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ImaginingthefoundationsoflawinBritain:
MagnaCartain2015
ByMartinA.Kayman*
“Forgetnot,afteralltheseyears,
ThechartersignedatRunnymede.”
—RudyardKipling,“TheReedsatRunnymede”(1912)
1
—“Magna”:DiggersandothersnearRunnymedeEco-Village A. ENVISAGINGTHEUNWRITTENLAW
th
This essay uses the commemorations of the 800 anniversary of Magna Carta as a case study to
investigate how the foundations of law are imagined and visualized in the United Kingdom. The
question is the more acute in that the commemorations took place at a time when the national
consensusregardingthesovereigntyofitslawandconfidenceinasharednationalidentitywereunder
strainfromamultiplicationofsourcesoflegalityandjusticeinaglobalizedandmulticulturalworld.
Onecommonlythinksoflegalfoundationsasdocuments:commandments,constitutions,declarations,
conventions or codes. As such, they are the object of textual hermeneutics for those professionally
engaged with their application. Hence it was that the textual turn of the last part of the twentieth
centurylaidthegroundforlaw-and-literaturetobringnewcriticalprotocolstobearonthewaythelaw
isread.However,foundationaldocumentsalsodotheirwork,particularlyforthepopulationatlarge,
inthewayofsomethingmorelikeamantraorasacredobject,andhere,arguably,law-and-literature
hashadlesstocontribute.Inthesecircumstances,textsbecomenotdocumentstobeinterpretedbut
auralorvisualimagesofwhattheyrepresent,tobeintonedorgazeduponor,inaliteralsense,admiredinritualsofidentification.Soundbites—“trialbyajuryofone’speers,”“habeascorpus,”“aman’s
homeishiscastle,”“therighttobeararms”—becomedeployedasasortofincantationasifeachis,
indeed,aself-evidenttruthofthenation’slawthatidentifyoneasafreeindividual.Bythesametoken,
thepublicexhibitionoflegaldocumentsenablesthetexttobedisplayedinaformthatgivesitaquasidevotionalstatus.Suchisthecase,forexample,withtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.Housedin
the National Archives in Washington DC, the original copy is, as Linda Colley observes, an object of
3
“pilgrimage”forcitizensforwhichnothingcomparableexistsintheUK. Thelackisremarkable,given
*
SchoolofEnglish,CommunicationandPhilosophy,CardiffUniversity.
1
PhotographfromRunnymedeEco-Village,http://www.runnymede.community/photos/magna/(May20,2016);reproducedby
permissionofDiggers2012[permissionrequested11May].
3
LINDA COLLEY, TAKING STOCKOF TAKING LIBERTIES: A PERSONAL VIEW9(2008).Considertheneo-classicalaltar-likedesignofspacein
which the Constitution, the Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence are displayed in Washington
(http://www.archives.gov/museum/visit/rotunda.html).
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theimagethatBritainhasofitself—andhasprojectedacrosstheglobe—asanationwhereunrivalled
libertyissecuredbyapreeminentdevotiontolaw.
Thereasonfortheabsenceis,plainly,thedecisiveinsistence,atleastsincethestrugglesoftheCommon
LawyersagainsttheabsolutistpretensionsoftheStuartmonarchs,onEnglishlaw’sgroundingnotinan
4
originatorytextbutintheunwrittenlaw. Thenon-existenceofafoundationaldocumentissuedbya
princely authority substantiates the superiority of an unwritten constitution by figuring “the rule of
law”notasobediencetothesovereign’sword,butasaspiritofjusticethatpervadesnationallifeand
is safeguarded by the judiciary. Consequently, however, the Common Law does not have a singular
imageofitselfreadytobedisplayedtothegazeofadevotedpublic.Indeed,todosowouldcompromise
thesublimequalitiesthatthelawdrawsfromtheimpossibilityofreducingittoafoundationaltextor
5
confiningitwithinaparticularvisualimage. Clearly,thatdoesnotmeanthatthelawisliterallyinvisible
anymorethanitisliterallyunwritten.ThespiritofEnglishlaw,then,hashistoricallypresenteditself
throughapluralityofverbalandvisualimageswithoutacore.
Peter Goodrich has argued that, during the period the myth of the unwritten law was first being
consolidated,itsfoundationalmaximsweremadevisiblethroughtheserialcombinationsofdiscrete
6
imagesandtextsthatcharacterizedtheemblemandemblembook. Whiletheimagecatchestheeye
andthewordsexplaintheimage,neitherissubordinateorreducibletotheother.Rather,theyinteract
in a complex and complementary fashion to frustrate the seduction of the gaze by either of their
surfaces.Insum,emblemsprovideavisualfigurationofaninvisiblelaw.AsGoodrichdemonstrates,
wordandimageworktogetheronthepagetodirecttheeyeinwardandupward,beyondboththe
writtenandtheseen:“[T]hewordsleadtotheimage,andtheimagetothemessagethatcannotbe
7
seenorstated.” TheemblemtherebyestablisheswhatGoodrichtermsa“visiocraticregime,”amode
8
ofvisualgovernancethat,hemaintains,continuestoprevailtoday. Incontrast,theargumentherestartsfromastrongsenseofcrisisinthatregimeand,atthesametime,
of radical changes in the ecology of word and image. As Goodrich has argued consistently, the
“visiocracy”hedescribesisdecisivelyalliedtothesupremacyoftheAnglicannomosanditstheology
9
oftheWordandImage. AlthoughmuchsurvivesinanationwithanestablishedChurchwhosebishops
stillsitinthelegislature,thesamesupremacycannotbeassumedinpostmodernBritain,withitsjostling
pluralityofsecularandpostsecularnomoiofdiverseoriginsthat,asweshallshortlysee,areperceived
tohaveunsettledmanyoftheassumptionsofthatregime.Asconfidencediminishesinthenation’s
identificationwithasharedspiritof,andconfidencein,Englishlawandconstitutionalarrangements,
theresultingtensionshaveputthecommitmenttoanunwrittenconstitutionunderpressurebuthave
4
Cf.thechapteronEdwardCokeinRICHARDHELGERSON,FORMSOFNATIONHOOD:THEELIZABETHANWRITINGOFENGLAND,63-104(1992).
Followingthe‘GloriousRevolution’of1688,themythoftheancientunwrittenconstitutionwascanonicallyelaboratedbyWilliam
BlackstoneinhisepicCOMMENTARIESONTHELAWSOFENGLAND(1979[1765-69]).ItalsoinformstheconfrontationsbetweenEdmund
BurkeandThomasPainearoundtheFrenchRevolutionwhichCostasDouzinasassociateswithmodernlaw’ssuspicionofvisual
images—cf. Costas Douzinas, Prosopon and Antiprosopon: Prolegomena for a Legal Iconography, in LAW AND THE IMAGE : THE
AUTHORITYOFARTANDTHEAESTHETICSOFLAW56(CostasDouzinas&LyndaNeadeds.,1999).
5
Cf.Douzinas,Id.
6
PETER GOODRICH,LEGAL EMBLEMSANDTHE ARTOF LAW: OBITER DEPICTAASTHE VISIONOF GOVERNANCE(2013).Forananalysisoflegal
imagesaspowerfulmythsthat“metastasize”theforcesatworkinperiodsoflegaltransitionandtransformationcf.Desmond
Manderson,TheMetastesesofMyth:LegalImagesasTransitionalPhenomena,26LAWANDCRITIQUE207(2015).
7
Id.,at252.
8
PeterGoodrich,Visiocracy:OntheFuturesoftheFingerpost,39CRITICALINQUIRY501(2013).
9
“The legal tradition had its basis, its foundation, in a notion of tradition and of polity that was borrowed directly from the
Anglican Church”— PETER GOODRICH, LANGUAGES OF LAW: FROM LOGICS OF MEMORY TO NOMADIC MASKS 53 (1990). Central to that
foundationwastheChurchofEngland’sdoctrineoftheEucharistas“atheoryofthesign…andofinterpretation”—Id.,at55.
SimilartheologicalconfigurationscanbeseenfromManderson’sanalysisofimagesfromthesameperiod,particularlythatof
BlindJustice:“Thefigureofblindjusticeisamythofmodernlawinjustthissense.Ittakestheunderlyingculturaloppositions
that had been central to the contested emergence of modern law for centuries—between law and justice, letter and spirit,
particular and general, local and universal, spiritual and temporal—and finds a new accommodation, transforming these
dichotomiesfromtheunderlyingcritiqueofmodernlawtotheconditionofitsauthority.”Manderson,supranote6,216.
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notledtoanewfundamentallaw.Ontheotherhand,Ishallargue,theyhaveencouragedthepursuit
ofafundamentalimageonwhichtofocusidentificationwiththespiritoftheBritishlegalregime.
Atthesametime,ifthetheologicalandpoliticalsemioticsofthevisiocracyhavechanged,sotoohas
theecologyoftheprinttraditioninwhichtheemblemflourished.Indeed,MagnaCartaparticularly
suitedtheincreasingpreeminenceofvisualoververbalartefactsintwenty-first-centuryculture,not
leastindigitalform.Duringthecommemorations,forexample,historiansappearedtorelishcorrecting
thecommonerrorthatRudyardKiplinghimselfmakesinthepoemquotedasanepigraphtothisessay
whenhewritesofthe“signing”oftheCharter,ratherthanits“sealing.”Theauthorizingactthattook
th
placeatRunnymedein1215whose800 anniversarywascelebratedattheevent’shistoricsitein2015
istheattachmentofapictorialimagetothetext,notawrittensignature,andthis,arguably,isreflected
intheimportancegiventovisualimagesinthecelebrationsthemselvesandtheroleoftheinternetin
theconstruction,managementanddisseminationofthoseimages.Inparticular,asweshallobserve,in
place of a new substantive legal text for the twenty-first century, a missing core was provided by
transformingMagnaCartaitselfintoavisualimage.Inhisstudyofhowlegalimagesoperateintimes
ofsocio-legalchange,DesmondMandersonobservesthat“themovementfrompre-moderntomodern
ismarkedbythetransformationofthefunctionofimagesfromiconswhosemeaningissimplypresent,
10
likeanaura,toartworkswhosemeaningrequires(andisthereforesubjectto)interpretation.” While,
asManderson’sarticleclearlyindicates,theearly-modernimageofwhichhespeaksismodelledby
Goodrich’semblem,weshallseethatMagnaCartahasbeenpresentedtooursightasapostmodern
“icon.”
The meaning of a foundational image is hence related to the sort of image it is. What, then, is a
postmodern icon of law? As we interrogate Magna Carta as a self-styled “icon,” I shall argue that,
lacking concrete substance at its core, the foundational image can do no more than engender a
proliferationofimagesthatreferbacktoitself.Indeed,theanalysisoftwocommemorativeartworks
willshowthatsuch“imagesofanicon”mayexpresspoliticallyincompatiblenarrativesoflaw.Andyet,
notwithstandingconflictsofsubstance,thecoreimageoftheCharteritselfunitesthevariousimagesit
generatestopromoteandreinforceasharedfaithinafundamentalprinciple:theruleoflawasthe
guaranteeofliberty.Insum,whatthevacuousheartofthe“icon”embodiesisthedoctrinethatliberty
iswhat“theruleoflaw”providesanditiswhatonly“theruleoflaw”canprovide.Ratherthanan
expression of transition or triumph, like the early modern emblems analyzed by Mandelson and
Goodrich,themorethecorereliesonatexttransformedintoanimageofitselfthemoreeffectively
MagnaCartatranslatesintoavisualregisterthecontemporaryregimeinwhich“lawisincreasinglylaw
11
becauseitcallsitselflaw.” With the assistance of a court case set on the edge of Runnymede and learning its metaphor from
Cornelia Parker’s commemorative work, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), the essay will conclude by
suggestingthatwhentheapparentseamlessnessoflawandlibertymadevisibleintheimageofMagna
Cartaisunpicked,whatwethenglimpsearethebrittleinstitutionalbondsandboundariesoftherule
of law otherwise concealed beneath the ideological identification with the defense of liberty
embellishedbytheothercommemorativeimages.
B. FromanewBillofRightstoMagnaCarta
The lack of a foundational text came strongly into view in the early years of the millennium in the
contextofaperceivedthreattotheidentityoftheUKasanationunitedbyadistinctivespiritofliberty
under law. While views on the predominant sources of the threat and the degree and nature of
constitutionalreformrequireddifferedacrosstheparties,therewaswidespreadagreementthatanew
foundationaldocumenthadamajorparttoplay.Avarietyoftensionswereidentified,eachinitsway
reflectingamultiplicationofjurisdictionsandnormativeculturescrossinganincreasinglymulticultural
nationalspaceandaglobalizedworld.Theyincludedaperceivedthreattounifiednationalsovereignty
10
Manderson,Id.,218.
11
CostasDouzinas,AShortHistoryoftheBritishCriticalLegalConferenceor,theResponsibilityoftheCritic,25LAWANDCRITIQUE
194(2014).
3
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from European law (cf. the Treaty of Lisbon, 2007) as well as from the growing impact of the 1998
12
devolutionarysettlementsforScotland,WalesandNorthIreland. Inaddition,accordingtotheLabour
Government’s Green Paper on The Governance of Britain, the crisis reflected a growing diversity of
identities resulting from immigration and settlement, along with a noticeable disengagement from
conventional politics by young people, many of them the offspring of earlier generations of
13
immigrants. ThelatterhadbecomeaparticularconcernfollowingtheattacksonNewYorkin2001
andonLondoninJuly2005,asattentionturnedtothechallengetonationalloyaltyallegedlyresulting
fromthereligiousallegiancesofyoungMuslims.Therepeatedattemptsbythegovernmenttocombat
terrorismbyincreasingtheperiodsoftimeduringwhichsuspectscouldbedetainedwithoutcharge
wereseenasunderminingbeliefintheroleoflawasprotectingtheindividualfromthestate.Onthe
other hand, the rulings of the courts overturning these regulations and parallel measures regarding
deporteesandasylumseekerswereinterpretedasathreatfromforeign-derivedhumanrightslawto
thedefenseofthenation.
Colley’sobservationabouttheabsenceofawrittendocumentarose,then,inthecontextofacampaign
14
ofcommonidentityintheconstitutionofamulticulturalnation. AlthoughTheGovernanceofBritain
didnotgothatfar,itdidgiveacentralroletoafoundationaldocumentinwhichnationalidentitywould
bedescribedasabundleofindividuallegallyenforceablerightsandobligations.AlthoughMagnaCarta
wasreferredtointhesedebates,itwasclearlyfeltthatadocumentthatrevisited “thebirthofthe
15
modernBritishConstitution”wouldbemoresuitable:theBillofRightsof1689. Thus,accordingto
the Government, a new “Bill of Rights and Duties” would furnish a “British statement of values”
16
encompassing“theidealsandprinciplesthatbindustogetherasanation.” Byofferingpeople“aclear
definitionofcitizenship,”theBillwouldpromote“abettersenseoftheirBritishidentityinaglobalised
17
world.” Theproposalwasbroadlyendorsedbytheotherpartiesinsimilarterms.However,forthe
Conservatives,itsmaincontributionwouldbeto“restoreBritishparliamentarysupremacyasagainst
18
law made elsewhere.” A modern British Bill of Rights would, in sum, replace the foreign-inspired
HumanRightsActwith“anewsolutionthatprotectslibertiesinthiscountrythatishome-grownand
19
sensitivetoBritain'slegalinheritance.” Althoughthevisionofnationalidentityandthesubstanceof
its core values were quite different for each of the major parties, they were all nonetheless in
agreementthatadocumentthatmadethesevaluesvisiblewouldhelpresolvethetensionsbetween
multiplejurisdictions,nomoiandidentities,andtherebycontributetoarenewednationalcoherence.
Thedevil,however,wasinthepoliticalsubstanceofthelegalrightsanddutiesofcitizens,thepowers
andlimitsofthestate,andrelationsbetween“British”andEuropeanor“Human”rights.Bythe2015
election the Labour Party had effectively abandoned the project in favor of a broad “Constitutional
Convention,”whiletheConservativeshaverepeatedlypostponedtheirlong-standingcommitmentto
replace the Human Rights Act. While the Queen’s Speech opening the 2016 Parliamentary session
promised,asithadtheyearbefore,that“ProposalswillbebroughtforwardforaBritishBillofRights,”
themostrecentpublishedproposalnolongerpretendedtoofferanysubstantivechangestotherights
12
SourcesincludeTHESECRETARYOFSTATEFORJUSTICE,THEGOVERNANCEOFBRITAIN(2007),UKPARLIAMENTJOINTCOMMITTEEONHUMAN
RIGHTS,ABILLOFRIGHTSFORTHEUK?(2008),andDavidCameron,BalancingFreedomandSecurity–AModernBritishBillofRights,
ConservativePartyConference(June26,2006);http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2006/jun/26/conservatives.constitution,
lastvisitedMay20,2016.Forafulleraccountofthesedebatescf.MartinA.Kayman,TheBillofRights:“Icons”ofLibertyandLaw
intheEarlyTwenty-FirstCentury,5LawandHumanities323(2011).
13
THESECRETARYOFSTATEFORJUSTICE,40.
14
LindaColley,WritingConstitutionsintoBritishHistory,BRISTOL UNIVERSITY CENTENARY LECTURE(July21,2009);audiorecording
availableathttp://www.bristol.ac.uk/centenary/listen/lectures/colley.html,lastvisitedMay20,2016.Forfurthercontext,see
alsoinfra,note36.AnorganizationentitledCharter88hadcampaignedforawrittenconstitutionsince2005.
15
Cf.THESECRETARYOFSTATEFORJUSTICE,12.
16
Id.,58.
17
Id,54.
18
Cameron,supra,note12.
19
Id.
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20
enshrinedintheHumanRightsAct. Rather,itenvisagedre-importingtheEuropeanConventioninto
primarylegislationinordertostripouttheinterpretativeglossesofEuropeancaselaw.Thefactisthat
theconstraintsoftheinternationalizationoflawmeanthattheUKcouldnolongerimagineanational
BillofRightsthatisinanysubstantialsensedifferentfromtheEuropeanConventionwithoutaradical
dissolutionofitstiestoEurope.Anewfoundationallawbasedonrightswouldhencenotbeableto
provide the clear image of liberty under law with which its multicultural citizens could identify as
distinctiveBritish.Butitwasnotasiftheissueshadbecomeinanywayanylessurgent—aswitnessthe
moral panic over the radicalization of Muslim youth consistently expressed by the government’s
“Prevent”campaignintermsofallegianceto“Britishvalues”(from2011),proceduresfor“Englishvotes
for English laws” (adopted 2015), and the expansion of the security state proposed in the Counter21
Terrorism and Security Act (2015) and a promised Counter-Extremism Bill (2016). In addition,
constitutional pressures have led to an unprecedented series of referendums: on proportional
representation (2011), the House of Lords (2012), Scottish independence (2014), and the European
Union(2016).Althougheacheventupto2014producedaclearoutcome,hithertononehaseffectively
resolvedtheissueitwasdesignedtoaddress.TheconcernsthathadgivenrisetoproposalsforaBritish
th
BillofRightsremainedacutewhen,in2015,thecommemorationsofthe800 anniversaryofMagna
Carta offered an alternative opportunity to create a unifying foundational image of law in Britain
22
withoutneedingtoproduceanagreedsubstantivetext. FromaBritishpointofview,nothingismoreBritishthanMagnaCarta.Thepopularityoftheopaquely
titleddocumentwritteninanancientlanguageispositivelyassistedbythefactthatitslegalcontentis
soarchaicand,atbest,onlyvaguelyrecalled.Amassivegapexistsbetweenthecontextandmeaning
23
ofitsconcretelegalprovisionsinthethirteenthcenturyandtoday. Whatnonethelesssurvivesisa
nationalattachmentthatcanbeheardreverberatinginthecallforjusticeinapopularBritishtelevision
comedyparodyingSidneyLumet’sdrama,12AngryMen:“DoesMagnaCartameannothingtoyou?”
24
criesTonyHancocktohisfellowjurors,“Didshedieinvain?” UndoubtedlyMagnaCartahasaffective
meaning, but what does it mean in intellectual terms? The question famously arose when David
Letterman,hostofCBS’sTheLateShowintheUSA,askedDavidCameronthestraightforwardquestion:
25
“Latinforwhat?BigMap?” ThePrimeMinisterexplainedthat“ThebigmomentoftheMagnaCarta
was basically people saying to the king that, you know, other people have to have rights it is very
importantthatyourespect”[sic].Theexchangecameafteraseriesofsimilarlydisingenuousquestions
20
CONSERVATIVE PARTY CENTRAL OFFICE, PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE UK: THE CONSERVATIVES’ PROPOSALS FOR CHANGING BRITAIN'S
HUMANRIGHTSLAWS(2014).
21
“Extremism”wasdefinedin2011as“vocaloractiveoppositiontofundamentalBritishvalues”[myitalics]—H.M.GOVERNMENT,
REVISEDPREVENTDUTYGUIDANCE:FORENGLANDANDWALES2(2015).Legislationhashoweverbeenhamperedbydifficultiesindefining
thesevaluesinaculturallyinclusiveandlegallyrobustmanner.
22
Fora“rhetoricalanalysis”oftheexploitationofMagnaCartaasa“foundingmyth”forBritishnessbytheleadersofbothmajor
parties, see Judi Atkins, (Re)imagining Magna Carta: Myth, Metaphor and the Rhetoric of Britishness, PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS
(2015),http://pa.oxfordjournals.org.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/content/early/2015/11/30/pa.gsv057.full.pdf+html.
23
TheMagnaCartawasasmuchapeacetreatyasafoundationallegaltext.TheoriginalChartercommemoratedin2015followed
anuprisingoftheBaronsagainstKingJohnin1214andresultedfromnegotiationsbrokeredbytheArchbishopofCanterburyat
RunnymedeinJune1215.Provisionscoveredbythe63clausesoftheoriginalLatintextincludedfreedomofnavigationofrivers,
the standardization of weights and measures, regulations relating to taxation and the rights of heirs and widows, the
administrationofthelaw,reparationstotheWelsh,aswellasrelieffromthepaymentofdebtstoJewsandlimitsonaccessto
thelawforwomen.Onlyfourclausesnowremainonthestatutebook.TwoguaranteetheancientlibertiesoftheChurchandof
theCityofLondonandsomeothertowns,andtheothertwohavebeenamalgamatedintothecommitmentto“theruleoflaw”
discussedbelow.Whenpeoplereferto“MagnaCarta”withanyprecisionatall,theyarereferringtotheseclausesalone.Some
thirteencopiesweremadeofthisfoundationaltext,ofwhichfoursurvive.However,theoriginaldocumentcelebratedinJune
2015wasinfactrepudiatedbytheKing,supportedbythePope,afewmonthsafterthesealing.FollowingJohn’sdeath,anew
version,accompaniedbya“CharteroftheForest,”wasissuedinthenameoftheinfantKingHenryIII.Itwasonlyin1225,now
inhismajorityandforthefirsttimeofthesovereign’sownwill,thatHenrypromulgateddefinitivenewversionsofbothcharters,
whichwerefinallyplacedonthestatutebookbyEdwardIin1297.
24
Ray Galton and Allan Simpson, Twelve Angry Men, HANCOCK’S HALF HOUR, series 5, episode 4 (BBC TV. October 16, 1959);
available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqFseRBPy9M, last visited May 20, 2016. Sidney Lumet’s 12 Angry Men,
producedbyandstarringHenryFonda,wasdistributedbyUnitedArtistsin1957.
25
DavidLetterman,TheLateShow(CBS.September26,2012);availableathttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0wWriPToSQ,
lastvisitedMay20,2016.
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from Letterman about “the days of colonization,” the incomprehensible relations between the
devolvednationsoftheUnitedKingdom,andtheauthorshipof“RuleBritannia.”Inshort,MagnaCarta
appeared,liketheBillofRights,onthesamefraughtterrainofrightsinthecontextofthenation’spostdevolutionaryidentityandpost-imperialplaceinworldhistory.UnsatisfiedbyCameron’sanachronistic
languageandchaoticsyntax,Lettermanpressedgentlyforamorephilologicalaccount:“andtheliteral
translation is what?” he asked; “you have ‘Magna’…?” Given his education, the Prime Minister’s
inabilitytorespondmusthavehadthecharacterofaparataxis.
Bythetimeofthecommemorationsin2015,however,Cameronhadworked outamoreelaborate
response.Hisaccountagainplacedtheancientdocumentintheveryspacethattheproposalforanew
BritishBillofRightshadfailedtofill,andmadeitcentraltotheresolutionofthetensionsbetween
“British”and“human”rightsaswellasbetweentheimperialpastandBritain’spresentpositioninthe
26
globalizedworld. Notably,MagnaCartashiftedfocusfromrightsdiscoursetotheruleoflawanddue
processthemselves:“Thelimitsofexecutivepower,guaranteedaccesstojustice,thebeliefthatthere
shouldbesomethingcalledtheruleoflaw,thatthereshouldn’tbeimprisonmentwithouttrial,Magna
Cartaintroducedtheideathatweshouldwritethesethingsdownandlivebythem.”Speakinginloco,
thePrimeMinisterbeganbydrawingattentiontoRunnymedeitselfandhencetheorganicnativeness
oflibertyinEngland:“Wetalkaboutthe‘lawoftheland’andthisistheverylandwherethatlaw—and
therightsthatflowfromit—tookroot.”Thoughrootedinitsplaceandtime,MagnaCartawasfromits
origin “a document that would change the world.” Like the pageant re-enacting the event at the
27
commemorationsheldin1934,thespeechbringstheimageofthebaronsrepeatedlytomind. “Did
thosebaronsknow,”Cameroninvitedtheaudienceto“wonder,”“howitsclauseswouldechothrough
theages?”Aswefollowitsecho,theflowofempireistransformedintoastreamofliberty.Weare
takenthroughAmerica,IndiaandSouthAfrica,andbeyond:MagnaCartasurvivesstillasanimageof
“whatothersarecryingoutfor,hopingfor,prayingfor.”Ontheotherhand,hepointedout,“herein
Britain,ironically,theplacewherethoseideaswerefirstsetout,thegoodnameof‘humanrights’has
sometimesbecomedistortedanddevalued.”Again,Britainstandsreadytocorrectthedistortionofthe
truemeaningoflibertythroughthesuperiorityofitslaw:“Itfallstousinthisgenerationtorestorethe
reputation of those rights—and their critical underpinning of our legal system. It is our duty to
safeguardthelegacy,theidea,themomentousachievementofthosebarons.”
Themediumforthisvisioncouldhardlyhavebeenmoretraditionalormorecontingent:spokenwords
solemnlyproclaimedatacommemorativeoccasion.Putanotherway,itwastheproductofapolitical
performance, and what it presented was a verbal image, not a doctrine: Magna Carta was the
foundation of justice and liberty through the rule of law and legal procedures based on the English
commonlawtradition.Althoughephemeral,thespeechwaspartofavastnumberofeventsorganized
throughoutthecountryduringtheanniversaryyear,anumberofwhichleftmorepermanenttraces,
including the artworks we will be analyzing in due course. However, it was not the only narrative
available at Runnymede. To the left of the main stage (as in the background of the photography
featuringtheRunnymedeEco-villageDiggersabove)canbeseenaconcreteimagethatpre-datesthe
oneconjuredbythePrimeMinister’sperformancebyoverhalfacentury.
The Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede was designed by Edward Maufe, a respected English
architect specializing in religious buildings (notably Guilford Cathedral nearby) and war memorials
(includingonetotheAirForceatthesamesite).Erectedin1957,theMemorialwasgrantedGradeII
listing by Historic England in December 2015 as “the only specifically designed structure to
28
commemorate the signing [sic] of the Magna Carta.” The temple-like building consists of a neoclassicalcircularcolonnadesurroundingatwo-meterhighcylinderofEnglishgranitebearingthewords
26
David Cameron, Magna Carta 800th anniversary: PM's speech, June 15, 2015; available
https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/magna-carta-800th-anniversary-pms-speech,lastvisitedMay20,2016.
at
27
APathénewsreeloftheeventisavailableathttp://www.britishpathe.com/video/historical-pageant/query/Carta.Seealsoa
contemporary newspaper report, Runnymede: Its Magnificent Pageant, SYDNEY MORNING HERALD, September 9, 1934, at
http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-page1142817;bothsiteslastvisitedMay20,2016.
28
Historic England, Magna Carta Monument, http://www.historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1430723 (Dec. 18,
2016).
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“MagnaCartaSymbolofFreedomunderLaw.”ThepillaralsobearsanAmericanlonestarandlettering
around the inside of the cupola records that the Memorial was sponsored by the American Bar
Association(ABA).ThemonumentthusremindsusthatMagnaCartahas,arguably,beenatleastas
centraltoUSAmericanasithastoBritishidentity.Certainly,theAmericanpresencehasalwaysbeen
inthebackgroundatRunnymede,whosequintessentiallyEnglishsoilhaditselfbeenacquiredforthe
29
nation by American money in 1929. The Memorial was rededicated on 15 June 2015 shortly after
Cameron’sspeechinaceremonypatronizedbythePrincessRoyal,theAttorneyGeneraloftheUSA
andthePresidentoftheABA.Inotherwords,theruleoflawmemorializedatRunnymedeisnotonly
thatofthePrimeMinister’sresolutelyEnglishnarrative,butequallythatcuratedbytheprofessional
corporation of US lawyers. The Memorial’s republican neo-classicism rubs against the usual gothic
associationsofthefeudaleventasthewrittenconstitutioncontrastswiththeunwritten.Nonetheless,
Iwouldargue,thetwoimagesareabletoco-existpacificallyinthespaceofRunnymedebecausethe
treatmentofthedocumentasanimage—inthemind’seyeorasastructure—subordinatestheactual
properties of the law in question to the label inscribed by the American Bar on English stone in an
EnglishmeadowpurchasedwithAmericanmoney:“FreedomunderLaw.”MagnaCartacanserveasan
imageofbothalawbasedontheUSwrittenconstitutionandontheBritishunwrittenconstitution
sinceultimatelywhatisenvisionedbytheimageissimplythegroundingoflibertyinlawandoflawin
thedefenseoffreedom,regardlessofitsspecificprovisionsandadministration.
C. ANICONOFLIBERTY
ThisimageofMagnaCartaisbothfleshedoutandgivenaglobaldimensionbythewebsitelaunched
by the ABA as part of its contributions to the commemorations. Through digitisation the image is
deracinated from Runnymede and relocated within a multiplication of images across virtual space.
MagnaCarta’s“originaltimeandplace”isinvokedonlytoestablishthesite’sprincipaltheme:thefact
that it has “transcended” its origins “to become one of the world’s most recognized and enduring
30
symbols of liberty under law.” The images and their labels establish a set of visual and verbal
associations between the Charter, global freedom, and, less immediately apparent, the American
constitution. The title of the opening page—“The Great Charter of Liberty”—looks like the simple
translationintoplainEnglishthatLettermanhadsought;however,thephraselinksit,forsomeviewers
at least, with the three “Charters of Freedom,” as the American Declaration of Independence, the
Constitution,andtheBillofRightsareknownintheUSA.Furthermore,aswecandiscoverelsewhere
onthesite,thebannerspellingout“MagnaCharta”inthebackgroundistakenfroma1768paintingby
31
ChristianRemnickportrayinga“PerspectiveViewoftheBlockadeofBostonHarbor.” Beneaththis,
29
ThelandwasacquiredandgiftedtotheNationalTrustin1929bytheAmericanwidowofUrbanHanlanBroughton,aBritishbornengineerwhohadmadehisfortuneintheUSAbeforereturningtotheUKandbecomingaConservativeMP.Fordetailssee
NicholasVincent&StevenFranklin,FeatureoftheMonth:July2015–RunnymedeandtheCommemorationofMagnaCarta
(1923-2015),THEMAGNACARTAPROJECT,n.p.,http://magnacarta.cmp.uea.ac.uk/read/feature_of_the_month/Jul_2015(2015).
30
American Bar Association, Homepage, ICON OF LIBERTY, http://iconofliberty.com, last visited May 20, 2016. Screenshot
reproducedbypermissionoftheAmericanBarAssociation[permissionrequested11May].
31
Fromaglobalpointofview,atthetimewhennegotiationswereunderwayregardingtheTransatlanticTradeandInvestment
Partnership, perhaps the most important measure of the Magna Carta was indeed the safeguards against unlawful taxation
invokedinmoderntimesbytheBostonrevolt.
7
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
“MagnaCarta’sglobalpresence”isintroducedbelowthesub-heading“AnInternationalSymbol,”which
in turn is topped by a small stylized image of the globe. This image of the world displays not the
conventionaldesigncenteredontheAtlanticusedinmostpartsoftheworldbuttheoutlinesofNorth
and mainland Central America customarily employed in the USA. The global reach of the subtly
Americanizedcharteristhenpursuedelsewhereonthesitethrougha“gallery”ofvisualallusionsina
varietyofmediaandinternationallocationsthat,onexamination,provetobedrawnexclusivelyfrom
32
the white Anglophone world. None of this rhetoric is surprising and I quote it in part to qualify
Cameron’sBritishnarrativeandtodemonstratehowtheCharterisabletosubsumeaswellasconvey
differentnationalclaimstoitsownershipasituniversalizesitsAnglo-Saxonvisionoflawandliberty.
What is really interesting about the website is the title given it by the ABA: “Magna Carta: Icon of
Liberty.”
ThedigitalimageofMagnaCartabringsusthentothequestionraisedintheintroductionaboutthe
typeofimagethattheCharterpresentsin2015.If,asGoodrichhasshown,theemblemwascentralto
thevisualizationofthebasesoflawintheseventeenthcentury,Iwantnowtoexaminehowthenotion
oftheiconcanhelpusunderstandthewaylegalfoundationsareimaginedinthetwenty-firstcentury.
33
Theiconhascertainlylongplayedanimportantroleinthinkingaboutlawandtheimage. Further,the
termhadbeenappliedinreferencetotheCharterintheyearsbeforeitspromotionbytheABAwebsite
intwodifferentcontexts.RecallingMandelson’sreferencetotheearly-moderntransitionfromimages
34
asicons“whosemeaningissimplypresent,likeanaura”tovisualobjectsthatrequireinterpretation, thereturnofthelanguageoftheicontodayclearlycannotimplyasimplereturntoitsoriginalontology
withoutareturntothetheologythatsupportedthatsenseofpresence.Indeed,thewaythetermis
deployedonthiswebsitealertsustothefactthatifMagnaCartaisanicon,itisaniconofaparticular
sort.Thisisaniconthatcanlenditselftothesyntaxofthetitlegiventotheinternationally-sourced
galleryofreproductionsoftheCharter,ofmemorials,andofreproductionsofthesceneatRunnymede:
“ImagesofanIcon.”Sinceaniconisitselfanimage,theself-referencehereiskey.Forcitizensofthe
USAthemultiplicityofimagesoftheicontakesonebeyondthe“CharterofLiberty”itselftowardsthe
set of “Charters of Freedom,” the true scriptures at the US core of “freedom under law”—the
foundationallawsofthestate.However,asIpointedoutattheopeningoftheessay,fromtheBritish
pointofviewthereisnoultimatelegalscriptureofthissorttowhichtheicondirectsourreverence.
The unwritten law becomes visible in a multiplicity of images without a core. If then, following the
failuretoproduceanewlegaldocumentonwhichtorefocusnationalidentityinpost-imperialBritain,
MagnaCartawasabletoofferafoundationalcoreforapluralityofimages,itisbecausethecoreisin
effectempty.Itimagesnotalivinglaw,butonlyitselfasasymbol:animageofthefoundationofliberty
intheruleoflawassuch.
MakingMagnaCartaintothissortoficondependsinthefirstplace,therefore,onthetreatmentofthe
written document not as an eventually problematic discursive text but as a visual image of what it
representsmadeofitself.Itis,inthissense,an“auto-icon,”touseJeremyBentham’stermforhiseffigy
35
ofandtohimself. Thetransformationfromverbaltovisualartefactdrawsawayfromthephilological
32
ABA,ImagesofanIcon,ICONOFLIBERTY,http://iconofliberty.com/main-gallery/.Imagesdepictedincludethedoorandfriezeof
the US Supreme Court and to the constitutions of American States, along with images of “Magna Carta at Fort Knox” and,
auspiciously,“MagnaCartamakesasplashat1939WorldsFair.”Theimagesselectedintheareaofpopularcultureare,withthe
exceptionoftheBritishfolkband“MagnaCarta”andalinktoaTEDtalkbyTimBerners-Lee,entirelyAmerican,asarethetwo
exhibitionsincludedinthesection“Exhibits.”Under“Display”wefindimagesreferringtoMagnaCartainstainedglasswindows
inBoston,Mass.,PhiladelphiaandWorcesterCathedral;thepulpitoftheNationalCathedral,WashingtonDC;thedoorsand
friezeoftheAmericanSupremeCourtandthefriezeoftheBritishSupremeCourt;thefaçadeoftheSupremeCourtofColorado
andmuralsfromIndiana,OhioandWisconsin;areplicaofMagnaCartaitselfattheUSCapitol,andmonumentsfromAustralia,
Canada,andSouthAfrica.
33
See Costas Douzinas, supra note 4. Goodrich himself draws a parallel between his notion of “visiocracy” and Marie-José
Mondzain’sinfluentialtheoryof“iconocracy”—seeGOODRICH, LEGAL EMBLEMS16,fn16andMarie-JoséMondzain,CanImages
Kill?,36CRITICALINQUIRY20(2009).
34
Supra,note10.
35
Inthecontextofhiscampaigninfavorofthe1832AnatomyAct,Benthamproposedthatutilitywouldbefurthermaximized
through a system of post-mortem dissection if the remains were used to allow everyone to have a memorial to themselves
constructedoutoftheirownskeleton,dressedintheirownclothes,andsurmountedbytheirpreservedhead.Hisown“auto-
8
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
andjuridicalcontentofthetexttowardsitsabstractvalueasasymbolofwhatitisheldtomeaninthe
contextinwhichitismadevisible.MagnaCartahadalreadybeenreferredtointhiswayasan“iconof
liberty”inthecontextofanexhibitioncuratedbyLindaColleyatthetimeofthedebatesinBritainover
nationalidentityandlawreviewedabove.CommissionedbytheBritishLibrary,Colleyhadassembled
acollectionofdocumentsandimagesintoahistoricalnarrativeofthestruggleforandonbehalfof
36
political freedom in Britain under the eloquent title Taking Liberties. Integrated into a gallery
exhibition,thehistoricdocumentsweredisplayedtothepublicgazealongsideengravings,postersand
bannerslikeartworksorobjectsintraditionalexhibitions.Shapedbytheirarrangementandlabelling,
themeaningoftheexhibitslaynotsomuchintheircontentbut,likemanyarthistoricaldisplays,in
whattheystoodforinaculturalnarrativeandthecontemporarydebate.Inthatsense,accordingto
thewebsitethataccompaniedandprolongsthelifeoftheexhibition,the“Staritems”fromthedisplay
whichthesitereproducesindigitalformconstitute“40keyiconsoflibertyandprogress,fromMagna
37
CartatotheDeclarationofHumanRights.” Along with its character as a signifier of presence, the term “icon” customarily implies a quality of
attentionorattitudeexpectedfromtheviewer.ThetextbeingdisplayedintheLibrary’sexhibitionas
animageofwhatitrepresentsisiconicinthesensethatitbringswithitanauraasanauthenticrelic
ofahistoricalmoment.Thatwasthemoment,asthePrimeMinistersoughttobringtoourminds’eye
atRunnymede,whenthefoundationalprincipleoftheruleoflawwas,tousehiswords,“writtendown”
tobe“livedby”—incarnated,inasense.TheceremoniouspresentationoftheCharterinaprivileged
spaceexploitstheauraofanoriginal,rarelyseendocumentthat,whileunreadabletothecommon
spectator(andstillincomprehensiblewhentranscribed),isofdecisivesignificancetotheiridentity.In
thiscase,though,therelicisnotunique,itisanimageofanabsentcore.Alongwiththephrase“images
ofanicon”goesanother:“anoriginalcopy.”Theparchmentondisplayinthe2008exhibitionisoneof
foursurvivingtranscriptions:animageofanimage.In2015,theauraofthetextualimagesofMagna
Carta was further intensified when, with the support of the “global law firm Linklaters,” the four
survivingcopiesoftheoriginal2015charterwerebroughttogether,forthefirsttime,tobeviewedat
theBritishLibraryoverthreedays(sic)byscholarsandbythemagicalnumberof1,215membersofthe
38
public,selectedbyballot. Making a digital copy of Magna Carta available on-line and styling it an “icon” expands its global
iterabilitywhilealsobringingwithit,Iwouldsuggest,theexpectationofreverencetheauraticpresence
of the “original copy” had had in the “live” exhibition. Taking Liberties had been the second of the
Library’s shows whose existence was prolonged and expanded through an on-line presence. The
previous year, an exhibition on the foundations of the major religions, entitled Sacred, had been
39
accompaniedbyawebsitefeaturingaselectionofimagesfromarangeof“SacredTexts.” Although,
nodoubt,theemploymentoftheterm“icon”in2008owednothingdirectlytothepreviousexhibition,
thereligiousassociationisnonethelesscertainlypresentinathirddescriptionofMagnaCartaasan
“IconofLiberty”twentyyearspreviously.MagnaCarta:IconofLibertyhadbeenthetitlegiventoa
bookletproducedforthetouringdisplayoftheLincolnCathedral’soriginalcopyoftheCharteratthe
icon”canbeseeninacorridorofUniversityCollegeLondon(cf.https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/jeremy-bentham,lastvisited
May 20, 2016). Cf. JEREMY BENTHAM, BENTHAM'S AUTO-ICON AND RELATED WRITINGS (James E. Crimmins ed. 2002) and Martin A.
Kayman,AMemorialforJeremyBentham:Memory,Fiction,andWritingtheLaw,15LAWANDCRITIQUE207(2004).
36
The exhibition took place from October 31, 2008 to March 1, 2009; see MICHAEL ASHLEY, TAKING LIBERTIES : THE STRUGGLE FOR
BRITAIN'SFREEDOMSANDRIGHTS(2008)aswellasColley,supranote3.Kayman,supranote12foregroundsthecontrastsbetween
th
thisexhibitionandthe1988commemorationsofthe300 anniversaryoftheGloriousRevolutionandthe“BillofRights.”.
37
BritishLibrary,OnlineExhibits:StarItems,TAKINGLIBERTIES,http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/takingliberties/staritems.html,last
visitedMay20,2016.
38
BritishLibrary,MakingHistory:FourOriginalSurvivingMagnaCartaManuscriptsareBroughtTogetherfortheFirstTime,BRITISH
LIBRARY (February 2, 2015), http://www.bl.uk/press-releases/2015/february/four-original-surviving-magna-carta-manuscriptsare-brought-together-for-the-first-time.
39
BritishLibrary,ExploretheWorld’sSacredTexts,BRITISHLIBRARY,http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/,lastvisitedMay
20,2016.
9
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
40
AmericanBicentennialcommemorationsin1987andtheWorldExpoinAustraliathefollowingyear. IntheintroductionJohnS.Nurserrecallshisresponsetoassumingresponsibilityfortheparchmenton
hisappointmentastheCanonChancellorofLincolninthefollowingterms:“Class‘A’mythicobjectsin
worldhistoryareveryfew:itwasasifIwasbeingaskedtotakeovertheguardianshipofthetwostone
tablesMoseshadbroughtdownfromMountSinai,orthecrownoftheEmperorCharlemagne,orthe
41
axethathadcutoffKingCharles’shead.” WhiletheCanonlocatesMagnaCartainafascinatinglistof
world-mythic objects of law, sovereignty and liberty, the editor of the booklet and subdean of the
Cathedral,theReverendRexDavis,feltthattheuseof“icon”inthiscontextwasunfamiliarenoughto
requireanexplanation.Writingasitwerecanonicallyhimself,Davisexplainsthataniconisa“likeness
…[that]couldbeavisiblewayofexplainingtheinvisibletruthsofreligion.”Inthisway,heconcludes,
“itisnotaltogetheramistaketoseethefrailageingdocumentpreservedsolongatLincolnCathedral
42
tobean…IconofLiberty.” Here,then,onemightthink,wefindevidenceofthesurvivalofthe“visialline”ofAnglicantheology
43
describedbyGoodrich, butDavis’shesitation(“itisnotaltogetheramistake”)alertsustotheproblem
behindtheconfidenttitleadoptedbythebooklet.Theeffectivenessofthereligiousiconreliesonfaith
44
intheinstitutionanditsdoctrineandonthesubject’sidentificationwithacommunityofbelievers. However,incontrasttothereverencethatisfoundtowardstheAmericanConstitutionintheUSA,the
very problem that a foundational document is supposed to resolve in Britain, as I argued above, is
45
preciselythecollapseinasharedfaithinthetraditional“nomosandnarrative”ofnationallaw. So,
between the references to an “icon of liberty” by the Canons of Lincoln Cathedral in 1998 and the
lawyersoftheABAin2015,viatheBritishLibrary’s“Staritems”of2008,whatallowsMagnaCartato
do its work promoting reverence for the rule of law without regard to agreement concerning the
concretecontent,structureandadministrationofthatlawisthewayinwhichitsitsindeterminately
within two senses of the icon: the (digitized) image of the text on the one hand and the venerated
religiousimageontheother.
Intruth,then,asshouldbeapparentfromtheabove,“icon”isn’texactlytherighttermtodescribethe
Charter.IhavecommentedonthegapinsubstancebetweenMagnaCartaasthirteenth-centurylaw
and its invocation in the current context. But from a formal point of view too, reproduced through
multiple copies and historical iterations as it crosses languages and media from Latin manuscript
parchmenttovisualexhibit,viadiverseprintformatstodigitalform,itisn’tclearwhattypeofsignifier
theCharteractuallyisandwhatthereforeitcanbesaidtomeanbesidesageneralfaithintheruleof
lawasthesourceofliberty.AsweshallseebelowinthecaseoftheRunnymedeDiggers,theonething
thatwithcertaintythecommemorationswerenotcelebratingisanoriginal,living,legaltext,likethe
AmericanConstitution.Itishardertosaywithequalaccuracy,however,whatMagnaCartaactuallyis.
Indeed,aspeopleseektocharacterizetheCharter,termsproliferatelikethevisualimagesthemselves.
Takingjustonedocument,theintroductiontothecatalogueproducedfortheBritishLibrary’s2015
exhibitionentitledMagnaCarta:Law,Liberty,Legacy,referstoitasa“mythandtotemratherthan…
[a]historicreality”:“forallitsfame,”NicholasVincentcontinues,“MagnaCartaremainsadocument
46
moremythologisedthanread.” Asthethemeistakenupbyothercontributors,thetermsdescribing
whatkindoftextisbeingcommemoratedsimplymultiply.Thus,AlexanderLockandJustinChampion
see the “potency” of the document in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries not in terms of its
40
MAGNACARTA:ICONOFLIBERTY(RexDavised.,1988).
41
JohnS.Nurser,Introduction,MAGNACARTA,12.
42
DAVIS,Epilogue,MAGNACARTA,54.
43
PeterGoodrich,TheVisialLine:OnthePrehistoryofLawandFilm,14PARALLAX55(2008).Seesupra,note9.
44
SeeMartinA.Kayman,IconicViolence:Belief,LawandtheVisual[unpublishedmanuscriptunderreview].Theconflictoverthe
managementofCathedralsthatformsthebackstorytotheexhibitionisitselfillustrativeofcrisisintheAnglicanestablishment—
cf.AndrewBrown,BlueMurderintheCathedral:AtLincoln,awarbetweenpriestslongandpoisonous,INDEPENDENT,October14,
1994.
45
Cf.RobertM.Cover,Foreword:NomosandNarrative,97HARVARDL.R.4(1983).
46
NicholasVincent,Introduction,MAGNACARTA:LAW,LIBERTY,LEGACY14-15(ClaireBreay&JulianHarrisoneds,2015).
10
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
47
provisionsbutpreciselyitsdeployment“asavisualinvocationofliberty.” Theyobservethat“Magna
Cartawasrarelyreadandbarelyunderstoodbythosewhousedit.Ithadbecomelittlemorethana
heroic symbol of English liberty” whose value lay not in the words it contained but in “its iconic
48
significance.” By the nineteenth century, “Magna Carta had become a slogan calculated to stir
49
patrioticemotionsandmobilisepublicsupport.” Moreover,freefromtheconstraintsoftextualdetail,
its indeterminate status has been accompanied by the plasticity of the political position it could be
madetostandfor.AsVincentputsit,ithasbeenused“asasymboloftherightsoftheoppressedto
resisttheiroppressors.Meanwhile,withnolessenthusiasm,ithasbeenembracedbyconservatives
50
who lay claim to it as proof of a stable and unchanging legal consensus.” Finally, then, Joshua
Rozenberg opens his contribution on “Magna Carta in the Modern Age” by proclaiming the Charter
51
simply“aworld-classbrand.” Pursuingtheanalogy,RozenbergpointsoutthattheCharterdoesnot
actuallymentionanyofthethingsit“standsfor”today;likeCoca-ColaandApple,hesays,“MagnaCarta
is … iconic: regardless of what it says on the parchment, it enjoys instant recognition as the most
52
importantlegaldocumentinthecommonlawworld.” Insum,MagnaCarta’s“iconic”potencyderivesfromthefactthat,asadocumenttransformedintoa
visual image of itself, it does not mean what it mentions and can be effective “regardless,” to use
Rozenberg’s word, of “what it says.” Commemorating Magna Carta, what words mean (including
“iconic”)isnotasimportantaswhattheycanbemadetosignifyinvisualconfigurationsofthemselves.
Itisultimatelyinthissense,then,thatweshouldunderstandthetautologicalreferenceontheABA
websiteto“imagesofanicon”:theproliferatinggenerationofimagesthatrefernotoutwardsbutback
totheimageofalegalrelicas“aniconofLiberty.”
D. IMAGESOFANICON
So far we have observed this phenomenon at a meta-level: the different but complementary
presentationsofMagnaCartaasanimageofBritishorUSidentityandglobalambition.Letusturnnow
tothetwo“imagesoftheicon”ceremoniouslyinauguratedin2015aspermanentregisterstothelegacy
ofRunnymede:HewLocke’ssculptureentitledTheJurorsandJamesButler’sstatueofQueenElizabeth
II.Theartworks,wewillfind,takeusbacktotheheartofthetensionsinBritishidentityanditsnarrative
oflawthatwediscussedaboveastheyillustratehowtheimagesofMagnaCartawereabletoboth
presentandaccommodatethosetensionswithinthenationalcontext.
WiththeexceptionofthefigureofLadyJusticeherself,sculptureshavenotgenerallyreceivedthesame
53
attention from critical lawyers as two-dimensional visualizations of law. Nonetheless, it is to be
recalled that the first written Senate decrees in fourth- and fifth-century Athens were originally
publishedonstonestelai,oftenaccompaniedbyvisualimages.Statuteandstatueshareacommon
root in standing something up, establishing something. Both set a body in place that creates and
configuressocialspace,directingtherelationsofthebodiesof citizenstothenormsandnarratives
54
stood up in their midst and to other citizens moving within that shared space. In the dispersed
economyoflegalimagesinBritain,publicsculptureshavetraditionallyplayedarolewithinthecivic
landscapeas,toadoptthetermusedbyeighteenth-centuryjurisprudents,“monuments”tothespirit
47
AlexanderLock&JustinChampion,RadicalismandReform,MAGNACARTA163.
48
Id.,161.
49
Id.
50
Vincent,15.
51
JoshuaRozenberg,MagnaCartaintheModernAge,MAGNACARTA210.
52
Id.
53
ForacomprehensivestudyofLadyJustice,seeDennisE.Curtis&JudithResnik,ImagesofJustice,96YALEL.J.1727(1987).
54
Cf.MartinA.Kayman,TheLawandtheStatuesque,24LAWANDCRITIQUE1(2013).
11
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
55
ofthecommonunwrittenlaw. Consider,forexample,theproliferationofnineteenth-centuryneoclassical statuary to national military and civic virtues that adorn most British cities. Although such
monumentstoalargelymasculine,whiteandAnglicanimperialculturebecameanathematomodernist
artistsformuchofthetwentiethcentury,theperiodwehavebeenconcernedwithherehasseena
revivalinbothpublicartandinrepresentationsofthehumanbodyinBritain,oftenwithdeliberate
56
politicalintentandeffect. TheworksatRunnymede,asweshallsee,offerthespectatorquiteopposed
visionsofMagnaCartathatmapdirectlyontothetensionswenotedearlier.Nonetheless,Ishallargue,
asbothmonumentstoandimagesoftheiconthatco-existinthesamecommemorativespace,their
politicaldifferencesaresubsumedunder—andtherebyarguablyreinforce—theideaoftheruleoflaw
asthefoundationoflibertyanditsidentificationwiththenation.Wewillconcludebyanalyzingacase
involving Runnymede itself and viewing a third commemorative artwork that disturb this
accommodationbybringingintosightthebodiesofindividualsandcommunitiesdirectlyengagedat
presentinorbytheruleoflawinBritain.
CommissionedbySurreyCountyCouncilandunveiledjustbeforeCameron’sspeechbytheDukeof
Cornwall,theofficialmonument,Locke’sTheJurors,hasacomplexrelationtothetraditionofpublic
statuary.LockeisaBritishartistofmixed-raceorigin,broughtupinGuyana.Heworksinarangeof
mediaandonavarietyofpublictopics,includingtreatmentsofroyalportraitsandcoatsofarms.Here,
ratherthanprovidingusinatraditionalwaywithhumanfigurestoliterallylookupto,Lockehascast
“12bronzechairs,eachdecoratedwithimagesandsymbolsrelatingtopastandongoingstrugglesfor
57
freedom,ruleoflawandequalrights.” Thetwofacesofeachbackrestcarryasharplydetailedpictorial
imageinrelief,markedbyhand-madescratchesandembellishedwithkeys,flowersandothersymbols.
Thedesignsdepictbuildings,ships,smallobjects,letteringinvariouslanguagesandscripts,andhistoric
58
portraits drawn from existing graphic images, mainly of notable but not widely-known women. Together, the images draw on episodes from across history and around the world to allude to the
struggle for rights for women, gays, children, the disabled, and indigenous peoples; for freedom of
speech,inpublicandontheinternet;againsttheslavetrade,apartheid,thetrafficinrefugees,therisk
of ecological disaster, secret police, political imprisonment and extra-judicial abductions. One
celebratestheemancipationoftheserfs.ThedesignsalsoincludeimagesofjusticefromChinaand
AncientEgypt,theGoldenMean,andtheclausefromMagnaCartathat,Locketellsus,inspiredthe
work.Toassisttheminunderstandingtheimages,spectatorsareprovidedwithaleafletcontaining
shortexplanations.Againtheworkissupportedbyawebsitereproducingeachcomponentwithfurther
59
narrativedetail,aswellasvideosexplainingtheintentionbehindtheworkandthestoryofitsmaking. 60
Lockemaintainsthat“TheJurorsisnotamemorial”butaninvitationtoon-sitediscussion. Thechairs
arearrangednotinthepassivepositionofonlookersfamiliarfromcourtroomproceedings,butinan
55
Cf.MATTHEWHALE,THEHISTORYOFTHECOMMONLAWOFENGLAND.WRITTENBYALEARNEDHAND23(1713)andBLACKSTONE,supranote
4,III.379.Forfurtherdiscussionofsculptureandlaw,cf.MartinA.Kayman,Id.andsupranote12.
56
In relation to public art, see both IGOR TORONYI-LALIC, WHAT’S THAT THING? A REPORT ON PUBLIC ART (2012) and the official
designationof41newlistedworksbythebodyresponsibleforEngland’shistoricenvironment,HistoricEngland,inJanuary2016,
of which nearly half involve the human figure (https://historicengland.org.uk/news-and-features/news/Post-War-Public-ArtListed).ForanaccountoftheculturalpoliticsassociatedwithreturnofthehumanbodyincontemporaryBritishsculpture,cf.
MartinA.Kayman,BodiesofLawandSculpturalBodies:Writing,Art,andtheReal,24TEXTUALPRACTICE,799(2010).
57
HEWLOCKE,THEJURORS(SurreyCountyCouncilandNationalTrusted.,2015)[abroadsheetguidetotheartwork].
58
ImagesincludeAungSanSuuKyi’shouse,AlexanderNevskyCathedral(thefreeingoftheserfs)andahollowboabprisontree;
Reading Goal (Oscar Wilde), Robben Island (Nelson Mandela); the eighteenth-century slaveship Zong, the Exxon Valdez
(environmentalpollution),aboatcarryingrefugees;amegaphone(HarveyMilk),acharkha(MahatmaGandhi);thesuffragette
LillieLenton,theearlytwentieth-centuryIndianbarristerCorneliaSorabji,theeighteenth-centuryAfrican-AmericanpoetPhillis
Wheatley,thenineteenth-centuryBlackBritishautobiographerandanti-slaverycampaignerMaryPrince,andtheArgentinian
“Disappeared.”
59
Thewebsite(http://artatrunnymede.com/dedication/)alsooffersafilmofthededicationinwhichagroupofpredominantly
young people of various racial origins (of the sort identified in 2007 as alienated from the political process) and some with
disabilitiesperformedareadingofOwenSheers’spoem,“OrInAnyOtherWay,”inwhichmuchofthematerialalludedtointhe
sculptureisputintothemeterofWilde’s“TheBalladofReadingGaol.”
60
Locke,supra,note57.
12
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
oblong,astheymightbeinthejuryroom—oraseminarroomperhaps.Aschairsratherthanpedestals,
thespacetheycreateisnotoccupiedbybodiestobeadmiredasonewalksroundthembutbythe
61
spectatorsthemselves,onthesamelevelwiththeimages. Weareinvitedtorespectandengagewith
theimagesandeachotherlikeajuryofequals.Inshort,Locke’sworkembodiesthesortofdemocratic
multicultural rights culture that troubled the early twenty-first-century debates around national
identity, security and sovereignty. The images present a comprehensive, not to say encyclopedic,
corpusofinternationalmomentsofoppressionandliberationandofnobleidealsandprotagonistsof
justicedrawnfromabroadrangeofhumanhistoryforustosittogetheramong.Theworkisbothsitespecificandglobal.Constructedofnoblematerialsuitabletotheinternationalcausesit,paceLocke,
undoubtedlymemorializes,itisanchoredbothphysicallyandinstitutionallytothesiteofMagnaCarta
(thechairsarebuiltonanundergroundframeandtheirarrangementcannotbereconfigured).Atthe
sametime,accesstoitsimageryandnarrativesisamplifiedthroughthewebsite.
Although one may find the work aesthetically unadventurous, as a piece of public art it has many
virtues.Yet,givenitspurposeincommemoratingMagnaCarta,anumberofquestionsariseregarding
itsrelationshiptojurytrial,theassociationofjurytrialwiththeCharter,andwithliberty.Inthefirst
place,thespacecreatedbyTheJurorsishardlythatofatrial.Whatisactuallyatissueforthosewhosit
in the jury seats, other than their capacity to recognize the references and symbols? The model of
discussion proposed by the roll of good causes, victims of oppression, champions of liberty and
unexceptionableprinciplesofjusticeislikelytoresemblemorethedidacticengagementofaschool
classroomthantheeventually“angry”debatesoverevidenceportrayedintheirdifferentregistersby
62
Lumet’sdramaticandHancock’sparodicperformancesofthejuryroom. Furthermore,onlythreeof
theimagesactuallyrelatedirectlytocourtroomtrials,and,ineachcase,theevidenceregardingthe
role of juries in assuring a just outcome is decidedly mixed. If it is true that Nelson Mandela was
condemned to Robben Island without benefit of a jury, that was certainly not the case with Oscar
63
Wilde’simprisonmentinReadingGaol. Inthe1783trialsconcerningthedeathof133Africanslaves
thrownofftheZongbyitscrew,itwasthejurywhoapprovedtheowners’claimforcompensationfor
64
thelossof“cargo,”andtheLordChiefJusticewhoorderedthecasetoretrial. Neithertheimagesnor
supportingtextsconveyanythingoftheproblematicissueshere.Meantime,thetitle,disposition,site
and occasion of the work all associate the idea of jury trial with the rule of law in the struggle for
freedom.
61
Cf.AnthonyGormley’sOneandOther,whichoccupiedthevacantFourthPlinthatTrafalgarSquarefor100daysin2009with
a series of 2,400 volunteers—ANTHONY GORMLEY, ONE AND OTHER (2010). Daniel Berset’s Broken Chair (1997), a monumental
woodensculpturewithabrokenleg,sponsoredbyHandicapInternationalforthePalaceofNations,Geneva,offersacontrasting,
andarguablymoredisturbing,useofthechair.
62
Supra,note24.
63
FollowingthefailureofOscarWilde’slibelcaseagainsttheMarquisofQueensburyin1895,Wildewastriedforthecrimesof
sodomyandgrossindecency.Thejuryinthefirsttrialin1895wereunabletocometoaverdict;however,athisretrialWildewas
foundguiltyandsentencedtotwoyears’hardlabour.Cf.H.MONTGOMERYHYDE,THETRIALSOFOSCARWILDE222(1962).
64
TheZonghadbecomebecalmedonitsjourneytotheCaribbeanand,itwasmaintainedbytheowners,withwaterrunningout
anddiseasespreading,thecrewhad,“ofnecessity,”throwntheslavesoverboardinordertosavetheship.OnreturntoBritain,
theGregsonsyndicateclaimedagainsttheirinsurersforcompensationforlossofcargo.Inthefirsttrialin1783,thejuryfound
againsttheunderwritersonthegroundsthatthetransportedAfricanswereindeedaformofproperty,similartoacargoof
horses.However,onappeal,LordChiefJusticeMansfieldagreedwiththeinsurers,whomaintained,accordingtolegalcustom,
thatonlywhenaslaveiskilledinthecourseofsuppressinganinsurrectionwascompensationduetotheowners.Althougharetrialwasordered,theownersdroppedtheircase.Theaffairplayedanimportantroleinthegrowingcampaigntooutlawthe
slavetradeinBritain.Cf.JAMESWALVIN,THEZONG:AMASSACRE,THELAWANDTHEENDOFSLAVERY(2011).
13
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
ThelinkbetweenthesestrugglesandMagnaCartaitselfisembeddedintheworkviaafacsimileimage
ofwordstakenfromtheoriginalLatintextonachairfacinganancientimageofEgyptianscalestopped
65
bythegoddessofjustice.Asweobservedabove, onlythreeclausesfromtheoriginalCharterremain
onthestatutebook:thoseregardingthefreedomsoftheChurchandoftheCityofLondon,andthe
provisionsamalgamatedin1225intowhat,inthespiritoftheabovediscussion,wemaycallthe“iconic”
wordsofclause39:
Nofreemanshallbeseizedorimprisonedorstrippedofrightsor
possessionsoroutlawedorexiledordeprivedofhisstandinginany
other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send
otherstodoso,exceptbythelawfuljudgmentofhisequals;orby
thelawoftheland.Tonoonewillwesell,tonooneshallwedeny
66
ordelayrightorjustice. However,contrarytopopularopinionandtheimplicationofitsinclusioninthiswork,MagnaCarta
doesnotnecessarilymandatetrialbyjury,leastofallinitsmodernsense.Whatisbeingreferredto
here is not the criminal trial but an obligation for the monarch to take advice from barons when
adjudicating on matters of property. Besides the ability of landowners to influence the outcome of
disputesoverland,whatClause39mandatesisthattheexecutivemustdothingsaccordingto“the
law.”
Ontheotherhand,jurytrialhastraditionallybeencelebratedasaparticularlyBritishinstitutionand
sitsattheheartofthemythofthecommonlawasaprotectorofliberty.WilliamBlackstonehimself
67
identifiedjurytrialasnolessthan“thegloryoftheEnglishlaw,” whileproponentsofitsintroduction
forcivilcasesinearlynineteenth-centuryScotlanddescribeditas“TheDearestBirthRightofthePeople
68
ofEngland.” TheJurorshencepromotesavisualassociationbetweenitsrecordofthemulticultural,
globalpoliticalstruggleagainstinjusticeandtheruleoflawitselfbyidentifyingitwithwhattheBritish
regardasafundamentalnationalinstitution.Furthermore,asthecasescitedabovetestify,trialbyjury
doesnotguaranteejusticeanymorethancivilsystemsthatfunctionlargelywithoutthemarebythat
tokennecessarilylessjustintheiroutcomes.
Asiftodemonstratethe“iconic”valueofMagnaCarta,“regardless”ofwhatit“mentions,”theimage
ofthesameclauseispreciselywhatlinksTheJurorstotheotherwiseideologicallyandaesthetically
entirelydifferentmonumentunveiledbytheSpeakeroftheHouseofCommonsontheeveofthe15
Juneanniversary:JamesButler’sfour-meter-highstatueofQueenElizabethII,basedonthepopular
65
Supra,note23.
66
Imagereproducedbypermissionoftheartist,availableathttp://artatrunnymede.com/[permissionrequestedMay11,2016].
67
BLACKSTONE,COMMENTARIES,III.379.
68
JohnW.Cairns&GrantMcLeod,“THEDEARESTBIRTHRIGHTOFTHEPEOPLEOFENGLAND”:THEJURYINTHEHISTORYOFTHECOMMONLAW
1(2002).
14
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
69
portraitsmadein1954and1969byPietroAnnigoni. Herethewordsareinfactmadeclearlyvisible,
engravedinEnglishonaplaqueoflight-coloredtilesthatcontrastsmarkedlywiththedarkerflagstones
onwhichitrests.Theplaqueispositionedwherethespectatorwouldideallystandtolookupatthe
statue.HereMagnaCartadoesnotfaceamythicalLadyJustice,butislookedoverbythefigureofthe
sovereign—remindingus,perhaps,ofwhatLocke’sworkforgets,that“trialbyjury”isinrealitytrialby
jurorsandanadministratorofHerMajesty’sJustice.Thisisaniconintheclassicalsense,theimageof
70
therulerprojectingtheirauraticpresencethroughouttheempire. BesidesthefactthatbotharecastbronzesandbothcommemorateMagnaCarta,thecontrastcould
hardlybemorestarkbetweenLocke’schairsandthishighlytraditionalstatue.IfTheJurorsreflectsthe
multiculturalaxisofthecrisisofgovernanceandidentitywedescribedinearlytwenty-firstcenturyin
Britain,theQueenElizabethIIprojectisunambiguouslylinkedtotheright’sconcernwithstateauthority
andnationalsovereignty.Inaddition,whileLocke’sartworkwassupportedbypublicmoney,Butler’s
workwasmadepossiblebyprivatecontributionsviatheRunnymedeMagnaCartaLegacyTrust.The
th
statueitselfhadbeenlaunchedin2013tocommemoratethe60 anniversaryofthecurrentreign.The
declaredaimofthe“HerMajesty's60thAnniversaryStatue”projectwastopromoteculturalcohesion
bothintheUKandabroadthroughthesaleofcastingsinvarioussizestoBritishmunicipalitiesand
71
overseasgovernments. Thepromoters,PeterBrownandSimonPuzey,arebothassociatedwiththe
New Culture Forum, an organization founded in 2006 by the spokesman on culture for the UK
72
Independence Party (UKIP) to oppose what it portrayed as a left-wing cultural establishment. The
appeal for sponsors for the Runnymede monument was led by Daniel Hannah, a Conservative
EuroscepticMEP.FilmedinthemeadowsatRunnymede,HannahcommemoratesMagnaCartaasthe
momentwhen:“peopledecidedthattherewassomethingbiggerthanthegovernment,somethingso
powerfulthatitstoodabovethebaronsandthebishopsandtheking,somethingthatyoucouldn’tsee
orhearortouchortastebutthatboundthemonarchassurelyasitboundhismeanestsubject—that
73
somethingwasthelaw.” Claimingthatallotherkeyelementsoftheruleoflawaroundtheworld
were“overwhelmingdevelopedinthelanguageIamnowtalking,”Hannahconcludedhisappealby
claimingthat,evenifBritishpowerweretowane,“aslongasEnglishisspoken,andaslongaswerecall
whathappenedhere,wewillneverbejustanotherpeople.”Althoughitisdifficulttoconceiveoftwo
imagesofthesamethingthatweremoreopposed,bothworksoccupythesamecommemorativespace
andcitethesametextualimageofMagnaCartaincelebrationoflibertyandtheBritishruleoflaw.
ThestatuemadebyButlerisself-confessedlyderivativeandaestheticallyunremarkable,exceptforthe
inclusioninitsarchitectureofasetoffourmatchingengravedtexts.InadditiontoClause39ofMagna
Carta,wecanalsoseeatimelineofBritishmonarchsliningthepathwaytothestatue;atitleplateon
theplinth;andafourthplaqueinthesameformatlistinganumberofsponsors,towhichthetitleplate
74
explicitlydirectsthespectator. ThemainfunderwasSheikhMareiMubarakMahfouzbinMahfouz,a
philanthropistandmemberofaleadingSaudifinancialfamily.Inaddition,amongthetwomembersof
RunnymedeCouncilwhoestablishedtheTrust,variousCityofLondonfinanciers,formerConservative
party treasurers and donors, and local corporations, one finds listed a company called Orchid
Runnymede. This exotic mix of tropical flower and temperate meadow brings two other radically
contrastingimagesofMagnaCartaintothelocalframe,andradicallyaltersthetermsinwhichMagna
Cartaisassociatedwithboth“theruleoflaw”andthemakingoficonicimages.
69
ImageLinedupfortheUnveilingfromMagnaCarta:”Fabulous”statueofQueenElizabethIIunveiled,GETSURREY(June14,
2015), available at http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/magna-carta-fabulous-statue-queen-9450484 and
reproducedbypermissionofTrinityMirrorpublishers.[permissionappliedforMay11,2016]
70
FortheiconinimperialRome,cf.Douzinas,supra,note4,46-7.
71
Seehttp://www.queenjubileestatue.co.uk/.
72
TheForumsponsoredthecriticalaccountofpublicartbyTORONYI-LALIC,supra,note56.
73
Viewtheappealathttp://www.runnymedemagnacartalegacy.org.uk/about/.
74
Supra,note69.
15
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
E. INTHEBACKGROUND:MAGNACARTA‘SUNDERSIDE
th
Ontheverydaythatthe800 anniversarywasbeingcommemorated,GuildhallCountyCourtgranted
anevictionorderonbehalfofOrchidRunnymedeagainstagroupofactivistsconnectedtotheOccupy
movement who in 2012, adopting the seventeenth-century “fundamentalist” title of Diggers, had
establishedaneco-villageinthewoodsafewhundredmetersfromtheABAmonumentandthenew
75
artworks. The area had been home to a series of educational institutions before being sold for
development in 2007. In 2011 Orchid Runnymede were given planning permission for a mixture of
studentaccommodation,carefacilitiesfortheelderly,andluxuryhomes.In2015,thelatterwerebeing
76
advertisedbyArtEstatesas“MagnaCartaPark.” Aweekaftertheevictionorder,theHighCourtgrantedastayonthegroundsthat,withoutacomplete
transcriptoftheproceedings,itwasnotpossibletodeterminewhethertheDiggershadhadafulland
fair hearing on 15 June. It was important they did so, Justice Knowles acknowledged, “given the
exceptional location and the history associated with [Runnymede & Coppers Hill Coppice], and the
competing and directly differing interests—one seeking possession of ancient forest [for private
development]theothersideseekingtoremainonasiteoccupiedforthreeyears[andtocontinueto
77
subsistincommonfromtheland].” However,followinghearingsinearlySeptember2015,theCourt
ofAppealdismissedtheappealandthebailiffsmovedin.
In the context of this discussion, what makes the case “exceptional” is that it raised the question
whether the nomos of a group of individuals who had chosen to live “off-grid” was worthy of
75
Image reproduced by permission of the Diggers 2012; at http://www.runnymede.community/, last visited May 20, 2016.
[permissionappliedforMay11,2016]
76
ScreenshotreproducedbypermissionofArtEstates;athttp://www.artestates.co.uk/magna-carta-park/,lastvisitedMay20,
2016.[permissionappliedforMay11,2016]
77
Runnymedeeco-villagegetstayofexecutioninevictionproceedingssoHighCourtcanconsiderwhethertheyweregivenan
adequate
hearing
in
“exceptional
case”,
OCCUPY
DEMOCRACY
(June
24,
2015),
https://occupydemocracy.org.uk/2015/06/24/runnymede-eco-village-get-stay-of-execution-in-eviction-proceedings-so-highcourt-can-consider-whether-they-were-given-an-adequate-hearing-in-exceptional-case/.
16
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
78
considerationwithintheruleoflaw. Theappellantsarguedthatthecourthaderredinsummarily
grantingtheorderandtreatingthemtherebyassimpletrespassers.Ithadfailedtoconsiderwhether
they had a “seriously arguable case” in relation to article 8 of the European Convention on Human
79
Rights(therighttoprivacy,familylifeandhome),ashadrecentlybeenallowedinothersituations. Recognitionwouldwarrantatrialregardingtheproportionalityofapossessionorderonbehalfofthe
ownersrelativetoitsimpactontherightsofthoseinoccupation.Intheirargument,theDiggersrelied
explicitlybothontheECHRandonMagnaCartaitself.ConfrontedbyOrchid’scorporatelegalteamand
unable to obtain legal aid, they raised the issue of equal access to the law and asserted that the
criminalizationofsquattersamountedtodetentionwithouttrial.Additionally,theyinvokedthespirit
oftheCharterinrelationtotheneedtolimitexecutivepowerandtothevaluesofcommonalityand
ecologytheyclaimedcouldbefoundinthedocument,notleastinregardtoitsclausesrelatingtothe
forest. The argument they were making was not just for their personal rights but against the
monetarizationofnatureandtheprivatizationofthecommons—issuesofbroadpoliticalresonanceat
thetime.Theyreinforcedtheircasebydrawingonthe1217CharteroftheForest,whichhadbeen
consistentlypairedwithMagnaCartasincethethirteenthcenturyandco-publishedinthefirstreliable
80
editionofbothdocumentsbyWilliamBlackstonein1759. TheForestCharterhadonlybeenrepealed
in 1971 when its surviving provisions were incorporated into new legislation. The two charters, the
Diggers’ lawyer argued in Blackstonian vein, were “founding documents of our British so called
81
unwrittenconstitution[which]cannotbedismissedasmerelybackgroundmaterial.” TheAppealCourtdidnot,however,feelthatthesesourcessupportedacasethatreachedthestandard
ofseriousnessrequiredtomandateaconsiderationofproportionality.Inthisway,thecourtavoided
havingtoweightherightsoftheowner,anoff-shorepropertydeveloperseekingprofitsfromthesale
ofluxuryhousing,againstthoseoftheeffectiveoccupiers,agroupofindigentindividualsandfamilies
who were pursuing an off-grid, self-sustaining, ecologically sound and essentially private existence.
Crucially, the case reminds us that, after all, Magna Carta explicitly protects only “free men,” a
powerfully open image of popular liberty but historically a restrictive legal category long related to
propertyownershipandincreasinglytonationalcitizenship.Itissurelynosurprisethenthatinthiscase
thelaw’simageasthedefenderofprivatepropertyprevailedoverthatoftheecologicalandcommunal
spiritthattheDiggerssawintheECHR,MagnaCarta,andtheancientconstitution.Nonetheless,Iwould
argue,preciselybecausetheirargumentsweredisregardedbythecourts,theimageoftheeco-villagers
afewmetersawayfromthecommemorativesite,inanengagementwiththelawinitiatedonthevery
day of the solemnities, “cannot,” like the texts the Diggers relied on, “be dismissed as merely
background material” to the celebrations of Magna Carta as an image of the rule of law. On the
contrary, seeking to establish an alternative nomos on the literal boundary between the property
ownedbythe“NationalTrust”andprivateproperty,theydenouncetheuniversalityofthatimageand
the“freemen”itpurportstodefend.
Thesculpturalartworks,likethelitigation,constitutebodilyexperiencesthattakeplaceinspecifictimes
and spaces, eliciting concrete reactions and allegiances among their spectators. These experiences
obligetheindividualtotakepositions.However,asIhaveargued,intheircommemorations,neither
TheJurorsnorQueenElizabethIIpositiontheviewertoquestionMagnaCartaasafoundationalimage
signifyingthenormativeguaranteeoflibertybylaw.Hingedbythesame“iconic”textualimage(the
oneinLatin,theotherinEnglish)theirverydisagreementsputthefoundationalstatusoftheCharter
andoftheEnglishinstitutionsoftheruleoflawbeyonddispute.Ontheotherhand,ratherthanmaking
animageofandtoMagnaCartaandanchoringitinthesoilofEnglandlikeLockeandButler,theeco-
78
TheargumentsmadeonSeptember28,2015byPeterPhoenixonbehalfoftheappellantsagainstOrchidRunnymedeLtdcan
befoundalongwithotherdocumentsintheas-yetunreportedcaseinRunnymedeEco-VillageinEpicCourtBattle–Sept2015,
SQUASH: SQUATTERS’ ACTION FOR SECURE HOMES, http://www.squashcampaign.org/2015/09/runnymede-eco-village-in-epic-courtbattle-sept-2015/,lastvisitedMay20,2016.
79
See JOHN LUBA, et al., DEFENDING POSSESSION PROCEEDINGS: ONLINE UPDATE (Legal Action Group 7th ed. March 2011),
http://www.lag.org.uk/media/41369/dpp_online_update.pdf.
80
SeePETERLINEBAUGH,THEMAGNACARTAMANIFESTO:LIBERTIESANDCOMMONSFORALL(2008).
81
Point7.19ofPhoenix’sargument,supranote78.
17
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
villagersstoodontheCharteraslivinglawandtheforestatRunnymedeastheiractualhome.Asa
result,theirexperienceturnsattentionfromvisibleimagesoflawasthedefenseofjusticeandliberty
to images of the law to the foundation of law in the actual administration of legislative and
jurisprudentialtextsandstateviolencebyjudicialinstitutions,courts,lawyers,police,andbailiffsas
theymanageconflictinginterestsandvalues.
Somethingsimilarcanbeseentobehappeningwiththelastofourcommemorativeartworks,Cornelia
Parker’s Magna Carta (An Embroidery), commissioned by the Ruskin School of Art at Oxford in
collaborationwiththeBritishLibrary.Sellingahighlycomplexandevolvingoeuvrenecessarilyshort,
onecansaythat,withabackgroundinsculptureandperformance,muchofParker’sworkconsistsnot
so much in making images of things or ideas as of their translations from one form or state into
another—whatsheherselfreferstoas“creatingnewhistoriesforobjects(bychangingthemthrough
82
aphysicalprocess).” Alongsidematerialprocesses,theplaybetweentitleandimageplaysacrucial
roleinthesetranslationsandtransformations.Thus,forexample,whatisperhapshermostfamous
workhitherto,ColdDarkMatter:AnExplodedView(1991),consistsofthepiecesofagardenshedafter
ithadbeenblownupwithSemtexbytheArmySchoolofAmmunition,reassembledandsuspendedin
thegalleryasifradiatingoutfroma“BigBang”;whiletopicallyenough,MeasuringLibertywithaDollar
83
(1998)consistsofaskeinofsilverdrawnintoawiretheheightoftheStatueofLiberty. Parkerthusbringsusbacktotheissueofthenovelconfigurationsofwordandimageincontemporary
mediaraisedintheearlypartofthisessay.Idrewattentionatthetimetotheroleplayedbydigitization
in the development of new regimes of the visual and verbal, and we have seen the contribution of
digitizedtextualimagesintheconstructionofMagnaCartaasan“iconofliberty.”Forhercommission,
th
then, Parker took the entire Wikipedia article on Magna Carta as it stood on the date of the 799 anniversaryandhadadetailedandexactfacsimilemadeona13-metrelongpieceofclothinhandstitched embroidery. Among the reasons for this choice was a recognition that corresponds to our
starting point for the value of the Charter as icon: “we know [Magna Carta] stands for something
84
important,butwedon’tknowexactlywhat.” Furthermore,Parkerobserves,“ifwewanttofindout
aboutsomething,[Wikipedia]isthefirstplacewego.”Bychoosingtomakeanimageofacommentary
ratherthantheoriginalwork,MagnaCarta(AnEmbroidery)contrastswiththeotherworkswehave
considered.Inthefirstplace,itremainstruetothetraditionof“unwrittenlaw”exemplifiedbyour
relianceindeterminingthecontentofthatlawonworkslikeBlackstone’sCommentaries…aswellas
85
EdwardCoke’sReports…beforehand. Secondly,itforegroundsthefactthatwhatisbeingimaginedis
not Magna Carta itself but what, through purportedly authoritative commentaries, it is held to be
representativeof.Parkergivesthisprocessanameinhertitle,andproceedstoliteralizethatnamein
theworkitself:itis“theidea,”assheputsit,“ofembroideringhistory.”Parkerassociatesthis,andthe
constantlychangingdigitaltextofWikipediaitself,withthehistoricityandmanufactureoftheimage:
the authority of the Magna Carta that is ideologically embroidered on Wikipedia is the result of an
invisible and seamless collaboration of many anonymous hands. The powerful impact of Parker’s
embroidery,however,isthatthecontributionofhumanhandsisforegrounded,andalongwiththatits
86
locatednessandhistoricity. Elsewhere,Parkerhasaddressedwhatshedescribesasclichés,usingthe
displayofphysicalobjectsasmaterialtracestoquestionnotionsof“Freudian”and“Turneresque,”for
example.Asshesays,byusingsuchelements“I’mtryingtotriggerwhatevertheassociationis,butit’s
notonlyaboutthem.It’sabouttheunderside,theinverseofwhattheyrepresent.”Thisundersideis
82
InIWONABLAZWICK,CORNELIAPARKER85(2013).
83
Id.,48-61,126.NotethatExplodedViewwasmadeatatimewhentheProvisionalIRAwerealsousingSemtexinaseriesof
attacksontheBritishmainland.
84
CorneliaParker,“Weallmakeourownlittleembellishmentsofthetruth”:CorneliaParkerinconversationwithTimMarlow,in
MAGNACARTA(ANEMBROIDERY)(PaulBonaventura&CorneliaParkereds.,2015).Subsequentcitationsarefromthisunpaginated
sourcedocumentinganexhibitionoftheartworkattheBritishLibraryfromMay15toJuly24,2015.
85
Cf.supranote4;THEREPORTSOFSIREDWARDCOKEKT.INENGLISH,COMPLEATINTHIRTEENPARTS(GeorgeWilsonrvsd&trans.,1727).
86
Whencontrastedwiththenoblepractices,materialsandsubject-matterassociatedwiththemediaemployedbyotherartworks
wehavediscussed,Parker’schoiceofapracticetraditionallyregardedasadomesticdecorativecraftpracticedmainlybywomen
isofcoursenotwithoutsignificance.
18
Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
quiteliterallymadeavailableherebymirrorssituatedbeneaththeclothsothat“youcanlookatthe
undersideoftheembroideryandviewthewayitisconstructed;seethebackstory,thehistoryofthe
work.”Thus,astheeco-villagers’strugglewithOrchidRunnymedeprovidesa“background”imageto
thecommemorations,Parker’sworkgivesusaviewofthebrokenandknottedthreadsthatmakeup
theirregular“backstory”or“underside”oftheconstructionoftheCharter’smeaning.
Theprocessofturningapolishedtextualimagefromtheinternetintoanexactbutvisuallydissonant
copyinartisanalformthusbecomescentraltotheartworkitself:itmakesvisiblethenarrativeofits
ownmanufacture.InviewingMagnaCarta(AnEmbroidery)wearenotinterestedinwhatthedigital
textoftheanonymouselectronicencyclopediatellsusthatMagnaCartameans(alreadyoutofdatein
relationtotheentrypost-commemorations).Rather,whatthetapestrymanifestsistherelationship
betweenthetextualimageandthepeoplewhoreproduceitwiththeirhands.Thesearenamedinthe
exhibition and the published text. They include contemporary “barons” (or, as Parker points out,
baronesses),likeSayeedaWarsiandDoreenLawrence,alongwithaselectionoflargelyliberaljudges
87
andbarristers,legislators,journalistsandwriters. Inmanycases,particularelementsweredistributed
withdeliberatepurpose:EdwardSnowdenwaschargedwithembroideringtheword“liberty”;oneof
the falsely convicted Birmingham Six stitched “freeman”; Moazzam Begg was given “held without
charge”andthelawyerCliveStaffordSmith,whohadvisitedBeggatGuantanamo,embroidered“law
88
oftheland”whilehewasvisitingthedetentioncamp. Someofthetechnicallymostcomplexpassages
werestitchedbymembersoftheEmbroiderers’Guildbutagreatdealoftheworkwasexecutedby
89
prisonerswhohadbeentaughtneedleworkbyacharitycalledFineCellWork. MagnaCartaisnotonly
abouttheprotectionoffreemen;itisalsoaboutimprisoningthem.AsParkerpointsout,theinmates
too“haveallbeensubjecttotheruleoflaw.”Oneofthem,itappears,“wasembroideringasection
thatincludedthewords‘HabeasCorpus’andheleftthemout.”ParkeraskedaformerLordChiefJustice
toprovidethemissingwords:“Ilovetheideathatwordomittedbyaprisonerhavebeenfinishedoff
byajudge.”Prisonersandjudges;normallyitistheformerwhocompletethelatter’s’sentences.
Iftheemblem’sarticulationofwordandpicturepresentedanimageofEnglishunwrittenlawwithin
the Anglican nomos in the early modern period, and the new configurations realized through
digitizationandsculpturalartworkshaveresultedinaseriesofimagesofapostmodern“icon”that,as
animageofitself,meanswhatitismadetostandfor“regardless”ofwhatitsays,thenParker’sproject
uncovers both the work of interpretation and the tensions and partialities elided by these latter
configurations. Reproducing a virtual digital text-image of Magna Carta in analogical form, she
envisages it not as an “(image of) an icon of liberty” but as an artefact elaborated by a network of
individualssowntogethernotbytheexperienceofnationalidentitybutbyalegalinstitutioninwhich
theyoccupydifferentpositionsthroughandinrelationtotheruleoflawanditswordsofjusticeand
freedom.Someofthem,membersoftheHousesofParliament,areresponsibleforwritingthoselaws,
others,advocatesandjournalists,forembroideringtheminlegalargumentandpublicopinion,while
90
others,“stitchedup”ornot,livethesentencesgiventhembythelawanditsagents. If,whileoffering
th
competingorcontrastingnarratives,thecommemorationsofthe800 anniversaryingeneralunited
tocelebratean“iconofliberty”thatreferredtoa“ruleoflaw”withanemptycore—alawthatislaw
“because it calls itself law”—then Magna Carta (An Embroidery) unpicks the seamlessness of the
87
Jamaican-bornDoreenLawrencewasmadeBaronessLawrenceofClarendonin2013inrecognitionofherworkasacommunity
activistandacampaignerforpolicereformfollowingthemurderofhersoninaracistattackin1993.SayeedaWarsi,thedaughter
ofimmigrantsfromPakistan,wasmadeaConservativepeerin2007inordertoallowhertoparticipateintheshadowgovernment
and,in2010,becamethefirstMuslimtoserveasamemberoftheCabinet.
88
EdwardSnowdenwasresponsibleforthemassiveleakofsecretdocumentsfromtheUSANationalSecurityAgencyin2013.
theBirminghamSixwerethevictimsofperhapsthemostsignificantmiscarriageofjusticeintheUK:imprisonedforlifein1975
forthebombingofapublichousethepreviousyear,inwhich21peoplewerekilled,theywerefinallyabletodemonstratethat
theevidenceagainstthemhadbeenfalsifiedorsuppressedin1995.MoazzamBeggspentnearlythreeyearsinGuantanamo
detentioncampbeforebeingreleasedin2005;hesuccessfullysuedtheBritishgovernmentforcomplicityinhisdetentionand
abuse.CliveStaffordSmithisaBritishlawyerspecializinginthedefenseofcriminalsfacingthedeathsentenceintheUSAand
hasrepresentedmorethanahundredGuantanamodetainees,includingBegg.
89
Cf.http://www.finecellwork.co.uk/.
90
InpopularparlanceintheUK,“stitchedup”istheequivalentof“framed.”
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Awaitingpublication:pleasedonotcite
relationshipbetweenlawandlibertybyhavingtheideologicalimagere-sownbytheagentswhomake
andoperatethelaw,withvaryinglyjustoutcomes,alongsideotherswho,justlyornot,havelosttheir
libertytothelaw.Insum,then,theimageofthefoundationsofBritishlawremainsradicallyincomplete
without ensuring that the institutions which in various ways bind citizens to its rule are part of the
picture,andwithoutkeepinginviewthose,normallyconsignedtothebackgroundandundersideof
thevisiblelaw,whomitdeprivesoflibertyorwhosewayoflifeitoutlaws.Thereisasimilarpolitics,it
maybeargued,regardingthevisibilityoftheinstitutionsandtechnologiesthattendtorenderinvisible
the interpretative work performed by readers, spectators and programmers involved in translating
betweenwordandimageandanalogueanddigital.
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