Applied Project:
Emotional Intelligent Leadership
“People First, Task Second”
Student: Maria A. Greaves
AU Student ID#: 2947525
Course: APRJ 699
Submission Date: Monday June 9 2014
Supervisor: Dr. Angela Workman-Stark
“People First, Task Second”
Abstract
“Leaders are made, not born” is the popularized corollary expression used by respected and
prominent international leaders, Warren Bennis and Vince Lombardi.
This proposition has
reinforced the notion that leaders are constantly learning from their interpersonal relationships with
others as well as from their diverse socio-economic environment. While one school of thought is
that leaders are “born” unique with a rare set of natural leadership abilities; the other school of
thought is that leaders are “made” by their commitment to a lifetime of learning to nurture their
inherent personality traits and competencies into becoming an effective leader.
The purpose of this research paper was to investigate the influence that emotional intelligence has
had on leadership style, given the state of constant change caused by globalization within the
organization. Technology and social media advancements have transformed the workforce and
the work environment (climate) from an autocratic state of dependence or dictatorship to one of
independence, democracy and autonomy. The perspective of the research paper was focused
predominantly on the softer or people skills set of leaders that were used to meet productivity and
profitability goals. The objective was to provide supporting evidence to show how leaders with a
mature level of emotional intelligence were able to achieve a greater level of tangible and
intangible performance outcomes by inspiring and motivating oneself and others to meet their
highest level of self-actualization.
The primary focus of this research paper was based upon evaluating Daniel Goleman’s
Competency model of emotional intelligence to prove that personal and social competencies were
critical components that influenced the effectiveness of visionary, affiliative, democratic and
coaching leadership styles. Secondary focus was to discuss that leaders were able to “unlearn”
ineffective leadership habits that resulted in a negative effect on the work climate as exemplified in
short term success from pacesetting and commanding leadership styles.
Page 2
“People First, Task Second”
Daniel Goleman has conducted extensive research to identify which personal and social
competencies are attributes of an effective leader as exemplified by their outstanding performance
as a leader within the organization. The conclusion from these studies, have proved that emotional
intelligence, based upon specified personal and social competencies, was twice as important as
cognitive abilities and technical skills. The ability to work with others was identified as an essential
and indispensible component of outstanding performance in effective leaders.
Hence, the
limitation of this research paper was that selected study findings were tailored to validate the
emotional intelligence concepts as presented by Daniel Goleman and colleagues. It has been
widely stated that there is little empirical research to quantify the efficacy of emotional intelligence
to be used as a predictor of leadership performance. As a result, the goal of this conceptual
research paper was to identify qualitative evidence to support the concept of people first, task
second. The hypothesis that emotional intelligence is a critical component of effective leadership
is proposed based upon the relationship between the level of emotional maturity and the
leadership style. These were identified as factors influencing outstanding leadership performance
within an organization as it relates to increasing productivity and improving overall profitability.
Research data was gathered from published articles and literature from business management
academics and subject matter experts in the areas of psychology, social science and
neuroscience. Study findings, documented from these various forms of secondary data collection,
validated that leaders with a high level of emotional intelligence have a positive effect on the
workforce and work environment (climate). The outcome from this research paper was to support
the rationale for organizations to hire and train leaders to become focused on enhancing and
developing leadership skills that strengthen emotional competencies e.g. self-awareness, selfmanagement, relationship management and social awareness.
Page 3
“People First, Task Second”
Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Research Purpose and Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 7
Literature Review .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Global Leadership Trends................................................................................................................................. 9
Leadership versus Management .................................................................................................................. 12
Theories of Effective Leadership .................................................................................................................... 16
Theory of Emotional Intelligence.................................................................................................................... 19
Physiology of Emotional Intelligence .............................................................................................................. 24
Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Leadership ................................................................................... 28
Research Design ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Statement of Results ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Analysis............................................................................................................................................................ 36
Effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence .......................................................................................................... 36
Learning Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................................................................... 44
Measuring Leadership Effectiveness .............................................................................................................. 48
Recommendations .......................................................................................................................................... 55
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 58
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix 1: Emotional Intelligence Domains and Associated Competencies ......................................... 65
Appendix 2: The Six Leadership Styles at a Glance................................................................................... 66
Page 4
“People First, Task Second”
Introduction
Globalization, ethics and social responsibility have become challenges that threaten the
stability and predictability of the operational efficiencies within today’s organizations.
Customer expectations and workplace diversity are examples of varying internal and external
stakeholder’s interests that the organization must satisfy to remain competitive by increasing
value while reducing costs.
Rapidly changing economical, environmental, social and
technological factors have attributed to a trend in redesigning companies towards a highly
effective “learning organization” characterized by a “horizontal structure, empowered
employees, shared information, collaborative strategy and an adaptive culture” (Daft &
Armstrong, 2009, p.28).
Based upon, the “changing external conditions, new strategic
priorities and different types of organizations call for new approaches to (business) leadership”
whereby the focus “is less about decision making and more about guiding the cultural identity
and vision (Grant, 2010, p.473). Therefore, it has become critical for world class organizations
to have highly effective leaders at the helm that recognize the critical importance of learning
highly developed and adaptable people skills.
Warren G. Bennis, pioneer of contemporary field of leadership studies, is quoted as saying
“true leaders are made, not born” (Bennis, 1989, p.5) dispelling the myth that leaders are
genetically predisposed by nature to “greatness” but rather supporting the argument that
leadership is a skill learnt (Fiedler, 1967). The distinction between the proverbial leader and
the traditional manager role is best summarized upon by Geisler (2011) supposition that “not
every leader is a manager” nor is every manager a leader. In other words “leaders lead
people, managers manage things” which means that leadership and management are not
synonymous (Kruse, 2013).
In the attempt to connect the dots between the leader, the
Page 5
“People First, Task Second”
follower and the situation, Pierce and Newstrom (2008, p.6) defined leadership as being “a
social phenomenon arising out of and operating within a group context”. This definition is
supported Hollander and Julian (1969) conclusion that leadership is not “a fixed state of being”
but rather “a leader and his characteristics constitute a set of resources contributing to the
effective utilization of other resources” (Pierce & Newstrom, 2008, p.16).
The research of psychologist, Daniel Goleman (2006, p.79), has focused on the concept of
“people first, task second” by popularizing the concept of emotional intelligence as a crucial
part of effective leadership. It has been theorized that “traditional incentive systems” are no
longer optimum for getting “the best performance from followers” but rather an effective leader
is one whom has the ability to develop “a genuine interest in and talent for fostering positive
feelings in the people whose cooperation and support” is needed for motivating and inspiring
greatness within the organization (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008, p.77).
Recent neuroscience research has proved that there is a link between “emotions and the
capacity to think and learn” and Goleman (1995, p.149) was able to relate the significance of
this research by defining leadership as “the art of persuading people to work toward a common
goal”. Studies conducted by researchers in psychology, have concluded that “the subtle power
of emotions” stemming from our “social brain” heavily influences “a leader’s habitual style of
interacting with others” by creating “a positive (emotional) climate” within the organization for
which “people feel energized (motivated) to do their best” (Goleman, 2006, p.79).
As more companies have begun to focus on the competitive edge that emotional leadership
brings to organizations, it has become critical to leverage internal talent so as to optimize
profitability and maximize differentiation strategies. Bottom line, the new trend is an emotional
intelligent leader because emotions motivate people and people inspire performance.
Page 6
“People First, Task Second”
Research Purpose and Research Questions
This research paper hypothesis was that effective leadership performance is heavily influenced
by components of emotional intelligence as categorized by Daniel Goleman (1998b). These
specific personal and social competencies which include; self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness and relationship management, have been identified as the core branches of
the Competency Model of emotional intelligence. The evidence to support this hypothesis was
that the perceived positive and negative effect that emotional intelligence has on a leader’s
performance is determined of their ability to work with others.
In addition, the type of
leadership style is influenced by emotional level of the leader which subsequently has a
positive or negative impact on the mood of the work environment (climate). These proposed
outcomes have reinforced the critical importance of emotional intelligence as it relates to the
relationship between leadership and measureable business results, such as productivity and
profitability.
The overall purpose of this research paper was to present the key arguments, from the
numerous study findings as published by Daniel Goleman and his colleagues between 1995 2008, to validate the premise that leaders with strong emotional intelligence competencies are
more effective as leaders than those without given the same workforce dynamic and work
environment. The primary focus of this research paper was to show the positive and negative
effect that the four (4) dimensions and associated competencies as outlined by Goleman et al.,
(2006, p.78) have on the work environment (climate) as exemplified through six (6) common
predominant leadership styles; visionary, coaching, democratic, affiliative, pacesetting and
commanding.
Page 7
“People First, Task Second”
The principle research question, for this conceptual paper, was to justify the critical importance
of emotional intelligence in driving leadership performance given the state of constant change
of the business community. Can leadership style and performance have a greater impact on
people (productivity) and results (profitability) by leaders learning to develop a higher level of
emotional maturity (intelligence)?
The major assumption for this research paper was the classifications as identified by Daniel
Goleman (1995) to distinguish between cognitive abilities, technical skills and emotional
intelligence. The context of this research paper was to support the premise that emotional
intelligence is the “sine qua non” of leadership as proposed by Goleman (1998b, p.93) by
presenting industry related research studies and qualitative evaluation on the perceived value
of emotional intelligence on leadership style within the organization.
Literature Review
The literature review section of this paper was to establish the importance of emotional
intelligence based upon the current global leadership trends that have influenced the strategic
direction of organizations. These factors have provided the foundation for the review of the
critical differences between manager and leaders roles within the organization and how the
theories of leadership have evolved into many leadership styles whereby the theory of
emotional intelligence and the underlying physiology of emotional intelligence, have become a
dominant factor in discerning effective leaders within the organization.
Page 8
“People First, Task Second”
Global Leadership Trends
Currently due to the “global era” of the twenty-first century, there are various political, social
and economic factors of the international community that have become interconnected and
interdependent.
The perceived benefits of globalization have been eclipsed adversely by
accelerated environmental climate change, economic turmoil and market instability caused by
rapid industrialization and advancements in telecommunications. As a result, organizations
have become more focused on the bottom-line results, in terms of level of productivity and
profitability. It has been identified that to sustain a competitive advantage, given the global
market, high-performing teams and results driven leaders have become a critical part of the
differentiation strategy employed by successful organizations.
The importance of
understanding, developing and enhancing personal and social competencies, as it relates to
emotional intelligence, has been proven to influence leadership effectiveness by leveraging
this knowledge to motivate and inspire the workforce given the dynamic work environment.
This phenomenon has created a shift in the focus on the criteria used to hire externally and
promote internally candidates into leadership positions. No longer are high levels of cognitive
and technical skills perceived as “must have’s” but rather people or soft skills i.e. social
awareness and personality traits have become the prevailing indicators of leaders that are
adaptable and flexible in their style of leadership.
Blanchard & Stoner (2004) have identified three critical factors that distinguish a “world-class”
organization, which are; (1) a vision and direction championed from top management
(2) trained and equipped people focused on implementation of the agreed-upon vision and
(3) established recognition and positive consequence system that sustain the behaviours and
performance of the vision and direction required.
These factors have reinforced the
Page 9
“People First, Task Second”
perspective that organizations need to create a corporate sub-culture of emotion based
learning whereby employees are encouraged to champion high-risk projects that challenge the
status quo of the organization and to foster an environment of continuous learning based upon
achieving short-term wins towards long term goals (Kotter, 2001). Deloitte has reported that
“most business failures link back to leadership” and “with economic conditions improving;
many companies are going on a “talent offensive” ... to attract, develop and retain high-value
employees that provide a competitive edge” (Deloitte, 2010, p.1).
John Kotter (1996) has predicted that the future impact from emerging global markets,
diverging socioeconomic trends, technological advances for analyzing “big data” and the
volatility of natural resources would offer both “terrible hazards and wonderful opportunities” to
organizations within the twenty-first century. The net result was a rapidly changing and highly
competitive environment whereby the role of leadership has evolved from controlling with
unilateral decision making strategies to a more focused strategy on coordinating and
empowering employees by reducing levels of bureaucracy and changing organizational
structures becoming from vertical top-down management to horizontal decentralized centers of
authority and power.
These changes would make the organization more adaptable and
responsive to risk and change. Both Grant (2010) and Kotter (1996) have described the future
of leadership within organizations to be more geared towards optimizing the firm’s existing
(human) resource and capabilities to maximize performance so as to prevent cut-backs on
critical investments, such as: technology and people that would jeopardize an organization’s
competitive advantage. Grant (2010) has summarized these changes to the organizational
structure from an “authority based hierarchies” to “consensus based hierarchies” as being
Page 10
“People First, Task Second”
essential in order to maximize shareholder value and achieve a strong competitive position
globally (p.471).
Sexty (2011) has recognized that a popular trend among organizations was to incorporate both
a “compliance-based” and “value-based” approach to programs called integrity management.
This new phenomenon enabled the common top down management to communicate
simultaneously
acceptable
consequences”
associated
behaviour
with
(practices)
non-compliance
and
to
emphasize
the “rewards and
organizational
norms
(p.130).
The “compliance-based” model identified penalties for misconduct while the “value-based”
model promoted the positive effect of values and the powerful influence on attitudes and
behaviour (p.132).
The perceived advantages of integrity management outweighed the
inability to measure each approach individually because of the net performance of both the
individual and group within the organization.
In summary, globalization has caused organizations to rapidly internalize their strategic
policies to become more people-centric. As forecasted by Kotter (1996, p.166), organizations
in the twenty-first century would need to become “incubators of leadership” whereby the
institution would flourish under visionary leadership with the expectation to reduce costs by
making operations more efficient and effective.
In order to remain competitive within the
dynamic market, organizations need to have leaders that inspire and motivate others to work
cooperatively and collaborative towards the common goal.
Effective leadership has been
distinguished as being where people are “doing the right thing” whereas efficient management
has been described as people “doing things right” (Daft & Armstrong, 2009, p.22).
The
distinction between the two roles has been linked to short-term “quick” wins by management
versus the sustainability of performance towards long-term goals by leaders.
Page 11
“People First, Task Second”
Leadership versus Management
The instability of the global economy has resulted in organizations requiring both strong
management and effective leadership for optimal results. However, each role has a specific
meaning and purpose as it relates to the workforce and the work environment for which the
level of emotional intelligence becomes more of a critical factor in leaders than it does in
managers given the higher than expected performance outcomes.
Lunenburg (2011, p.3)
provided a concise overview of the differences between the two roles as professing that
“leaders challenge status quo, inspire and persuade organization members” while “managers
assist in developing and maintaining a smoothly functioning workplace”.
The moral implication of “doing what’s right” was used to distinguish between management
and leadership as defined by organizational management consultants Peter Drucker and
Warren Bennis. Managers are perceived to be more efficient in doing things right whereas
leaders are more effective at doing the right things (Bennis, 1989, p.7). Further differentiation
between these roles referred to managers being focused more on climbing the corporate
ladder by achieving specific bottom-line results whereas leaders were more concerned with the
top-line vision and the burden of whether the proverbial ladder is leaning against the right wall
for managers to achieve their targets (Kumar & Kaptan, 2007, p.20).
Theoretically, people are “required” to follow managers whereas people choose to follow
leaders. This ideology supported the argument that management is about power of authority
whereas leadership is about power of influence. To this point, managers have uses tangible
rewards and consequences to make things happen whereas leaders have relied on emotional
knowledge such as; interpersonal skills to develop trust and empower employees by
Page 12
“People First, Task Second”
understanding what motivates them intrinsically. These differences collectively supported the
argument that “not all leaders are managers and not all managers are leaders” (Geisler, 2011).
These concepts were best summarized by distinguishing the difference between the two as
being management is about coping with complexity whereas leadership is about coping with
change. The act of managing involves tangible objectives whereas to lead others involves
intangible skills. The differences, as summarized in Table 1, are the principal reasons why
most companies fail when trying to focus on developing “leader-managers” because it is
difficult to measure achievements with precision unless there is a succession planning or highpotential development process outlined by the organization (Kotter, 2001).
Table 1: Differentiation between Manager and Leader Responsibilities
Manager Responsibilities
Leader Responsibilities
 Budgeting and Planning
 Setting a Direction
 Organizing and Staffing
 Aligning People
 Controlling and Problem Solving
 Motivating and Inspiring
Source: Kotter, J.P. (2001). What Leaders Really Do. Harvard Business Review, 12: 1-12
An emotional intelligent leader strengthens the team dynamic within a diverse workforce
because their personal and social competencies are geared towards soft skills development
required to achieve the specific responsibilities of a leader as listed in Table 1.
Metaphorically, Smircich and Morgan (1982) have portrayed leadership as “a central building
block of conventional wisdom of the organization and management”. Leaders are perceived
as being successful when the actions of the leaders are linked synchronously with the
Page 13
“People First, Task Second”
behavioural responsiveness of followers. Leaders are considered effective if the relationship
with the follower has a positive net outcome for the organization.
The leader-follower
relationship has been considered a strategic relationship because leaders are responsible to
frame and shape common the vision of the organization to the followers. It has been stated
the importance that leaders are able to recognize their (social) “influence and manage the
meaning of situations in a constructive way” whereby their “symbolic actions and gestures …
give them considerable control over the situation being managed” (Pierce and Newstrom,
2008, p.22).
As companies have evolved to become more “knowledge-based services”, leveraging
intellectual capital continues to provide a competitive advantage for organizations because of
increased levels of productivity, lower employee turnover rates and higher job satisfaction.
Leadership, therefore, has become less about dominating employees and more about trying to
convince people to work collaborative and cooperatively towards a shared or common goal
(Goleman, 1995).
The personal competencies of being self-aware and self-managed have enabled leaders to
reduce the likelihood of big egos from forming given the legitimate power obtained from the
positions of authority.
The ability to lead others by using social skills and relationship
management competencies was the underlying argument that Goleman (1995) presented by
using the paradigm to describe leadership as the ability “to harmonize head and heart” (p.28).
It has become essential that organizations have established a culture that is focused on
developing internal leaders with strong understanding of emotions. This change in culture has
proven to better control the development of humble and willing leaders because the
organizations has incorporated succession planning of internal talent, promoting team values
Page 14
“People First, Task Second”
replacing the old form of subjective individual and 360 degree performance appraisals.
Organizations that have strong leaders are equipped “to cope with faster-moving and more
competitive markets”. Training and develop of strong emotional leaders within the organization
has proven to be more effective use of resourced that better utilize and optimize employee
skills and knowledge (Kotter, 1996). In terms of leadership styles and management systems,
Sexty (2011) proposed that corporate operations should be governed by a values-driven focus
and reinforced through a reward system. Fundamental principles or values are essential for
decision making in order to serve as a reference point because while acceptable societal
standards and values change over time; individual value systems are believed to take a longer
time to influence change.
Leaders are responsible for establishing strategic goals while
managers are more concerned with tactical operations related to achieving goals. Therefore,
the inherent functions of leaders are not only to analyze and direct but to leverage the skills of
their team to improve organizational weakness and maximizing strengths.
In summary, the balancing act of a leader has become critical to equalize the importance of the
organization strategic needs (purpose) with the employee’s own intrinsic aspirations and needs
(meaning) (Grant, 2010). Referring back to the theories presented by Lunenburg (2011, p.1),
“leaders are concerned with understanding people’s beliefs and gaining their commitment,
managers carry out responsibilities (and) exercise authority” but neither are not necessarily
effectively leaders nor do all leaders manage.
It is based upon this point that Goleman
(1998b) has precluded that “truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high degree of
emotional intelligence” (p.93). Leaders with a heightened level of emotional intelligence are
considered more self-aware, can self-manage their own emotions and are equipped with the
necessary
social
awareness
attributed
to
their
diverse
array
of
social
skills.
Page 15
“People First, Task Second”
These combinations of competencies have been identified as contributing factors that have
made leaders more effective than managers in delivering the desired performance initiatives.
Theories of Effective Leadership
One of the core functions of a leader has been linked to driving the strategic process within the
organization, so it has become critical that these deliverables are measurable given that
leaders need to learn skills to influence others and the cost associated with success and failure
to meet high levels of expected performance outcomes. Goleman (1998b) has acknowledged
that cognitive abilities are required to better understand the “big picture” but it was emotional
intelligence that has created the “meaning and purpose” behind the vision of the organization
which provides the motivation and inspiration to drive results. Beatty and Hughes (2005) have
identified two principle skills associated with strategic influence as being relationship building
and understanding organizational politics (p.17). The reason there are multiple theories of
leadership is because there are multiple variables that influence how people are managed
based upon desired performance targets and the available resources to achieve these
business results. In other words, effective leadership is thinking strategically not just making
strategic plans (Pferrer and Veiga (1999).
The concept of a servant, transactional, authoritative and transformational leaders exemplify
specific leadership styles that are more effective based upon individual and situation (Lam
2004, Grant 2010, and Blanchard & Miller 2012). The challenge to grow as a leader has been
identified as an important component for effective leadership. Fred Fielder (1967), Jim Collins
(2001), Vince Lombardi and Warren Bennis (Walter 2013) infer that “leaders are made (bred)
not born”. This premise has raised the debate about nature versus nurture in terms of learning
effective leadership styles. Ahn et al., (2004) have agreed with the point that leadership styles
Page 16
“People First, Task Second”
are not a fixed state but rather are constantly changing to meet the dynamic needs of the
individual, the team and the organization. To these varying points of view of leadership style,
Lam (2004) and Kotter (2001) both agreed that there is not any one leadership approach that
fits all circumstances but rather depends on the persons involved and the situation.
Transformational leadership has been flagged as a good example of a leadership style that
relies more on the psychological contract than the explicit contract for motivation and as such;
the leader appeals to the follower’s moral values and commitment by inspiring them think with
the leader and achieve what the leader envisions. The end result is that the leader and
follower relationship has been elevated intrinsically to a higher level of values and motivation
(Lam 2004). Kotter (2008, p.38) has inferred the common mistakes of an “over-managed and
under-led organizations (was) their lack of direction and inability to adapt to an increasingly
competitive and dynamic business environment”.
This rationale has fully supported the
necessity for top management to develop transformational leadership skills through succession
planning at the lower levels of the organization.
Despite the lack of quantitative results to validate the efficacy of the personal and social
competencies of emotional intelligence, Goleman (1998b) has conducted research that
confirmed that the components of emotional intelligence have become “must have” qualities of
a strong leader. To emphasize this point further, Goleman (2000) has conducted research in
collaboration with Hays/ McBer research, to identify the direct impact that the Competency
Model of emotional intelligence had on leadership.
The outcome from this study as
summarized in Appendix 2 – Six Leadership Styles at a Glance identified six (6) distinct
leadership styles that have linked emotional intelligence competencies to qualities of a strong
leader. The major finding from these multiple studies on different leadership styles was that
Page 17
“People First, Task Second”
emotional intelligence enabled leaders to be more flexible and adaptive by having the ability to
tailor leadership style specific to the situation give the multiple factors influencing the desired
high level of expected performance outcome.
The four (4) leadership types that are
associated with positive emotional intelligence include visionary (authoritative) leaders that
mobilize people towards a common vision, affiliative leaders that create emotional bonds and
harmony, democratic leaders that build consensus through active participation and coaching
leaders that develop people for the future. The other two (2) types of leadership styles are
associated with lower levels of emotional intelligence based upon the negative “tone” set within
the work environment, are generally associated with coercive (commanding) leaders that
demand compliance and pace-setting leaders that expect excellence and self-direction
(Goleman, 2000, p.78):
The term primal leadership was introduced based upon the research findings from Goleman,
Boyatzis and McKee (2002) that proclaimed leaders played “a primordial emotional role” within
the organization. Great leaders are determined not only by achieving tangible business results
but rather the intangible personality traits of “high morale, motivation and commitment” serve to
qualify the attributes of an effective leader. The ability of leaders to “drive the collective
emotions” of the team positively has been called resonance while creating negative or toxic
emotions has been termed dissonance. The significance that these two (2) classifications
were used to describe the emotional readiness of a leader to perform their core duties and
responsibilities because “a leader’s emotional level is highly contagious” (Goleman et al.,
2006, p.77).
Bennis (1989, p.8) hypothesized that leaders have become a vanishing breed amidst these
fast and mean times because the basic ingredients (virtues) of leadership are used less than
Page 18
“People First, Task Second”
fifty percent (50%) of the time. The virtues of a leader, according to Bennis, are; integrity,
dedication, openness and creativity. Therefore, within “the best-led organizations people are
not dutiful (but) inspired” through the “passion, energy and focus” of leaders which becomes
contagious. Bennis (1989, p.8) has described the characteristics of a genuine leader as the
ability to integrate both personal and professional roles harmoniously. Overall, an effective
leader has been expected to have acquired a balanced repertoire of professional knowledge
and interpersonal skills. The performance of an outstanding leader has been described as
being capable of leveraging these unique skills set to motivate, inspire and help others achieve
a higher level of personal greatness while being driven by their own ambitions and intrinsic
values. A leader that has been fueled with determination to succeed was better equipped to
deliver the visionary goals and targets within the organization.
Collectively, all of these various theories of leadership are only deemed effective if the leader
has a high level of emotional maturity in terms of being able to switch between different
leadership styles to meet the needs of the follower and the purpose of the organization
simultaneously.
Theory of Emotional Intelligence
The fundamental concept behind emotional intelligence was that it involves making a decision
based upon innate feeling or “gut reaction” to a person or situation. There are varying points of
view about the characteristics, traits and competencies that influence emotional intelligence
because of the many different “qualifying” studies. Although, there are multiple opinions of the
perceived value and the critical importance that emotional intelligence; it is only Goleman and
colleagues that have directly linked these results to business results within the organization.
Page 19
“People First, Task Second”
Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2008, p.51) metaphorically described “emotional leadership as
the spark that ignites a company’s performance” whereby moods are the catalyst that either
create “a bonfire of success or a landscape of ash”.
Another definition of emotional
intelligence was from the perspective that was the inherent ability to understand how emotions
and feelings can be used to regulate, control and discern important information to influence
thoughts, actions and behavioural responses (Savory & Mayer, 1990 and Guillen & FlorentTreacy, 2011). Emotional intelligence was a psychological concept initially coined by Edward
Thorndike in the 1930’s as the “ability to get along with others” (Cherry, n.d.). Daniel Goleman
(1995) research findings concluded that there is a cost benefit to companies that focus on the
way to improve how people work together harmoniously using concepts of “head and heart”
(p.28).
Harms and Crede (2010, p.6) research paper has provided three fundamental theories of
emotional intelligence as it positively relates to leadership which are aligned with Goleman’s
proposition that emotional intelligence is the link between people and organizational success.
Firstly, emotional intelligence has been positively related to transformational leadership.
Secondly, emotional intelligence has been proven to be used as a contingent to reward
behaviour positively.
Thirdly, emotional intelligence has been negatively related to
management-by-exception (passive) and laissez-faire leadership tactics.
Howard Gardner (1975) introduced the concept of multiple intelligences which is
representative of “talents, personality traits and abilities” (Cherry, 2014). This concept has
been consistent with Goleman (1995) and Salovey & Mayer (1990) theories of emotional
intelligence being a psychological measure of the capacity to learn and function effectively
within the workforce and work environment. Gardner theorized that emotional intelligence was
Page 20
“People First, Task Second”
“the level of one’s ability to understand other people, what motivates them and how to work
cooperatively with them”. Another perspective of emotional intelligence is the point of view that
there are five categories which define qualities, such as: self-awareness, self-management,
motivation, empathy and social awareness (Akers & Porter, 2007).
As Goleman and
colleagues research has evolved so have the conversion of these disciplines into four
quadrants and eighteen dimensions of the Competency Model (Appendix 1). Goleman (2000,
2006, and 2008) has qualified the relationship between leadership, workforce performance and
work environment (climate) by concluding that a leader’s mood and behaviour has a significant
influence on tangible and intangible outcomes. Emotional intelligence has been identified as
an important influence on leadership behaviour because it has enabled individuals “to regulate
their own emotions … for the people who work for them and with them, creating a culture
where people feel at ease” (Guillen & Florent-Treacy, 2011). Although, there have been no
published “results linking emotional intelligence and job performance have been inconclusive”,
authors Guillen and Florent-Treacy (2011) have concluded that the following are the three
emotional responses that may serve to infer the impact that emotional intelligence has on job
performance: awareness of emotions, management of emotions and psychological well-being
(motivation). These conclusions provided theoretical evidence to support the hypothesis that
“emotional intelligence has a direct, positive effect on getting along (with others) behaviours at
work” and the potential for being promoted into a leadership role based upon soft skills such as
attitude and not solely on cognitive nor technical abilities.
Bradberry and Greaves (2012, p. 131) have deduced that there is no known connection
between cognitive or emotional intelligence. The rationale behind the importance of emotional
intelligence in leadership was because the human brain is hard wired to react first with emotion
Page 21
“People First, Task Second”
to any event. The ability to understand our emotions was described as the capacity to learn
“triggers” and “practice productive ways of responding that will become habitual”.
These
concepts have provided support to the theory that emotional intelligence is perceived as “a
fundamental element of human behaviour that is distinct” from human intellect.
Emotional intelligence has been identified as a unique characteristic that is defined as the
internal ability of a leader to transform an intrinsic (emotional) ability into an effective use of
emotions to interact with others (Savory & Mayer 1990, Guillen & Florent-Treacy 2011).
Goleman (2006, p.76) has made the connection from recent findings in the area of social
neuroscience which has stated that “neural mechanisms called mirror neurons have shown the
ability to create an internal simulation” within the minds of people. This premise has created a
physical connection between the emotional centers in the brain to influence the behavioural
actions and responses based upon subconscious feelings.
The theory supported the
supposition that effective leadership is perceived when a positive work climate has been
created as a result of “person-to-person” interactions.
The study revealed that “the best
climate for learning comes when students, teachers and school leaders each take steps to
become more emotionally self-aware and socially intelligent” (p.76).
Goleman et al., (1998b, 2002, p.39) identified four (4) dimensions of emotional intelligence with
eighteen (18) personal and social competencies that focused on the link between neurological
and psychological functions as it related to tangible operational leadership capabilities. These
included sub-categories of personal and social competencies. The former was pertaining to
capabilities that determined “how we manage ourselves” in terms of self- awareness and selfmanagement while the latter referred to social skills and relationship management capabilities
Page 22
“People First, Task Second”
that reflected on “how we manage relationships”. (Refer to Appendix 1 for the full list of
emotional intelligence domains and associated competencies).
Emotional intelligence was not commonly identified as a leading factor contributing to
exceptional leadership because it was perceived as an intangible “soft skill”.
Research
findings, as documented by Goleman and colleagues (1998b and 2001); have explained how
the Competency Model of emotional intelligence has focused on the cause and effect
relationship of a leader’s mood (attitude) on the work climate and the underlying performance
outcomes from the organization as a result. The benefits of these research findings have
encouraged more focus to be on the competencies and traits to prove that a leader with a high
level of emotional intelligence has “the ability to recognise and regulate emotions in one-self
and others”.
However, academic scholars Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2002, 2004)
developed a four (4) branch ability model based upon their academic review of existing
literature whereby the abilities and skills associated with emotional intelligence are divided into
the following major areas; the ability to perceive emotions, the ability to use emotions to
facilitate thought, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotion.
Although, Salovey and Mayer (1990) academic work has been credited for introducing the
concept of emotional intelligence, it was Goleman who popularized “emotional literacy” through
his published articles and books. Goleman and his colleagues were first to provide literature to
support the concept that a leader’s emotional state has an impact on their leadership skills and
performance (Goleman, 1995). The Ability model of emotional intelligence was initially
proposed based upon the functional perspective that emotions were “organized responses,
crossing the boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including the physiological,
cognitive, motivational, and experimental systems” (Savory & Mayer, 1990, p.186).
The
Page 23
“People First, Task Second”
validity of the various emotional intelligence models are based upon the understanding of the
implications that emotions and feelings have on making rational and deductive reasoning. It
was widely accepted that emotional intelligence enables leaders to achieve a higher level of
performance because they are able to motivate and inspire followers to work towards
achieving a desired goal by focusing on people skills. The complexity of the brain functions
makes it challenging to quantify exact levels of critical importance that each component of
emotional intelligence has in making an effective leaders especially the respective impact on
business results within the organization.
Physiology of Emotional Intelligence
Several sources have validated that prediction that approximately ninety percent (90%) of top
leadership performers have a high amount of emotional intelligence in comparison to
managers at the lower levels (Deutshendorf 2014 and Goleman 1998b). While emotional
intelligence followers mirror their leaders’ actions and behaviours (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008);
an ethical leader mirrors their values and beliefs through their actions (Yukl, 2006). “Ethics is
the choice to influence oneself and others in doing the right thing” (Monahan, 2012, p.59).
Personal values and principles may have an indirect effect on emotions and feelings because
they are part of the rational ability to make decisions but these inherent qualities of judgement
are not considered a component of emotional intelligence (Monahan, 2012).
The human emotional center in the brain’s interpersonal limbic system has been described as
an “open-loop” system. This means that, unlike a “closed-loop” system that is self-regulated,
an open-loop system is managed by external stimuli that will trigger physiological (hormonal)
or emotional (behavioural) reactions.
Research has proven there is a strong biological
Page 24
“People First, Task Second”
connection between people to the point where mirror neurons in the brain receive and transmit
signals that intermingle with the physiological state of others e.g. “altering hormone levels,
cardiovascular functions, sleep rhythms and immune functions” (Goleman et al., 2008, p.46).
The neuroanatomical composition of the brain predisposes the emotional state of people to be
heavily influenced by others.
Goleman (2006, p.77) has invented the terms “automatic
attunement” to describe the neurological phenomenon whereby mirror neurons in the brain
“create a replica of the brain state of whomever that person is with”. This concept has been
used to explain interpersonal understanding i.e. feelings of empathy and recognition of another
person’s intended response, whereby individuals moods and behavioural patterns are adjusted
to reflect similar or like expressions of joy, anger etc.
Psychologists have proven that “people” perform at their optimum level when motivation is high
and stress is manageable (Goleman, 2006). Research findings have linked the capacity to
think and learn with emotions based upon the neurological release of hormones in response to
varying levels of stress and anxiety. Akers and Porter (2007) linked research findings from
psychologists that deduced cognitive intelligence (IQ) accounts for between ten to twenty five
percent (10% - 25%).
Cognitive intelligence was a good indicator of academic potential
whereas emotional intelligence was more aligned with predicting success in life and work.
Winkleman and Harmon-Jones (2006) presented the neurological theory of a “social brain” by
stating that emotions are continually being transmitted as a result of mirror neurons. Mirror
neurons act as receptors between “brain-to-brain” interactions reflecting, copying and
replicating emotional responses given in response to another person state of mind (Goleman,
2006, p.77).
Page 25
“People First, Task Second”
Leadership, like emotional learning, has been described as requiring a lifetime of learning.
This level of commitment and time is not always best suited for the dynamic nature of the
global economy but the reason emotional intelligence is successful in leading change is
because it focuses on the “people” aspect of leadership. Emotional intelligence has been
determined to be the critical factor, more so than cognitive and technical skills, to be most
effective in developing leadership using intrinsic motivating factors that meet the growing
needs of the individual (employee) and personal achievements. This concept of motivating the
individual performance based upon achieving their intrinsic needs of the individual opposed to
being motivated by hygiene or maintenance factors results in long term success opposed to
short term wins from monetary rewards. Ultimately, emotional intelligence has an impact on
the level of job satisfaction from a given role according to Herzberg two-factor theory (Lam,
2004). For this reason, pre-determining the level of emotional intelligence has become crucial
to recruit people at lower levels whom have leadership potential and to give them opportunities
early in their careers to lead risky ventures and later on broaden their scope by offering more
challenging assignments opposed to “formal compensation or bonus structure” (Kotter, 2001).
Kouzes and Posner (2005, p.362) declared that “credible leaders are great learners”;
therefore, “character development is an essential component of any leadership development.
Anatomically speaking, the limbic portion of the brain, where “feelings, impulses and (inherent)
drives” originate from, is slower to learn compared to the neocortex portion of the brain where
analytical and technical abilities are governed. The limbic areas in the brain are described as
“the emotional brain” while the neocortex is described as “the thinking brain”.
Typically,
training and development programs are geared towards the neocortex whereas to “re-educate
the emotional brain for leadership learning” requires more practise and repetition of new
Page 26
“People First, Task Second”
desired habits (McCurty & Shaffer, 2013). Goleman (2000, p.89) further explained that the
frequency for which new behavioural patterns are practised will cause “brain circuits that carry
leadership habits to unlearn the old ones and replace them with new … neural pathways
(ultimately) becoming the brain’s default option”.
When this happens, leaders will be able to
react effortlessly and consistently each time because “emotional lessons – even the most
deeply implanted habits … can be reshaped” (Goleman, 1995, p. 214).
Research has provided supporting evidence that “emotional skills are partly inborn (innate)”
and “deep-seated” behavioural habits are “learnt” by mid-twenties (20’s) based upon the range
of inherent emotional skills acquired for that period. These proven facts contribute to the
importance of emotional intelligence in a leader because of the personal and social
competencies collectively strengthened the ability of leaders to react in moments of chaos and
crisis with “shared emotionally reality”. Actions of leaders must resonant at “gut-level” with
employees to engage their full commitment and active participation. Goleman et al., (2008)
summarized that these competencies and skills used to define an emotionally intelligent leader
are invaluable attributes that compliment intangible assets.
For example, self-awareness
enables leaders to monitor their mood and those around them; self-management enhances the
flexibility of a leader to alter and customize a behavioural reaction appropriate for the situation
and audience; empathy fosters better understanding between relationships that are dependent
on social awareness of the climate and finally, relationship management engages in the
leader’s ability to acknowledge the contributions of their followers.
Page 27
“People First, Task Second”
Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Leadership
Kotter (2001) concluded that “in the increasingly complex and volatile business environment”
that organizations need to actively seek out people with leadership potential and expose them
to career experiences designed to develop that potential. It has been speculated that not
everyone is in a management role of power and authority; the focus should be to balance
strong leadership with strong management and valuing the unique skill set that both types of
people bring to the team dynamic. Grant (2010) has shown support to the theory that there is
no single dominant leadership style (model) that defines an effective leader but rather there
are multiple leadership styles that offer a strategic fit to each unique situation.
Psychologist, Daniel McClelland, presented the concept that the six (6) key factors that
influence an organization’s working environment are; flexibility, responsibility, standards,
rewards, clarity and commitment. These factors have provided a “measurable effect on each
aspect of climate” surmising that “leaders with strengths in a critical mass of six or more
emotional intelligence competencies were far more effective” (Goleman, 2000, p.80).
Goleman (2002) has advocated that for effective communication of visionary messages,
leaders must have strong competency traits of self-confidence, self-awareness, transparency
and empathy (Harms & Crede, 2010). Research study findings by Goleman, Boyatzis and
McKee (2008) have statistically concluded that emotional intelligence was the differentiating
factor between outstanding and average leaders whereby eighty-five to ninety percent (85 –
90%) respondents have identified the missing link is emotional intelligence.
Secondly,
leadership matters because organizations with superior leadership capabilities outperform
(target) annual earning goals by twenty percent (20%) while inability to lead and ineffective
Page 28
“People First, Task Second”
team leadership have be attributed to seventy percent (70%) of unsuccessful (failed)
implementation of change management initiatives (protocols) and thirty percent (30%) of the
time, poor leadership has been cited as the primary reason for leaving a company. Finally,
leadership (skills) and work environment (climate) have accounted for twenty to thirty percent
(20 – 30%) of variability in organizational performance outcome.
The changing dynamics of the global economy and business partnerships make it critical that
leaders are able to control their (primal) emotional reactions. Countless academic papers
have documented the importance of leaders to be perceived as having the following
personality traits; “credibility, integrity and honesty” (Bennis, 1989, Kotter, 2001) but these
studies focus on leadership in general and not specific to emotional intelligent leaders. As a
result, people or soft skills have become viewed as a potent driver of business success in
terms of determining a competitive differentiation strategy.
This research paper has a
conceptual design to discuss how emotional intelligence has evolved to become recognized in
many professional career roles as a critical and necessary job-related skill.
Research Design
The premise of this research paper was based upon the concept that emotional intelligence
has been identified as the link between effective leaders and strong performance results within
the organization. Daniel Goleman and colleagues have popularized this theory by presenting
numerous published studies to justify and validate this concept through research data obtained
from evaluating key strategic leadership attributes from approximately two hundred (200)
global companies. These traits, competencies and abilities were attributes that the companies
participating in the studies used to identify, train and promote people into positions of
Page 29
“People First, Task Second”
leadership within the organization. Goleman and associates consolidated these attributes into
a Competency Model to summarize the critical components of emotional intelligence based
upon personal and social competencies (Goleman 1998b).
The critical importance of proving that emotional leadership has a positive effect on the
workforce and work environment can be measured by the change in performance output the
fostered better working relationship, increase levels in productivity and higher expected returns
on investments.
The knowledge obtained from this research paper would to validate the
necessity for organizations to use emotional intelligence as a metric for evaluating leadership
potential in new recruits as well as candidates for promotions to higher levels of leadership
responsibilities within the organization. Goleman (1988b) argued that as leaders climbed the
proverbial “corporate ladder”, the level of emotional intelligence became increasing more
crucial because technical skills became less important.
The data for this conceptual research paper was obtained from secondary sources that were
used to determine whether the key leadership traits and abilities, as presented in Goleman’s
Competency Model, directly influenced the effectiveness of leadership performance.
The principal resources were the published articles by Goleman (1995, 1998, 2000 and 2006)
and collaborative books with colleagues – Boyatzis and McKee (2001, 2001 and 2008).
The supporting resources used to corroborate Goleman and colleagues were identified using
Google search engine for keywords emotional intelligence. This identified the most popular
resource as being Cherry (n.d) which provided the starting point for research on the
psychological perspective of emotional intelligence from the point of view of Edward Thorndike
(1930), Howard Gardner (1975), Savory, Mayers et al., (1990) and supported the link between
leadership and emotional intelligence as presented by academic sources; Ahn et al., (2004),
Page 30
“People First, Task Second”
Akers and Porter (2007), Firmalino (2011), Galt (2012), Guillen and Florent-Treacy (2011),
Harm and Crede (2010) and Kruse (2013). Academic articles were identified from strategic
leadership course (ESLS 669) to discuss the high level overview of effective leadership; Beatty
and Hughes (2005), Kouzes and Posner (2008), Pierce and Newstrom (2008) and Shen et al.,
(2009). Secondary data resources for discussion points on leadership and management were
based upon principles presented by Bennis (1989), Blanchard and Miller (2012), Blanchard
and Stoner (2004), Bradberry and Greaves (2012), Collins (2005), Geisler (2011),
Grant (2010), Kotter (1996, 2001 and 2008), Kumar and Kaptan (2007), Lunenburg (2008) and
Walter (2013).
These points of reference were identified as subject matter experts based
upon their views about the differences between manages and leaders. Similarly, to support
the concepts of the neuroscience of emotional intelligence as presented by Goleman (2006)
the following academic papers were identified using the Google search filter on keywords
mirror neurons; Lehrer (2008), Mastin (2010), McCurty and Shaffer (2013) and Roberts (2003).
The contrasting perspectives that conflicted with the Competency Model of emotional
intelligence were identified by academic and subject matter experts that documented their
opposing views against Goleman’s views on emotional intelligence.
These sources were
identified as: Elder (1996), Emmerling and Goleman (2003), Menkes (2005), Monahan (2012)
and Zenger et al., (2009).
Finally, there was one documented case study that identified
comparable results with theory of emotional intelligence and that was identified by Google
search for emotional intelligence case study and Freedman and Daniel (2014) was the most
popular and pertinent data to this research paper.
These sources were selected based upon the supporting evidence to prove that leaders with a
mature level of emotional intelligence were able to develop and enhance “people skills” critical
Page 31
“People First, Task Second”
for delivering high levels of performance results within the organization and aligned with the
overlapping academic concepts presented in previous business academic courses.
Statement of Results
The focus of this research paper has been on Daniel Goleman`s (1995) Competency Model of
emotional intelligence and how developing and enhancing these personal and social
competencies improve the leadership style and positively influences the overall organizational
culture (climate). While the functional role of a leader can be summed up as being many
things to many people it has been identified that the primary role is to lead others within the
organization towards delivering the agreed upon results. Historically, cognitive intelligence
(IQ) was the predominant factor used to predict future success based upon academic
achievement. These studies findings have implicated that IQ scores are directly proportionate
to performance in school, money earning potential and general level of healthy living.
However, due to emerging trends in business, psychologists have speculated that cognitive
intelligence only accounted for ten to twenty five percent (10 – 25%) of success rate and this
value has supported the concept that emotional intelligence has become an important trait to
identify strong leadership character.
Given the present global marketplace, a leader with a strong ethical character more than
technical skills are required. It has been confirmed that followers need a leader to provide
meaning and purpose and during times of crisis or instability because effective leadership is
measured by business results, leaders need to convince employees to follow them in order to
achieve these tangible targets. Conversely, followers need leaders to “walk the talk”, Kouzes
and Posner (2005, p.363) have concluded that choosing to follow a leader has been based the
Page 32
“People First, Task Second”
concept of “actions speak louder than words” or rather leadership is in the eyes of the beholder
(follower). Goleman (1998b) has summarized these findings by stating that followers need to
be moved i.e. motivated and inspired in the direction of accomplishing the desired goals.
Leaders with a higher level of emotional intelligence were twice as likely to achieve these
targets in comparison to leaders within only cognitive and technical skills set. These
differences in leadership effectiveness were attributed to emotional intelligence in ninety
percent (90%) of the cases studied (Goleman 1998b). As a result, organizations are no longer
selecting leaders’ exclusively on cognitive and technical aptitude but rather hiring and training
protocols are focused on developing and enhancing human abilities and knowledge towards
emotional intelligent leaders.
The Competency Model of emotional intelligence was pioneered by Goleman (1995) theory of
personal and social competencies divided into four major components - self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness and relationship management whereas Savory and Mayer
(1997) Ability model defined emotional intelligence in terms of four abilities perception,
facilitating, understanding and managing emotions. The significance of the difference between
these two models is that Goleman has linked the concepts to the business results with the
competencies to deduce that great leaders are only determined by their ability to control
emotions and work well with others but rather being a leader that shows flexibility and
adaptability in leadership styles. In times of crisis leaders need to be both forceful as well as
sensitive (Goleman, 1998b).
Although, empirically based knowledge about emotional intelligence and its effect on
leadership is limited; Daniel Goleman and his colleagues have conducted numerous studies
and interviews with leading executives to assess the current knowledge about the
Page 33
“People First, Task Second”
effectiveness of emotional intelligent leaders.
This research paper has focused on the
supporting evidence that Goleman and his colleagues have documented to prove that the mix
of competencies and traits of emotional intelligence based leadership is more effective than
any other models of leadership that do not have a strong emotional intelligence component.
These studies have identified six (6) predominant leadership styles (Appendix 2) whereby
visionary, affiliative, democratic and coaching have been linked to positive influence on the
work climate. The other two (2) leadership styles, pacesetting and commanding are commonly
not associated with building effective team dynamics but creates a negative work environment
by using demanding and control fear tactics to elicit short term gains.
The research paper has proved that there was a strong link between a high level of emotional
intelligence and effective leadership performance because of two principles about highly
operational and functional companies focus on recognizing and rewarding results and great
leaders empower others (Goleman 1998b, Kotter 2001 and Walter 2012).
The FedEx Express case study (Freedman & Daniel, 2014) provided both quantitative and
qualitative results that indicated that major improvements were noted in key areas of decision
making, quality of life and power of influence. The outcome from this case study suggested
that emotional intelligence is an important characteristic of an effective leader but there needs
to be long-term studies to support the premise that emotions drive people, people drive
performance. Recommendations are focused on building a cooperative highly functional team
unit by leveraging the emotional competencies associated with the respective leadership style
(refer to Appendix 1), implementing a similar action-based emotional intelligence FedEx
Express model and leadership training incorporating principles from Blanchard servant
leadership model.
Page 34
“People First, Task Second”
Future research studies should be focused on evaluating the limitations of using the
Competency model as the only metric when evaluating work performance in non-leadership
roles and functions.
Goleman and colleagues focused on documenting the relationship
between outstanding leadership and strong performance but did not evaluate whether the
expected outcomes in performance could be expected from non-specific leadership roles.
Secondly, there are presently no quantitative studies that provide a solid cost-benefit analysis
to prove the financial gains of focusing resources to train and develop leadership higher in
emotional intelligence components in opposition to cognitive and technical capabilities.
In times of dynamic and constant change, it has been determined that “people skills” have
become the critical factor linking effective leadership and outstanding business results.
Therefore, the significance of this research paper findings support the conclusion made by
Goleman and colleagues that emotional intelligence should be used as a strong indicator of
leadership potential. Leaders with the combination of skill, aptitude and empathy are more
likely to achieve a higher level of productivity and profitability within the organization than
leaders that have only cognitive and technical abilities. It can be extrapolated that for these
reasons that organizations should be encouraged to incorporate a robust selection process for
choosing leaders that exhibit a higher than normal emotional intelligence level given that
correlation between great leaders and high performing organizations.
Page 35
“People First, Task Second”
Analysis
The analysis was comprised of three (3) sections to evaluate the effectiveness of emotional
intelligence as an indicator for success at an organizational, leader and team level. Secondly,
to discuss whether emotional intelligence can be learned and finally, to describe the models
used to define and how emotional intelligence in leaders is valuable at an organizational level.
Effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence
The discussion about the effectiveness of emotional intelligence as an indicator of success will
compare the key theories as presented by leading subject matter experts (SMEs). Business
leadership gurus, Kotter (2001) and Bennis (1989) have highlighted the importance of creating
meaning and purpose through leadership by recognizing and satisfying the basic human need
for achievement (meaning) and a sense of belonging (purpose). Both presented inter-related
theories to differentiate between leaders and managers (bosses) by describing leaders as
genuinely more focused on “intrinsically motivating” whereas managers were more geared
towards using extrinsic motivators such as; “rewards and punishment”. The foundation of this
distinction was based upon the premise that motivation and inspiration energizes people
(Kotter 1996, Bennis 1989, Goleman 1995).
These conditions are in alignment with the
emerging trend of “path-goal theory of leadership” which “suggests that a leader’s behaviour is
motivating or satisfying to the degree that the behaviour increases subordinate goal attainment
and clarifies the path to these goals” (Pierce & Newstrom, 2012, p.201). Emotional strength
has been linked to emotional intelligence based upon the lower needs of an individual being
met and satisfied in ascending sequential order towards achieving the pinnacle of selfactualization. Psychologist, Abraham Maslow’s conceptualized the hierarchy of needs theory
Page 36
“People First, Task Second”
(1943) to explain how individuals could realize their full potential as human beings if their
emotional needs were met (Lam 2004).
Lam (2004) and Kruse (2013) have surmised that the key elements of leadership were unique
skills set that were influenced by socio-cultural norms, establishing relationships built on trust
and maximizing the efforts of others to work collectively towards achieving a specific goal.
Goleman (2000, p.84) has described the link between emotional intelligence and leadership by
defining the affiliative style of leadership with leaders as “trying to build team harmony,
increase morale, improve communication and repair broken trust” and the democratic style of
leadership as being focused on “getting people’s ideas and buy-in” (p.85). Both Goleman
(2000) and Myers (2011) have independently reported that building effective team dynamics
starts with first establishing a high level of trust and respect for the leader as a person not just
the role. Secondly, Myers (2011) has stated that the third most important characteristic of
building an effective team is to gain commitment “buy-in” from the group consensus on a
specific and shared purpose (The Chronicle of High Education, 2011). Goleman (2000, p.85)
and Zenger et al., (2009, p.4) both have published findings that a positive work environment
(climate) caused by fostering relationships built upon trust and equality are examples of a
leader with a high degree of emotional intelligence.
Furthermore, leaders that have
exemplified flexibility and accountability to their followers are actually inspiring and motivating
team members to achieve a higher than expected performance level because all parties have
become emotionally invested in the organizations targets. The “silver bullet” point of emotional
intelligence was from the research findings conducted by House and Mitchell (1974) and
Smircich and Morgan (1982) that emphasize the perspective that leaders need to understand
the intrinsic motivators of their “followers” given the external macro-economic factors that
Page 37
“People First, Task Second”
influence the business climate. This has been identified as a critical factor of importance for
leaders to understand the relationship between the individual, the team and the situation
(Pierce & Newstrom, 2012, p.194).
It has been stated that there is no formal tangible performance metric that can clearly evaluate
the true impact emotional intelligence has on the business results but research findings from
Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2008, p.44) have indicated that “high levels of emotional
intelligence create a work environment (climate) in which information sharing, trust, healthy
risk-taking and learning flourish” under inspirational and inclusive (supportive) leaders while
leaders with low levels of emotional intelligence are commonly described as “cranky and
ruthless bosses”.
In the short term, these “bosses” may be able to deliver results but
employees are generally described as being “tense and terrified” and the work climate is
described as being negative “rife with fear and anxiety”. The implications that the emotional
style of a leader have a direct impact on the organizational culture, otherwise known as the
work environment Goleman (2000, p.81) has been quantified in the following research findings
that projected leaders with low scores in social intelligence were three times (3X) as likely to
not met the needs of their patients and four times (4X) as likely to suffer from emotional
exhaustion than that of their counterparts that had “supportive leaders”.
Goleman and his colleagues (2008, p.44) have used these research findings to validate theory
that a leader’s premier or primal task is emotional leadership whereby a leader’s mood and
behaviour can have either a positive or negative effect on the work (climate) environment.
This means that a leader should be cognisant of the fact that given their position within the
organization, that their moods and actions heavily influence the bottom-line in terms of
productivity and profitability.
Goleman and other social scientist research findings have
Page 38
“People First, Task Second”
inferred that when a “leader is in a happy mood” people perceive everything in a more “positive
light” and in turn, become more “optimistic about achieving their goals, enhances their
creativity, efficiency in their decision making”. Specific reference to studies conducted by Alice
Isen (1999) concluded that “upbeat (work) environment fosters mental efficiency” while Martin
Seligman and Peter Schulman (1986) have used the philosophical concept of “glass half-full”
to defend the hypothesis that optimistic insurance agents “closed more sales” when compared
to pessimistic agents (Goleman et al., 2008, p.46).
Leadership consultants, Joshua Freedman and Jimmy Daniel (2014) have worked exclusively
with FedEx Express to develop a people-first leadership vision called “people-service-profit”
(PSP). The objective of this six (6) month process improvement project was to prove that
emotional intelligence as a learnable skill set to show how leaders first have to “take charge of
their own emotions and behaviours” in order to become “effective role models and influencers”.
Senior level management believed that “people were the key to business and that leadership is
about continuous growth” and they were committed to developing a corporate culture that has
a “solid people-first foundation … to build their careers”.
The Six Seconds model of action-based emotional intelligence framework was designed to
support the concept that “emotions drive people, people drive performance” on a daily basis.
Both, quantitative and qualitative results were consistent in showing an improvement in
productivity and profitability by the following variables reportedly increasing between ten to fifty
percent (10 – 50 %); decision making, quality of life and power to influence others.
These results validated the strategic theory that core competencies and skills associated with
emotional intelligence, such as; empathy, emotional literacy, consequential thinking and
Page 39
“People First, Task Second”
exercise optimism provided leaders with the insight needed to motivate people to work by
connecting with people at the emotional level (Freedman & Daniel, 2014).
Blanchard and Stoner (2004) highlighted the importance of the (organizational) vision as being
“critical for leadership because leadership is about going somewhere” and vision, long term,
proactively creates the “what we want” opposed to short term, reactive response to “getting rid
of what” was not working. The author has speculated that without a clearly defined vision,
organizations become “self-serving bureaucracies” whereby “leaders serve to leaders” and
“the money, recognition, power and status move up the hierarchy away from the people
closest to the customers”.
It has been determined that is impossible to measure the
effectiveness of a leader’s skills without first understanding specifically what the desired goal
or target is for that leader. Employees look to their formal leaders (superiors) for vision and
direction, therefore, since the principle function of a leader is to “mobilize by coalescing
people” by focusing on “serving and being responsive to the needs of the people” (Blanchard &
Stoner, 2004).
The domino effect has been best used to describe the impact that a leader’s emotional
intelligence and mood have on the organization. It has been justified that being in control of
both verbal and non verbal forms of emotional expressions can have a positive as well as
negative effect on people in close contact. A leader’s mood has the tendency to influence a
wider audience faster as a result of the ripple or cascading effect whereby “moods that start at
the top tend to move the fastest” because followers (employees) take their emotional cues
from those in positions superior to their own. Regardless of whether a leader has been visible
or not, their attitudes have been influential in affecting the moods of other throughout the
organization caused by the ripple effect. It has been proven that a leader’s mood has the
Page 40
“People First, Task Second”
greatest impact on performance when it is upbeat and resonant faster than irritability and
depression.
Studies have proved that not only does upbeat “emotions spread irresistibly
whenever people are near to each other” but because of the neurological phenomenon called
mood contagion, “laughter is the most contagious emotion” when it is genuine (Goleman et al.,
2008, p.46) and has been proven to fortify the human social bond (Firmalino, 2011).
Goleman (1995) theory of emotion intelligence has been described in terms for four (4) core
personal and social competencies focus on traits whereas Savory and Mayer (1990) have
primarily focused on the abilities associated with emotional intelligence. The major difference
between the Ability model (Salovey & Mayer 1990) and the Competencies model (Goleman
1995) are the four (4) branches: the ability to perceive emotion, the ability to reason using
emotion, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotions focused more
on that the expression of emotions as a “functional perspective” to process emotional
information and use it to navigate the social environment (Salovey et al., 2004).
The Competency model has focused more on personality traits (self-awareness and selfmanagement) as well as social awareness (social awareness and relationship management)
abilities
where
in
combination
drives
leadership
performance
(Goleman,
1998a).
Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2002) have established a link between social and personal
competencies of emotional intelligence, such as; empathy, self-confidence and selfawareness, “core underpinnings of visionary and transformational leadership” (Harms & Crede,
2010, p.5).
Goleman (2000) has surmised that effective leadership was the ability of a leader to “switch
flexibly among leadership style (by) using the right one at just the right time and in the right
measure”. Bradberry and Greaves (2012, p.1) have stated that a great leader will be set apart
Page 41
“People First, Task Second”
from others by their “adaptive leadership skills” while Kiyani et al., (2013, p. 396) surmised that
“great leaders appear to grasp which temperament traits they ought to disclose to whom and
when”.
Collectively, these authors’ findings have supported the premise that emotional
intelligence
competencies;
self-awareness,
self-management,
social
awareness
and
relationship management were a critical set of skills for an adept leader to take a high level of
risk. Bradberry and Greaves (2012) have concluded that the intangible qualities that were
used to define emotional intelligence, ultimately “create dynamic, agile leaders who are
incredibly effective in any environment” (p.4). Akers and Porter (2007) have perceived that
both personal and professional levels of success to be based upon the “the (inherent) ability to
read other people’s signals and react appropriately”.
This perception has reinforced the
importance of leaders to “develop mature emotional intelligence skills required to better
understand, emphasize and negotiate with other people” given the global economy (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990).
After two (2) years of working with business leaders, observing colleagues and collaboration
with Hays Group, Goleman et al., (2001) research study findings have supported the basic
premise that the “emotional style” of a leader i.e. their mood and behaviours, “drive the moods
and behaviours of everyone else”. This in turn has provided an “incontrovertible link between
an executive’s emotional maturity …and financial performance” for which it was concluded that
“emotional intelligence drives (bottom-line) performance” as well as “creates a certain culture
or work environment (climate)”. Goleman et al., (2006) have agreed with the research findings
that a leader’s mood and actions were contagious throughout the organization which is similar
to Winkleman and Harmon-Jones (2006) theory that supported the premise that emotional
states were contagious (Goleman, 2006).
Therefore, in terms of “managing for financial
Page 42
“People First, Task Second”
results”, leaders must first manage their emotional reaction(s) before executing “the panoply of
other critical responsibilities”.
Those leaders whose style creates dysfunctional within the
organization, usual result in being terminated due to poor results. Rarely has it been stated
that the reason for failure has been conclusively attributed to being an “emotionally inept
leader” (Goleman et al., 2001, p.44) but it has been stated that lack of motivation and
engagement were the reasons teams worked ineffectively together resulting in poor
performance.
Harms and Crede (2010, p.7) have distinguished the difference between emotional intelligence
traits as “innate characteristics that enables and promotes well-being” whereas as an ability,
emotional intelligence, was “important for not only comprehending and regulating” but being
able to interpret emotions into cognitions. The authors research findings were conclusive in
stating that “emotional intelligence may contribute to successful leadership at some level”
based upon trait-based emotional intelligence proved to have higher levels of validity than
ability-based measures.
Secondly, emotional intelligence does “contribute to successful
leadership (skills) at some level”; it is just overstated in terms of importance in transformational
leadership style (p.13).
Although, emotional intelligence does provide a framework for which to define a “healthy and
self-actualized individual” in terms of an individual’s ability to “accurately perceive their
emotions and use integrated, sophisticated approaches to regulate them as they proceed
toward an importance goal” as theorized by Maslow (Salovey & Mayer 1990, Cherry n.d).
Peter Salovey and David Pizarro (2003) have cautioned that due to the “lack of empirical
evidence
to
show
that
emotional
intelligence
cannot
predict
work
performance”.
Further studies by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000), have advocated that cognitive ability
Page 43
“People First, Task Second”
tests to be used as the predominant assessment tool for measure leadership performance.
Their rationale has been to prove that emotional intelligence characteristics are commonly
recognised as personality traits that influence behavioural reactions opposed to being
identified as leader specific aptitude markers (Menke, 2005, p.159).
The capability of leaders to be effective in their role has been based upon their incumbent
ability to learn new skills and modify existing behavioural traits. From this perspective it has
been documented that the personal and social competencies of emotional intelligence can be
trained and developed. The next major discussion point will be about the nature of learning
about emotional intelligence.
Learning Emotional Intelligence
Kotter (1996, p.30) has speculated that due to the increase “rate of environmental movement
… the pressures on organizations to transform … the only rationale solution is to learn more
about what creates change and to pass that knowledge on to increasingly larger groups of
people” (p.31). Learning has been defined as the “process by which we acquire knowledge of
the world and modify our subsequent behaviour”. Although the process of learning and the
ability to remember are distinct physiological and psychological process, the act of learning
relies heavily on the billions of neurons in the brain that enable knowledge from past
experiences to be stored and the act of using memory to retrieve these pieces of information to
react and respond to various situations (Mastin, 2010). Neuroscientist, Joseph LeDoux was
credited for discovering the pathway in the brain between which controls emotional outbursts.
He stated that “once the emotional system learns something, it seems to never let it go”. In
order to control learnt and habitual emotional reactions (responses), the neocortex needs to
Page 44
“People First, Task Second”
inhibit the amygdala to suppress or subdue the emotion.
A sign of an emotional mature
intellect was the recovery time between emotional outbursts. The pre-frontal cortex acts as the
brakes to the amygdala’s impulsive rapid reaction (Goleman, 1995, p.213).
Multiple sources have presented the perspective that “feelings touch us deeply and elicit a
powerful response”. Emotional intelligent leaders are able to make the connection between
these “feelings” and differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators based upon their
ability “to support employee efforts to realize the vision by providing coaching, feedback and
role modeling, thereby helping people grow professionally and enhancing their self-esteem”
(Kotter 2001). Elliott (n.d) has described the concept of emotions as being “intense feelings
that are triggered by either internal or external stimuli, demand attention and interrupt cognitive
processes and behaviours” (Roberts, 2003, p.150)
Marco Iacoboni, a pioneer in neuroscience research, has acclaimed that the brain controls
emotions, feelings, moods and the behavioural responses that result. Iacoboni has reported
made the connection that mirror neurons in the brain map imitation, empathy and language in
the human brain linking social interactions with thoughts, expressions and gestures (Lehrer,
2008). The significance of this research was used by Goleman (2000, 2008) to describe the
ability of human beings to replicate an internal simulation of various moods and behavioural
traits from other people.
Psychologist Timothy Salthouse conducted research on chief
executive officers (CEOs) for the top Fortune 500 companies and discovered an “anomaly”
whereby the average person mental capacity peaks in the late twenties, the peak for CEOs
that were studied was just before reaching the age of sixty (60) (Cooke, n.d.). These findings
are aligned with Bradberry and Greaves (2012, p. 133) estimation that emotional intelligence
accounts for ninety percent (90%) of top performers success. According to Bradberry and
Page 45
“People First, Task Second”
Greaves (2012) there has been identified a direct link between level of emotional intelligence
and salary. It was estimated “that for every point increase in emotional intelligence added
$1300 on average to an annual salary” which worked out to be valued at approximately
“$29,000 more per year” compared to those with lower scores (p.133). Both of these studies
have validated the cost associated with investing in further development of emotional
intelligence especially in leaders.
Goleman et al., (2002) has used this information to predict that the optimum timeframe for
learning effective leadership abilities extends through adolescence into the early twenties.
As a result, the effort of learning new concepts and lessons later in life require twice the
amount of energy because ineffective habits have to be identified and “unlearnt” by replacing
them with new habits.
Goleman and Boyatzis (2008) have hypothesized that the mirror neurons theory has provided
a valid explanation for why there is an unconscious “gut” instinct to trust in others to the point
of “blindly” following their lead. Myers (2011) has stressed the importance of communication
(language) “for buy-in to be clear and understanding the purpose is agreed”. Emotionally
intelligent leaders, have a higher than average IQ which enables them to learn new concepts
faster and to better utilize inherent skills to manage conflict and address the proverbial
“elephants in the room” (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2011).
Fred Fielder (1967) has presented the Contingency Model that qualifies effectiveness of a
leader’s abilities as based upon one of two factors: a) the leader’s motivational pattern
(leadership style) and / or b) the situation that impacts the leader’s legitimate power and
influence (Pierce & Newstrom, 2008, p.209).
While the premise was based upon “task-
motivated” or relationship-motivated” leadership, the findings do give rise to the debate as to
Page 46
“People First, Task Second”
whether leaders can be taught to be effective given that “leadership behaviour is deeply
ingrained personality factors and habits of interacting with others”. So the challenge becomes
to determine whether it is easier to “change various aspects of the job (role) than to change the
leader”. Fiedler has determined that the success of training new skills was dependent on the
leader’s motivation (leadership style) and the situation (p.212). The context was that a leader
that has a positive deposition is more likely to get favourable results from the team and vice
versa if the situation does poise any real test of a leader’s technical, cognitive or emotional
abilities than the leader will be perceived as being “successful” despite their lack of direct
influence. Fiedler has used results from a military study to conclude that training, regardless of
length of the program and the experience of the leader does not yield result in a more effective
leader but rather an effective leader is based upon two criteria focused on matching the
personality of leader with the situation and providing the essential training specific to the
situation.
Elder (1996) has presented opposing views to premise that emotional intelligence is more
important than cognitive and technical abilities. The contrasting view point is that decision
making or problem solving required by leaders to make rational and objective choices requires
a deductive reasoning (cognitive ability) to be paramount. The point that emotional reactions
are based upon subconscious reactions derived from sensory memory does not ensure that
decisions are made without prejudice or bias. Therefore, decisions made using emotional
intelligence would be based upon an innate feeling towards one rational desire or rational
behaviour.
Zenger et al., (2009) have summed up the potential (tangible) outcomes from an effectively
training a leader within the organization as having lower turnover, higher customer satisfaction,
Page 47
“People First, Task Second”
higher profitability and high commitment and (employee) engagement.
Goleman (1995)
suggested using these performance metrics to both qualify and quantify the cost-effectiveness
of emotional intelligent leader. These factors will be further discussed in terms of measuring
leadership effectiveness.
Measuring Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership has been concluded by many academic scholars as being difficult to measure
because it involves “influencing the thinking, beliefs or development of another person” as
validated by Blanchard & Miller (2012). Grant (2010), Kotter (1996) and Lam (2004) have all
agreed that leading change policies or people have proven to require the power to influence,
emotional intelligence and a learning organizational culture. Jim Collins (2005) five year study
observed that “good-to-great transformation occurred when a level 5 leader was at the helm”.
While the “paradoxical combination of humility (modest) and willful, shy and fearless” proved
“to elevate companies from mediocrity to sustained excellence” – the following were other
concepts implicated in the companies achieving greatness:
1. People first, strategy second - “getting the right people on the bus and the wrong people off
the bus”
2. Stockdale paradox - having faith that “life could not get any worse” and knowing for a fact
that “someday will be better than ever”
3. Hedgehog concept – implementing a simple, systematic and consistent focus on what
makes a company great, economic impact and engaging employees
4. Creating a discipline culture – great performance is achieved when there are disciplined
people, thought and action combined with an ethic of entrepreneurship
Page 48
“People First, Task Second”
5. Technology accelerators – balancing the competitive advantage obtained from first-mover
advantage and the cost of implementation (Grant 2010)
Blanchard & Miller (2012) have proposed a qualitative metric to measure a “great” leader in
terms of the acronym S.E.R.V.E, whereby intangible characteristics are given tangible traits in
order to formally measure effectiveness of a leader in terms of altruistic values. The acronym
was used to highlight strategic behavioural traits based upon a servant or transformational
leadership characteristics:
See the future – set a vision and communicate to team
Engage and develop others – get the right people in the right roles
Reinvent continuously – a learning organizational culture fosters process improvement
Value results and relationship – build trusting relationships with all level of the hierarchy
Embody the values – leaders “walks the talk” (Lam 2004)
The concept of S.E.R.V.E from Blanchard & Miller (2012) has been used to validate the
intangible value that a transformational leader (Bass 1990) contributes to an organization
based upon increasing profitability by reducing costs of non-value added tasks and increasing
productivity by leveraging Goleman’s concept of emotional intelligence to champion change
(Grant 2010, Bradberry & Greaves 2012, Lam 2004, Daft & Armstrong 2009). Jim Collins
(2005) level 5 leadership can be used as a metric to evaluate and develop a plan for potential
leaders to grow. Collectively, these concepts debunk the myth that “leaders are made; not
born” (Fiedler 1967, Collins 2005, Walter 2013)
There have been varying leadership philosophies based upon two principle relationships that
between the leader and the follower and between motivation and morality (Geisler, 2011).
Page 49
“People First, Task Second”
Walter (2013) has summarized the differences in leadership styles and approach to leading
teams as based solely upon “personality”. Strong personality qualities of an effective leader
were narrowed down to leading by example and clear understanding of their own limitations,
Research led by Mary Fontaine and Ruth Jacobs concluded that leaders that have “mastered
authoritative, democratic, affiliative and / or coaching leadership styles had a very high climate
and business performance” results compared to those leaders that have mastered less than
four (4) of the aforementioned leadership styles. While leadership not an exact science, study
findings have supported the connection between “genetic, psychological and behavioural
components” in which “growing emotional intelligence” is possible at any age (Goleman, 2000,
p.90).
Goleman and Boyatzis (2008) have speculated that employees that had a less than supportive
leader were four times (4X) as likely to suffer from “emotional exhaustion” leading to job
dissatisfaction, under-utilized talent and missed earning potential. This theory is supported by
Evans (1970) research findings that concluded leaders whom are perceived by their
employees (subordinates) as being supportive i.e., considerate of their needs, proved to have
a positive relationship between results and performance outcomes (Pierce & Newstrom, 2012,
p.201).
Being attuned to the feelings of others, especially in stressful situations, built a more effective
team because team members were more likely to trust, respect and express their concerns
openly and honestly without fear of consequence. George Myer (2011) has identified these
characteristics as fundamental for building effective teams. The other equally as important
characteristics included; focus on results, commitment to a clear and common purpose,
Page 50
“People First, Task Second”
willingness and ability to manage conflict and lastly, alignment of authority and accountability
(The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2011).
Through analyzing thousands of executives, Richard Boyatzis (2008) has identified a five (5)
step process that can be used to evaluate emotional intelligence in leaders and identify the
areas (competencies) that need further coaching and development.
1. Who do I want to be? Question forces leaders to internalize their ideal self and their impact
on others.
2. Who am I? Question further evaluates their leadership style as perceived by others in the
form of 360 degree feedback that specifically in terms of understanding and caring about
others. This identifies strengths and weakness in coaching effectiveness and bridges the gap
between the real self and the ideal self.
3. How do I get from here to there? Question serves to outline a plan of action to focus on
improving on emotional and social intelligence competencies (ESCI) that have been identified
as “weak” or “lacking”.
4. How do I make change stick? This step may involve trying to “un-learn” and “re-learn”
subconsciously “ingrained behaviours” that were unbeknownst to the leader but came to the
forefront through 360 degree feedback. “A leader must rehearse a new behaviour until it
becomes automatic” – hence this step may require a lifetime of constant practise to reinforce
5. Who can help me? This final step in “the self-discovery and reinvention process is creating
a community of supporters”.
The organization, team and leader will benefit from “group
therapy” as a safe environment in which to experiment is forged along with mutual bonds of
trust.
Page 51
“People First, Task Second”
Kotter (1996) has surmised that leadership was the most important characteristic of putting
together an effective guiding coalition (team) given the state of constant change that
organizations are experiencing in the global community.
Leadership expertise drives the
change (process) and therefore, precludes that “guiding coalition with good managers but poor
leaders will not succeed” (p.58). Team dynamics thrive when the vision for change has been
clearly communicated and the team members feel empowered to be the change within the
organization. The effects of missing this leadership expertise can be corrected either by hiring
external skilled talent or promoting from within the organization employees that have existing
leadership skills or have shown the potential to learn these leadership skills (Kotter, 1996,
p.59).
Given the dynamic nature of the business environment, the most common expectation of
leaders is to deliver results. McClelland, provided research evidence to support his original
premise that “leaders with strengths in a critical mass of six (6) or more emotional intelligence
competencies were far more effective than peers who lacked such strengths”. Data findings
linked level of emotional intelligence with pay for performance metrics. Results indicated that
“executives who lacked emotional intelligence were rarely rates as outstanding in their annual
performance reviews and their (respective) divisions underperformed by an average of almost
twenty percent (20%)”.
Similarly, executives who scored high performance scores, “on
average out-performed yearly revenue targets by fifteen to twenty percent (15 – 20%)” and
eighty-seven percent (87%) of these high performing executives were ranked within the top
third for annual salary bonuses” paid out per performance (Goleman, 2000).
The case of FedEx Express implementing an action-based emotional intelligence framework;
has to date, provided the most applicable findings to organizations. The use of an employee
Page 52
“People First, Task Second”
feedback survey on managers that focused on relationship and emotions, proved to be the
most effective tool in obtaining quantifiable and qualitative data to analyze the soft skills, such
as; respect trust, fairness and listening associated with leadership. The premise that coaching
and training of leaders was customized and specific to the strengths and weaknesses unique
to each leader personal and social emotional competencies as outlined in Table 3, enabled
goal setting to be case specific to the improvements required for effective people leadership.
Table 3: Six Seconds Model – Action Based Emotional Intelligence – 3-Step Process
Step – Purpose
Emotional Intelligence Competency
Know Yourself – increase self-awareness of Enhance Emotional Literacy
emotions and reactions
Recognize Patterns
Choose Yourself – shift from unconscious Apply Consequential Thinking
reaction to intentional response
Navigate Emotions
Engage Intrinsic Motivation
Exercise Optimism
Give Yourself – align the moment –to-moment Increase Empathy
decisions with a larger sense of purpose
Purse Noble Goals
Adapted from Freedman, J., & Daniel, J. (2010) Case Study: Emotional Intelligence for People-First Leadership at FedEx Express
Philosophically speaking, it is challenging to quantify emotions based upon being described as
“unpredictable, irrational” and controlled by personal “logic and reason”. Currently, there are
three (3) varying schools of thought on metrics to measure the efficacy of emotional
intelligence – Bar-On (2000), Goleman (1995, 1998a) and Mayer & Salovey (1997) which
causes there to be multiple definitions and metrics to measure the efficacy of emotional
intelligence (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). The focus of this paper was not to critique the
Page 53
“People First, Task Second”
effectiveness of the proposed emotional intelligence assessment tools but rather to prove that
emotional intelligence can be measured by the negative and positive effect on the organization
climate as a result of a leader’s mood and behavioural response in reaction to critical events.
These research findings have provided evidence to support and validate the cost associated
with recommendations to organization to invest in developing and training “people-first”
leadership.
Elder (1996) has expressed potential gaps in Goleman’s theory that emotional intelligence is
the link between leadership performance and business results by stating that the Competency
Model does not focus on value of critical thinking for making fair assessment and judgements
of situations. The contrasting view is opposing the perspective that emotional intelligence
enables leaders to be flexible and adaptable because in order to change an opinion, human
beings have to consciously “think” to alter the brain reaction. This premise was challenging the
point of the view that cognitive ability is less important than emotional intelligence. The ability
of the brain to “change gears” requires there to be a change made to the underlying thoughts
that are associated with that desire, feeling or emotion. There is a lot more “thought” required
to be a versatile leader than just a high level of understanding emotional connections.
To consolidate the research paper findings based upon the emerging trend amongst “a
growing number of Canadian employers (is to) look beyond the hard (technical) skills” and
place more of an emphasis on “candidates to be a people person” that means their ability to
inspire others and mitigate conflict. Human resources specialists refer to these “soft skills” as
emotional intelligence which describes the candidates “capacity to learn, problem-solving
ability, creativity and adaptability” (Galt, 2010).
Page 54
“People First, Task Second”
Recommendations
This research paper has presented numerous academic and case specific findings that have
verified the positive influence that that emotional intelligence has over the workforce and work
environment. The outstanding performance of a leader is defined by their ability to judge
which one of the using one of the following leadership styles; visionary, affiliative, democratic
and / or coaching is most effective given the follower, the situation and the emotional maturity
of the leader (Goleman 1995, 1998a, Goleman et al., 2008).
Furthermore, emotional
intelligence has been proven to contribute to effective leadership by simultaneously monitoring
and managing their own emotions and those of others in terms of inspirational motivation and
individualized consideration (Salovey & Mayer 1990, Goleman 1995, Guillen & Florent-Treacy,
2011 and Kiyani et al., 2013).
Emotional intelligence has emerged to be identified as a critical factor impacting leadership
performance. The focus of the organization should be to support leaders in optimizing the
skills and knowledge from their team (followers) and ensuring that overall, all employees’
intrinsic goals are aligned with the extrinsic motivating factors employed by the organization to
maximize
productivity
and
profitability.
The
following
are
practical
managerial
recommendations based upon incorporating personal and social competencies of emotional
intelligence:
1). Training programs should be geared towards identifying talent from the initial point of
contact i.e. the hiring process regardless of whether it is internal or external candidates. The
will enable the organization to be more strategic in developing career progression goals that
are aligned with both the individual motivational goals for high self actualization and those of
Page 55
“People First, Task Second”
the organization to meet desired targets and objectives.
To this point creating a robust
performance management tool would be essential to help identify high performing talent and
creating a screening tool e.g. personality assessment tool for reviewing objective criteria during
the interview process will help to make decisions based upon meeting the intangible qualities
as well as the tangible qualifiers.
2). By creating a formal tool for performance review and personal goal setting will encourage
employees to become more emotionally invested in their career progression.
It will also
identify where potential leadership candidates will be sourced from based upon what intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators are listed. Furthermore, it will help with the organization to determine
whether their incentive programs are targeting the “right” results. For example, if the shop floor
employees are interested in achieving the company targets consistently than it would be
critical to ensure that leadership style is supportive and encouraging while the research and
development analyst is striving to output three (3) new products per year than the leadership
style should be reflective of creating a work environment (climate) that is open and less
structured. These assessment tools help leaders to match their emotional competencies to
both the “follower” and the situation.
3). The focus should be on building partnerships and teams is critical as it enhances the range
of the leaders position of influence (power) and improves the potential of meeting the desired
targets more efficiently and more cost-effective. Leaders need to be aware not only about the
motivational and emotional factors influencing their followers but need to be attuned to the
external environmental factors e.g. social, political and economic which have an impact on the
rate of change and stability within the organization. Being in a constant state of change is not
necessarily damaging to the level of productivity nor profitability of an organization but it is
Page 56
“People First, Task Second”
critical that the right leadership style is matched to the right employee skill and motivational
level in order to effective manage the tasks associated with change.
The purpose of leadership is to see the future, engage and develop others, focus on (constant)
improvement, value relationship that achieve the results and lead by example. These are the
principles that Blanchard and Miller (2012) speak of in their servant leadership model and
while these are not linked to any of the six (6) leadership styles that Goleman (2006, p.78)
identified from his research studies, these attributes do align with creating a positive work
climate which is critical for meeting performance indicators. Goleman body of work has been
focused on the evolution of leadership to from being solely based upon decision making to
being more about providing meaning to people’s aspirations (Grant, 2010, p.463).
These top three (3) initiatives would incorporate Goleman (1995) Competency model of
emotional intelligence with the S.E.R.V.E model perspective of goal setting for the greater
good (Blanchard & Miller, 2012) ultimately elevating leaders to achieving Collins (2005)
concept of Level 5 leadership which focused on the individual personality qualities of leaders
by stating – “people first, task second” (Grant, 2010, p. 473).
Page 57
“People First, Task Second”
Conclusion
Future trends in leadership have changed the meaning and purpose of leadership and
business leadership gurus; Warren Bennis (1989) and John P Kotter (1996, 2001) have
offered varying points of view about the changing definition of leaders, the distinction of
managers and the overall impact that emerging trends in leadership have on the corporate
culture and performance management of others. Although, the area of impact is strategic
human resources (Lam, 2004) and organizational behaviour (Grant, 2010), it is important to
identify the operational (Daft & Armstrong, 2009) and ethical (Sexty, 2011) impact of
leadership on the employees within the organization in terms of developing leadership skills
training and succession planning for employees to become industry leaders. Organizational
structure is crucial for successful implementation of leadership through coordination,
collaboration and empowering employees opposed to controlling employees through top down
management approach and bureaucratic vertical hierarchies.
Jim Collins (2005) model
described five ascending levels of a successful leadership whereas Ken Blanchard, Mark Miller
and Jean Stoner (2004) developed a qualitative tool to highlight servant and transformational
leadership skills. These various theories of leadership all have the consistent thread that
effective leaders had strong personality traits and competencies that support core leadership
functions of motivating and inspiring to achieve higher levels of self-actualization based upon
their emotional needs.
The emotional intelligence paradigm “to harmonize head and heart” (Goleman, 1995, p.28) is
relatively new and its permutation into leadership training and development provides some
exciting areas for future study.
Implications from this research paper have shown that
Page 58
“People First, Task Second”
emotional intelligence is a critical component of developing and enhancing leadership style
because it can have a positive influence on the workforce and work climate.
The results from the academic papers presented provide supporting evidence that the ability of
a leader to leverage their own emotional understanding about the needs and motivations of
others enables leaders to empathize and negotiate performance outcomes towards reaching a
tangible level of profitability and an intangible value of self-actualization.
These findings
validated the explanation that emotional intelligence was more critical than cognitive and
technical skills because the higher the level of emotional intelligence the higher leadership
effectiveness. Therefore, an effective leader can be described as highly adaptable and flexible
to change and crisis situations.
There are two major limitations to this research paper:
1) The primary focus of the data was on the Competency Model as presented by Daniel
Goleman (1995, 1998b, 2000) and associated research study findings with colleagues (2002)
2)
Performance outcomes were broadly categorized as general qualitative metrics e.g.
productivity and profitability because there was no quantifiable data used for analysis
Future studies should focus on these gaps in empirical data validity by completing a thorough
review of the concept of emotional contagion and implications for leadership theory. This
review should include a more comprehensive literature survey examining the fit of emotional
based intelligence leadership abilities and competencies. A wider study is required before it
can be fully considered a dominant model of leadership.
Secondly, research study that
identifies specific performance metrics that are linked to directly to emotional intelligence will
Page 59
“People First, Task Second”
quantify the cost-effectiveness and tangible value for calculating return on investment (ROI)
associated with investing in attracting and retaining critical talent with high levels of emotional
intelligence.
Finally, future studies that focus on measuring the efficacy and efficiency of
emotional intelligence as an assessment tool or metric for evaluation, should limit the use of
self-reported scoring that is exposed to subjective biases which have skewed results.
This conceptual research paper has identified the link between leadership and emotional
intelligence in supporting the concept that “leaders are made not born” (Bennis, 1989, p.5) by
discussing the evolution of the psychological term into a present-day evaluative metric for
identifying strategic leaders and determining whether leadership skills can be effectively
learned. Based upon the dynamic nature of the global climate, emotional intelligence has
been proven to empower the leader and team-members with knowledge and skills to engage
in effective behavioural interactions and positive attitudes required for meeting profit based
performance outcomes.
Page 60
“People First, Task Second”
References
Ahn, M.J., Adamson, J., & Dornbusch, D. (2004). From Leaders to Leadership: Managing
Change. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 10 (4), 112- 123.
Akers, M & Porter, G. (2007). What is Emotional Intelligence (EQ)? Psych Central. Retrieved
from http://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-emotional-intelligence-eq/0001037
Beatty, K., & Hughes, R. (2005). Reformulating strategic leadership. European Business
Forum, 21, 14-17.
Bennis, W. (1989). Just Managing Isn’t Enough: Why Leaders Can’t Lead.
Executive Book Summaries, 11, 1-8.
Soundview
Blanchard, K. & Miller, M. (2012). Great Leaders Grow. San Francisco: CA: Berrett-Koehler
Publishers.
Blanchard, K., & Stoner, J. (2004). The Vision Thing: Without It You'll Never be a
World-Class Organization.
Leader to Leader, 31, 21-28.
Retrieved
http://leadertoleader.org/leaderbooks/L2L/winter2004/blanchardandstoner.html
from
Bradberry, T & Greaves, J. (2012). Leadership 2.0. San Diego, CA: Talent Smart.
Cherry,
K.
(n.d).
What
is
Emotional
Intelligence?
Retrieved
http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/a/emotionalintell.htm
from
Collins, J. (2005). Level 5 Leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Harvard
Business Review. 7:136 –146.
Cooke, T. (n.d.). Timothy Salthouse’s Study Cognitive Abilities and its Correlation with Age.
Examined Existence. Retrieved from http://examinedexistence.com/timothy-salthouses-studyon-cognitive-abilities-and-its-correlation-with-age/
Daft, R.L., & Armstrong, A. (2009). Organization Theory& Design, Second Canadian Edition.
Toronto: ON: Nelson Education Limited.
Deloitte. (2010). The New Business Imperative Seven Trends in Leadership Development.
Retrieved from
http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCgQFjAA&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.deloitte.com%2Fassets%2FDcomCanada%2FLocal%2520Content%2FArticles%2FServices%2FConsulting%2Fca_en_con_Lea
dershipDevelopment_010910.pdf&ei=MSSEU4GiI8mG8QHdyYDYAw&usg=AFQjCNElX3yj1r8
m74ghQyCRRWAdtHw5vA&bvm=bv.67720277,d.b2k
Page 61
“People First, Task Second”
Elder, L. (1996). Critical Thinking and Emotional Intelligence. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across
the Disciplines, Vol XVI (2). Retrieved from https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/cognitionand-affect-critical-thinking-and-emotional-intelligence/485
Emmerling, R.J., & Goleman, D. (2003). Emotional Intelligence: Issues and Common
Misunderstandings. Issues and Recent Developments in Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved
from http://www.eiconsortium.org
Firmalino, R.
(2011, April 12).
Why Laughter is Contagious.
http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_laughter_is_contagious
Retrieved from
Freedman, J., & Daniel, J. (2014). Case Study: Emotional Intelligence for People-First
Leadership at FedEx.
Retrieved from http://www.6seconds.org/2014/01/14/case-studyemotional-intelligence-people-first-leadership-fedex-express/
Galt, V. (2012, August 12). Emotional intelligence trumps technical know-how. The Globe
and Mail.
Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/smallbusiness/sb-managing/human-resources/emotional-intelligence-trumps-technical-knowhow/article1372070/
Geisler, J. (2011, March 2). Are You a Manager, a Leader or Both? Poynter.org. Retrieved
from
http://www.poynter.org/how-tos/leadership-management/what-great-bossesknow/21563/are-you-a-manager-a-leader-or-both/
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998a). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1998b). IQ and Technical Skills Are Important but Emotional Intelligence is the
Sine Qua Non of Leadership. Harvard Business Review. November – December, 93 -102.
Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that Gets Results. Harvard Business Review. March-April,
78-90.
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2001). Primal Leadership The Hidden Driver of Great
Performance. Harvard Business School Publishing, 43 – 51.
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the power of
emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Goleman, D. (2006). The Socially Intelligent. Educational Leadership, 76-81.
Goleman, D., & Boyatzis, R. (2008). Social intelligence and the biology of leadership. Harvard
Business Review, 86(9), 74-81.
Page 62
“People First, Task Second”
Grant, R M. (2010). Contemporary Strategy Analysis Seventh Edition. United Kingdom: John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Guillen, L., & Florent-Treacy, E. (2011). Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness:
The Mediating Influence of Collaborative Behaviours. Journal of Organizational Behaviour.
Retrieved from
http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCgQFjAA&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.insead.edu%2Ffacultyresearch%2Fresearch%2Fdoc.cfm%3Fdid%3D472
10&ei=4zqEU_ezFonI8gH1mIGQCA&usg=AFQjCNGQtnI8xeULM_ApEgGvKOhN6Nz9Dw&bv
m=bv.67720277,d.b2k
Harms, P. & Crede, M. (2010). Emotional Intelligence and Transformational and Transactional
Leadership: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(1), 5-17.
Kotter, J.P. (1996). Leading Change. USA: Harvard Business School Press.
Kotter, J.P. (2001). What Leaders Really Do. Harvard Business Review, 12: 1-12.
Kotter, J.P. (2008). Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management. USA:
Harvard Business School Press.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2005). Leading in cynical times. Journal of Management
Inquiry, 14(4), 357-364.
Kruse,
K.
(2013).
What
is
leadership?
Forbes.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/kevinkruse/2013/04/09/what-is-leadership/
Retrieved
from
Kumar, C.R., & Kaptan, S.S. (2007). The Leadership in Management: Understanding
Leadership Wisdom. New Delhi, India: APH Publishing Corporation. Retrieved from
http://books.google.ca/books?id=OBJXCEUGZpwC&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=management+i
s+doing+things+right+leadership+is+doing+the+right+things+(warren+bennis+and+peter+druc
ker)&source=bl&ots=OjlJjkNh1v&sig=vOdlHYoGkVJSsa1u0NgPyXHu3vA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3
wDkUvqvAqnY2AXnqYHgDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false
Lam, H. (2004). Essentials of Strategic Human Resources Management & Organizational
Behaviour. Toronto, ON: Nelson Educational Limited.
Lehrer, J. (2008). The Mirror Neuron Revolution: Explaining What Makes Humans Social.
Scientific American.
Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mirrorneuron-revolut/
Lunenburg, F.C. (2011). Leadership versus Management: A Key Distinction – At Least in
Theory. International Journal of Management, Business and Administration, 14(1), 1-4.
Mastin, L.
(2010). What
memory.net/intro_what.html
is
memory?
Retrieved
from
http://www.human-
Page 63
“People First, Task Second”
McCurty, M.G., & Shaffer, R. (2013). Emotional Intelligence: How the Brain Matters in
Leadership Development. EQ-HR Center for Emotional Intelligence and Human Relations
Skills. Retrieved from
http://www.eqhrcenter.org/2013/07/28/emotional-intelligence-how-the-brain-matters-inleadership-development/
Menkes, J. (2005). Executive Intelligence: What all great leaders have.
HarperCollins Publishers.
New York, NY:
Monahan, K. (2012). A review of the Literature Concerning Ethical Leadership in
Organizations. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 5(1), 55-66.
Pfeffer, J., & Veiga, J. F. (1999). Putting people first for organizational success. Academy of
Management Executive, 13(2), 37-48.
Pierce, J.L., & Newstrom, J.W. (2008). Leaders and the Leadership Process. 6th Edition.
USA: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Roberts, R.C. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge University
Press.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Baywood Publishing Co., Inc., 185211.
Shen, J., Chanda, A., D’Netto, B., & Monga, M. (2009). Managing diversity through human
resource management: An international perspective and conceptual framework. International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(2), 235-251.
The Chronicle of Higher Education (Producer). (2011, July 12). Building effective teams at
work—and
other
food
for
thought
[Audio
podcast].
Retrieved
from
http://chronicle.com/article/Podcast-Building-Effective/128196/
Walter, E.
(2013, October 8).
5 Myths of Leadership.
Forbes.
Retrieved from
http://www.forbes.com/sites/ekaterinawalter/2013/10/08/5-myths-of-leadership/
Zenger, J.H., Folkman, J.R. & Edinger, S.K. (2009). The Inspiring Leader. USA: McGrawHill
Companies.
Page 64
“People First, Task Second”
Appendix 1: Emotional Intelligence Domains and Associated Competencies

PERSONAL COMPETENCE: These capabilities determine how we manage ourselves

SELF-AWARENESS

Emotional self-awareness: Reading one’s own emotions and recognizing their impact;
using “gut sense” to guide decisions

Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits

Self-confidence: A sound sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities

SELF-MANAGEMENT

Emotional self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control

Transparency: Displaying honesty and integrity: trustworthiness

Adaptability: Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles

Achievement: The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of excellence

Initiative: Readiness to act and seize opportunities

Optimism: Seeing the upside in events

SOCIAL COMPETENCE: These capabilities determine how we manage relationships

SOCIAL AWARENESS

Empathy: Sensing others’ emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking active
interest in their concerns

Organizational awareness: Reading the currents, decision networks, and politics at the
organizational level

Service: Recognizing and meeting follower, client or customer needs

RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Inspirational leadership: Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision

Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion

Developing others: Bolstering others’ abilities through feedback and guidance

Change catalyst: Initiating, managing and leading in a new direction

Conflict management: Resolving disagreements

Building bonds: Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships

Teamwork and collaboration: Cooperation and team building
Source:
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A.
(2002)
Primal Leadership: Realizing the power of emotional
intelligence. p.39.
Page 65
“People First, Task Second”
Appendix 2: The Six Leadership Styles at a Glance
Commanding
Visionary
Affiliative
Democratic
Pacesetting
Coaching
The
Leader’s
Modus
Operandi
Demand
immediate
compliance
Mobilizes
people toward
a vision
Creates
harmony and
builds
emotional
bonds
Forges
consensus
through
participation
Sets
high
standards
for
performance
Develops
people for
the future
The Style in a
Phrase
“Do what I tell
you”
“Come
me”
“People come
first”
“What do you
think?”
“Do as I do now
“Try this”
Underlying
Emotional
intelligence
competencies
Drive
achieve
initiative,
control
Selfconfidence,
empathy,
change
catalyst
Empathy,
building
relationships,
communication
Collaboration,
team
leadership,
communication
Conscientiousness
drive to achieve
initiative
Developing
others,
empathy,
selfawareness
When the style
works best
In a crisis, to
kick start a
turnaround, or
with
problem
employees
When
changes
require a new
vision,
or
when a clear
direction
is
needed
To heal riffs in
a team or to
motivate
people during
stressful
circumstances
To build buy-in
or consensus or
to get input
from valuable
employees
To
get
quick
results from a
highly motivated
and
competent
team
To help an
employee
improve
performance
or develop
long-term
strengths
Overall Impact
on Climate
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Positive
to
self-
with
Adapted from Goleman, D. 2000. Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review, 82-83.
Page 66