, they are the things that make erotic
Chinese painting special and should therefore be valued as such.
10
Figure 3. Beauty about to
Bathe, Anonymous (above).
Figure 1. Emperor Xuanzong
Spies on Yang Guifei Bathing,
att. Gu Jianlong (left).
Figure 2. The Birth of Venus,
Alexandre Cabanel.
Figure 4. Couple in the Bath, Gu
Jianlong.
11
Figure 5. I Modi, Position 1, Marcantonio
Raimondi after Giulio Romano.
Figure 6. Sketches after Old
Masters (mogu fenben), Gu
Jianlong.
Figure 7. Young Woman at Her Dressing
Table, Gerard Dou.
Figure 8. Detail Emperor
Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei
Bathing.
12
Bibliography
Cahill, James. 2010. Pictures for Use and Pleasure (Berkeley, University of
California Press).
Fong, Wen C. 2003. ʻWhy Chinese Painting Is Historyʼ, The Art Bulletin, 85:
258-280.
Goldin, Paul Rakita. 2002. The Culture of Sex in Ancient China (Honolulu,
University of Hawaii Press).
Hay, John. 1994. ʻThe Body Invisible in Chinese Art?ʼ, Body, Subject, and
Power in China (Chicago, The University of Chicago Press): 42-77.
Hung, Wu. 1996. ʻThe Painted Screenʼ, Critical Inquiry, 23: 37-79.
Kuhn, Annette. 1985. The Power of the Image (London, Routledge & Kegan
Paul)
Parker, Rozsika, and Pollock, Griselda. 1981. Old Mistresses (London, Harper
Collins Publishers).
Rodgers, David. ʻNudeʼ Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press [21/10/12],
http://www.groveart.com/
Talvacchia, Bette. 1999. ʻI Modi and their Antique Paradigmsʼ, Taking Positions:
On the Erotic in Renaissance Culture (Princeton, Princeton University Press):
49-69.
List of Illustrations
Gu Jianlong or close follower, Emperor Xuanzong Spies on Yang Guifei
Bathing. Hanging scroll, ink and colors on silk,151.5 x 87.9 cm. (Yurinkan
Museum, Kyoto). Cahill (2010) p. 11, pl. 1.4.
Alexandre Cabanel, Birth of Venus. 1865. Oil on canvas, 130 x 225 cm. Musée
d'Orsay, Paris. ARTstor,
http://library.artstor.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/library/welcome.html#3|
search|6|All20Collections3A202020birth20of20venus|Filtered20Search|||
type3D3626kw3Dbirth20of20venus26geoIds3D26clsIds3D26id3Dall26bDate3D
26eDate3D26dExact3D3126prGeoId3D
Anonymous (eighteenth century), Beauty about to Bathe. Hanging scroll, ink
and colors on silk, 160.6 x 86.9 cm (The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago).
Cahill (2010) p. 190, pl. 5.23.
Gu Jianlong, Couple in the Bath. Leaf from a twelve-leaf erotic album, ink and
colors on paper (Collection of the late C.C.Wang, New York). Cahill (2010) p.
195, pl. 5.26.
13
Marcantonio Raimondi, I Modi, Position 1. Engraving after Giulio Romano
(Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris). Talvacchia (1999) p.22, pl.2.
Gu Jianlong, Sketches after Old Masters (mogu fenben). Leaf 45 from an album
of 46 leaves, ink and colors on paper, 36.8 x 29.2 cm (The Nelson-Atkins
Museum of Art, Kansas City). Cahill (2010) p. 10, pl. 1.3.
Gerard Dou, Young Woman at Her Dressing Table. Dated 1667. Easel painting,
oil pigments on canvas, 75.5 x 58 cm (Museum of Boijmans Van Beuningen,
Rotterdam). Cahill (2010) p. 83, pl. 3.14.
14