Published 1991
Spatial Variabilities of Soils and Landforms
Spatial Variabilities of Soils and Landforms
Proceedings of an international symposium sponsored by Division S-5 of
the Soil Science Society of America and the International Society of Soil
Science in Las Vegas, Nevada, 17 Oct. 1989.
Editors
M. J. Mausbach and L. P. Wilding
Organizing Committee
M. J. Mausbach and L. P. Wilding
Editorial Committee
M. J. Mausbach, chair, L. P. Wilding, E. M. Rutledge, L. F. Ratliff
Editor-in-Chie/ SSSA
R. J. Luxmoore
Associate Editor-at-Large
J. M. Bartels
SSSA Special Publication Number 28
Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
Madison, Wisconsin, USA
1991
Cover art: soil survey map provided by Dr. M.J. Mausbach
Copyright © 1991 by the Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER THE U.S. COPYRIGHT
LAW OF 1978 (P.L. 94-533)
Any and all uses beyond the limitations of the "fair use" provision
of the law require written permission from the publisher(s) and/or
the author(s); not applicable to contributions prepared by officers or
employees of the U.S. Government as part of their official duties.
Second Printing 1992
Soil Science Society of America, Inc.
677 South Segoe Road, Madison, WI 53711, USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spatial variabilities of soils and landforms / editors, M.J. Mausbach
and L.P. Wilding.
p.
cm. - (SSSA special publication : no. 28)
"Proceedings of an international symposium sponsored by Division S-5 of the Soil Science Society of America and the International Society of Soil Science in Las Vegas, Nevada, 17 October 1989."
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-89118-798-7
1. Soil surveys-Congresses. 2. Soil mapping-Congresses.
3. Soil geography-Congresses. 4. Landforms-Congresses.
I. Mausbach, Maurice II. Wilding, Larry P. III. Soil Science Society of America. Division S-5. IV. International Society of Soil
Science. V. Series.
1991
S592.14.S66
631.4'7-dc20
91-26871
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
iv
CONTENTS
Foreword ..................................................
Preface ....................................................
Contributors ................................................
Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units ....................
vii
ix
xi
xiii
1 The Need to Quantify Spatial Variability
R. W. Arnold and L. P. Wilding ......................
2 Predicting Variability of Soils from Landscape Models
G. F. Hall and C. G. Olson ...........................
3 One Perspective on Spatial Variability in Geologic Mapping
H. W. Markewich and S. C. Cooper ...................
9
25
4 Scientific Methodology of the National Cooperative Soil Survey
Stephen L. Hartung, Steven A. Scheinost,
and Robert J. Ahrens ................................
5 Statistical Procedures for Specific Objectives
Dan R. Upchurch and William J. Edmonds .............
39
49
6 A Comparison of Statistical Methods for Evaluating Map Unit
Composition
S. C. Brubaker and C. T. Hallmark ....................
7 Sampling Designs for Quantifying Map Unit Composition
P. A. Burrough ......................................
8 Presentation of Statistical Data on Map Units to the User
R. B. Brown and J. H. Huddleston ....................
9 Soil Mapping Concepts for Environmental Assessment
73
89
127
Duane A. Lammers and Mark G. Johnson ..............
149
10 Minimum Data Sets for Use of Soil Survey Information in
Soil Interpretive Models
R. J. Wagenet, J. Bouma, and R. B. Grossman .........
161
11
Quantifying Map Unit Composition for Quality Control in
Soil Survey
L. C. Nordt, John S. Jacob, and L. P. Wilding .........
v
183
vi
CONTENTS
12 Using Systematic Sampling to Study Regional Variation of a
Soil Map Unit
G. W. Schellentrager and J A. Doolittle. ... . . . . . .. .. ...
199
13 Confidence Intervals for Soil Properties within Map Units
Fred J. Young, J. M. Maatta, and R. David Hammer.... 213
14 Spatial Variability of Organic Matter Content in Selected
Massachusetts Map Units
M. Mahinakbarzadeh, S. Simkins, and P. L. M. Veneman
231
15 Geographic Information Systems for Soil Survey and
Land-Use Planning
R. David Hammer, Joseph H. Astroth, Jr.,
G. S. Henderson, and Fred J. young...................
243
FOREWORD
Spatial variability is an often neglected consideration in field studies of
natural resources. It is important that the full power of statistics and data
processing technology be applied to this area that we have known and
described in a qualitative fashion in the past. The authors of this volume
have made a significant contribution to the understanding and development
of techniques for describing variability in soils and landforms. Advances in
these techniques have been great in recent years. This volume brings together
much of this new knowledge and demonstrates its application in natural
settings. The Soil Science Society of America is pleased to make this work
available to all disciplines that utilize soil information.
WILLIAM W. MCFEE, president-elect
Soil Science Society of America
vii
PREFACE
As technology for displaying and integrating soil geographical data into
natural resource assessment expands, the demands for more precise information in support of soil resource inventories also increase. The need for
such knowledge becomes even more acute as we enter the era of computers
and information systems. Hence, users of soil surveys are demanding quantitative information on the composition and variability of soils in map unit
delineations. This is true of surveys produced by the National Cooperative
Soil Survey in the USA and elsewhere in the world. In short, soil surveys
are under interrogation; the challenge is for soil scientists to provide sufficient verification to meet increased information demands.
The objective of this symposium was to establish a forum for creative
proposals in developing guidelines and procedures for quantitative description of map unit composition. Speakers were invited to illustrate relationships of landforms, landscapes, and stratigraphy to soil spatial variability,
elucidate the scientific methodology as applied to soil surveys, compare and
contrast the utility of classical and regionalized theory and statistical approaches in defining soil spatial variability, and present alternative strategies for transferring spatial variability knowledge to natural resource user
clientele. Additionally, volunteer papers were included that expanded on the
above topical thrusts and/or represented specific case studies for quantifying soil variability in map units.
Papers included in this document capture the state-of-the-art in quantifying soil/landform features. Challenges are presented for the scientific community to develop quality assurance control procedures for soil surveys and
for leaders of the National Cooperative Soil Survey Program to implement
these procedures into soil survey standards and procedures.
M.J. MAUSBACH, symposium cochair
USDA-SCS, Soil Survey Division,
Washington, District oj Columbia
L.P. WILDING, symposium cochair,
Department oj Soil and Crop Sciences,
Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas
ix
CONTRIBUTORS
Robert J. Ahrens
Soil Scientist, USDA-SCS, Lincoln, Nebraska
R. W. Arnold
Director, Soil Survey Division, USDA-SCS, Washington, District of Columbia
Joseph H. Astroth, Jr.
Assistant Professor of Geography, Department of Geography,
University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
J. Bouma
Professor of Soil Science, Department of Soil Science, Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
R. B. Brown
Professor of Soil Science, Soil Science Department, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
S. C. Brubaker
Research Associate, USDA-ARS, Lincoln, Nebraska
P. A. Burrough
Professor of Physical Geography, Institute of Geographical
Science, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
S. C. Cooper
Senior Project Geologist, Blasland, Bouck & Lee Engineers,
Syosset, New York
J. A. Doolittle
Soil Specialist, USDA-SCS, Chester, Pennsylvania
William J. Edmonds
Associate Professor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, Virginia
R. B. Grossman
Soil Scientist, SCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln,
Nebraska
G. F. Hall
Professor, Department of Agronomy, Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
C. T. Hallmark
Associate Professor of Pedology, Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, College Station,
Texas
R. David Hammer
Assistant Professor of Soil Science, School of Natural Resources,
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
Stephen L. Hartung
Research Soil Scientist, Conservation and Survey Division,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska
G. S. Henderson
Professor of Forest Soils, School of Natural Resources, Univesity of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
J. H. Huddleston
Professor of Soil Science, Department of Soil Science, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon
John S. Jacob
Research Associate, Department of Soil and Crop Science, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas
Mark G. Johnson
METI, Inc., USEPA Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon
Duane A. Lammers
Soil Scientist, USDA-FS, USEPA Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon
xi
xii
CONTRIBUTORS
J. M. Maatta
Assistant Professor of Statistics, Department of Statistics,
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
M. Mahinakbarzadeh
Research Associate, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
H. W. Markewich
Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, Doraville, Georgia
M.J. Mausbach
USDA-SCS, Soil Survey Division, Washington, District of
Columbia
L. C. Nordt
Lecturer, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas
C. G. Olson
Staff Leader for Field Investigation, USDA-SCS, National Soil
Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska
L. F. Ratliff
USDA-SCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska
E. M. Rutledge
Professor, Department of Agronomy, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville, Arkansas
Steven A. Scheinost
Soil Scientist, USDA-SCS, Lincoln, Nebraska
G. W. Schellentrager
State Soil Scientist, USDA-SCS, Des Moines, Iowa
S. Simkins
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
Dan R. Upchurch
Soil Physicist, USDA-ARS, Lubbock, Texas
P. L. M. Veneman
Professor of Soil Sciences, Department of Plant and Soil
Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
R. J. Wagenet
Professor of Soil Science, Department of Soil, Crop, and
Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
L. P. Wilding
Professor of Soil and Crop Sciences, Department of Soil and
Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
Fred J. Young
Soil Survey Project Leader, USDA-SCS, Columbia, Missouri
Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
xiii
10- 2
10 4
10- 2
10- 3
cubic meter, m 3
cubic meter, m 3
cubic meter, m 3
liter, L (10 -3 m 3 )
liter. L (10 -3 m 3 )
liter, L (10 -3 m 3 )
liter. L (10 -3 m 3 )
liter, L (10 -3 m 3 )
liter, L (10 -3 m 3 )
hectare, ha
square kilometer, km 2 (10 3 m)2
square kilometer, km 2 (l03 m)2
square meter, m 2
square meter, m 2
square millimeter, mm 2 (10 -3 m)2
2.47
247
0.386
2.47 x 10- 4
10.76
1.55 x 10- 3
9.73 X
35.3
6.10 x
2.84 x
1.057
3.53 x
0.265
33.78
2.11
kilometer, km (10 3 m)
meter, m
meter, m
micrometer, ",m (10 -6 m)
millimeter, mm (10 -3 m)
nanometer, nm (10 -9 m)
Column 1 S1 Unit
0.621
1.094
3.28
1.0
3.94 x 10- 2
10
To convert Column 1
into Column 2,
mUltiply by
Volume
Area
Length
A
acre-inch
cubic foot, ft 3
cubic inch. in 3
bushel, bu
quart (liquid). qt
cubic foot, ft 3
gallon
ounce (fluid), oz
pint (fluid), pt
acre
acre
square mile, mi 2
acre
square foot, ft 2
square inch, in 2
mile, mi
yard, yd
foot. ft
micron, '"
inch, in
Angstrom,
Column 2 non-S1 Unit
Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
102.8
2.83 x 10- 2
1.64 x 10- 5
35.24
0.946
28.3
3.78
2.96 x 10- 2
0.473
0.405
4.05 x 10- 3
2.590
4.05 x 10 3
9.29 x 10- 2
645
1.609
0.914
0.304
1.0
25.4
0.1
To convert Column 2
into Column I,
multiply by
[I)
=l
'Z
~
~
0
'Z
0
'Z
>
'Z
[I)
::c
-
0
[I)
...,
::c
0
rl
>-l
>
0
'Z
[I)
::c
t"I"l
...,
~
rl
0
'Z
<'
,.
10- 2
10- 2
10- 2
10- 2
9.90
10
1.00
2.09 x 10- 2
1.45 x 10- 4
10
1000
0.893
7.77 x
1.49 x
1.59 x
1.86 x
0.107
893
893
0.446
2.24
2.20 x
3.52 x
2.205
0.01
1.10 x 10- 3
1.102
1.102
10- 3
10- 2
pound,lb
ounce (avdp), oz
pound,lb
quintal (metric), q
ton (2000 lb), ton
ton (U.S.), ton
ton (U.S.), ton
atmosphere
bar
gram per cubic centimeter, g cm- 3
pound per square foot, lb ft - 2
pound per square inch, lb in - 2
(continued on next page)
megapascal, MPa (l06 Pal
megapascal, MPa (l06 Pal
megagram per cubic meter, Mg m- 3
pascal, Pa
pascal, Pa
Pressure
square meter per kilogram, m 2 kg - 1
square meter per kilogram, m 2 kg - 1
Specific Surface
square centimeter per gram, cm 2 g-1
square millimeter per gram, mm 2 g - 1
pound per acre, lb acre- 1
pound per bushel, bu - 1
bushel per acre, 60 lb
bushel per acre, 56 lb
bushel per acre, 48 lb
gallon per acre
pound per acre, lb acre- 1
pound per acre, lb acre - 1
ton (2000 lb) per acre, ton acre- 1
mile per hour
Yield and Rate
kilogram per hectare, kg ha - 1
kilogram per cubic meter, kg m- 3
kilogram per hectare, kg ha - 1
kilogram per hectare, kg ha - 1
kilogram per hectare, kg ha - 1
liter per hectare, L ha- 1
tonnes per hectare, t ha - 1
megagram per hectare, Mg ha - 1
megagram per hectare, Mg ha - 1
meter per second, m S-1
gram, g (10 -3 kg)
gram, g (10 -3 kg)
kilogram, kg
kilogram, kg
kilogram, kg
megagram, Mg (tonne)
tonne, t
Mass
0.101
0.1
1.00
47.9
6.90 X 10 3
0.1
0.001
1.12
12.87
67.19
62.71
53.75
9.35
1.12 x 10- 3
1.12 x 10- 3
2.24
0.447
454
28.4
0.454
100
907
0.907
0.907
.,
~
(11
=l
Z
~
ciJ
....
0
Z
0
Z
(11
....
>
Z
:=
0
"l
:=
(11
0
0-1
>
~
"l
0
Z
(11
....
:=
t"'l
~
~
0
Z
joule, J
joule, J
joule, J
joule, J
joule per square meter, J m- 2
newton, N
watt per square meter, W m- 2
9.52 x 10- 4
0.239
10 7
0.735
2.387 x 10- 5
10 5
1.43 x 10- 3
radian, rad
57.3
35.97
10 -4
British thermal unit, Btu
calorie, cal
erg
foot-pound
calorie per square centimeter (langley)
dyne
calorie per square centimeter
minute (irradiance), cal cm -2 min- I
gram per square decimeter hour,
gdm- 2 h- 1
micromole (H 2 0) per square centi·
meter second, /lmol cm - 2 S - I
milligram per square centimeter
second, mg cm - 2 S - I
milligram ~er square decimeter hour,
mg dm- h- I
degrees (angle), °
Plane Angle
second,
second,
meter
second,
Transpiration and Photosynthesis
milligram per square meter
mgm- 2 s- 1
milligram (H 2 0) per s~uare
second, mg m -2 smilligram per square meter
mg m- 2 S-I
milligram per square meter
mgm- 2 s- 1
3.60 x 10- 2
5.56 x 10- 3
Celsius, °C
Fahrenheit, of
Temperature
Column 2 non-SI Unit
Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat
Kelvin, K
Celsius, °C
Column 1 SI Unit
1.00 (K - 273)
(915°C) + 32
To convert Column 1
into Column 2,
multiply by
Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
1.75 x 10- 2
2.78 x 10- 2
10 4
180
27.8
1.05 X 10 3
4.19
10- 7
1.36
4.19 x 10 4
10- 5
698
1.00 (OC + 273)
5/9 (OF - 32)
To convert Column 2
into Column I,
multiply by
;><
rIJ
c:
z
::;
r!l
z
o
Z
I:'
Z
>
f!l
o
::c
'>l
o
::c
rIJ
'""l
(")
~
o
z
~
(")
o
z
-<
t"l
::::.
centimole per kilogram, cmol kg - }
(ion exchange capacity)
gram per kilogram, g kg - 1
milligram per kilogram, mg kg - 1
1
2.29
1.20
1.39
1.66
2.7 x 10- 11
2.7 x 10- 2
100
100
0.1
1
cubic meter, m 3
cubic meter per hour, rn 3 h- 1
cubic meter per hour, rn 3 h- 1
hectare-meters, ha-m
hectare-meters, ha-m
hectare-centimeters, ha-cm
9.73 X 10- 3
9.81 x 10- 3
4.40
8.11
97.28
8.1 X 10- 2
P
K
Ca
Mg
acre-inches, acre-in
cubic feet per second, ft 3 S-1
U.S. gallons per minute, gal min --I
acre-feet, acre-ft
acre-inches, acre-in
acre-feet, acre-ft
Plant Nutrient Conversion
P 20 5
K 20
CaO
MgO
Oxide
curie, Ci
picocurie per gram, pCi g - 1
rad, rd
rem (roentgen equivalent man)
Radioactivity
milliequivalents per 100 grams, meq
100 g-1
percent, %
parts per million, ppm
Concentrations
becquerel, Bq
becquerel per kilogram, Bq kg-}
gray, Gy (absorbed dose)
sievert, Sv (equivalent dose)
Elemental
millimho per centimeter, mmho cm- 1
gauss, G
Water Measurement
siemen per meter, S m- 1
tesla, T
10
10 4
Electrical Conductivity, Electricity, and Magnetism
0.437
0.830
0.715
0.602
3.7 x 10 10
37
0.01
0.01
10
1
1
102.8
101.9
0.227
0.123
1.03 x 10- 2
12.33
0.1
10- 4
~
'~:"
00
:::i
Z
~
~
Z
0
Z
0
Z
>
;!l
:=
0
~
00
:=
0
...,
>
~
~
0Z
t"l
-<
:=
00
0
Z