CHAPTER
P
16
erfect Tense Verbs; Perfect Stem, Perfect Active Tense of All Conjugations;
Perfect Tense of Sum and Possum; Dative of Possession
Oil painting of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. By Jean Baptiste Genillon (1750–1829).
MEMORĀBILE DICTŪ
Quid sī nunc caelum ruat?
“What if the sky should fall now?” (Terence, The Self-Tormentor, 719)
A proverbial saying for anything regarded as improbable and beyond our power.
READING
Born into a wealthy northern Italian family in about 61 ce, Gāius Plīnius Caecilius Secundus
is known to us as Pliny, and specifically as Pliny the Younger, to distinguish him from his uncle
and adopted father Pliny the Elder (ca. 23/24–79 ce). His career in public administration culminated in his governorship of Bithynia, a province in what is today Turkey. He appears to have
died in around 112–113 ce.
An individual of immense learning and oratorical talent, Pliny has left us ten books of letters
that offer a vivid picture of upper-class life during the Roman Empire at the height of its prosperity and power.
The following passage is an adapted and abbreviated version of the sixteenth letter in his sixth
book of letters. Here he describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns
of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae on the Bay of Naples in 79 ce. In this letter he also relates
the death of his uncle, author of the Historia Natūrālis, “Natural History,” a multi-volume encyclopedia of lore about the human as well as natural world.
DĒ MONTIS VESUVIĪ INCENDIŌ
1
5
10
15
Avunculus meus Mīsēnī erat classis praefectus. Eō diē, quō tantae
clādis initium fuit, avunculus forīs iacēbat librīsque studēbat. Māter
mea eī nūbem subitō ostendit novam et inūsitātam, quae in caelō prope
montem Vesuvium vidēbātur esse. Nūbēs fōrmam habuit similem
fōrmae, quam in arboribus saepe vidēmus. Nam summa nūbēs in
multās partēs sīcut in rāmōs sēparābātur. Avunculus, homō rērum
nātūrae valdē studiōsus, causam nūbis intellegere cupīvit. Iussit igitur
nāvēs parārī: nam ad lītus nāvigāre cupīvit, quod est prope montem
Vesuvium. Deinde nauta epistulam avunculō dedit. “Fēmina,” inquit
nauta, “quae prope montem Vesuvium habitat, epistulam ad tē mīsit.”
Avunculus epistulam lēgit et statim intellēxit in monte Vesuviō esse
incendium māgnum: fēminam perīculum timēre nāvibusque fugere
cupere. Animus fortis avunculō erat. Cōnsilium igitur novum cēpit. Ad
hominēs nāvigāre dēcrēvit, quī prope montem Vesuvium habitābant, et
eōs perīculō māgnō līberāre. Nam saxa et cinerēs calidī ē caelō in eōs
cadēbant. Illūc igitur nāvigāvit, sed numquam revēnit. Ibi enim fūmus
fūnestus et cinerēs eum cum multīs aliīs oppressērunt.
274 • Latin for the New Millennium
READING VOCABULARY
*avunculus, avunculī, m. – uncle
*caelum, caelī, n. – sky, heaven, weather
calidus, calida, calidum – hot
*causa, causae, f. – cause, reason
cēpit cōnsilium– he made a plan
*cinis, cineris, m. – ash
*clādēs, clādis, f. – disaster
*classis, classis, f. – fleet
cupīvit – wanted, desired
dēcrēvit – he decided
dedit – gave
eō diē – on that day
*fēmina, fēminae, f. – woman
forīs (adv.) – outside
fuit – was
*fūmus, fūmī, m. – smoke
*fūnestus, fūnesta, fūnestum – deadly
habuit – had
*igitur (conj.) – therefore (usually the second word in
its clause)
illūc (adv.) – to that place, thither
*incendium, incendiī, n. – conflagration, eruption
initium, initiī, n. – beginning
intellēxit – understood
inūsitātus, inūsitāta, inūsitātum – strange, unusual
iussit – he ordered
*lēgit – read
*lītus, lītoris, n. – shore
*māter, mātris, f. – mother
Mīsēnī – at Misenum (Mīsēnum, ī, n. – a base for the
imperial Roman navy in the Bay of Naples)
mīsit – sent
*mōns, montis, m. – mountain
*nāvis, nāvis, f. – ship
nāvigāvit – he sailed
*nūbēs, nūbis, f. – cloud
*numquam (adv.) – never
*oppressērunt – overwhelmed, suppressed
ostendit – pointed out
*pars, partis, f. – part
praefectus, praefectī, m. – prefect, commander, chief
rāmus, rāmī, m. – branch
rērum nātūra, nātūrae, f. – nature
revēnit – he returned
*studeō, studēre, studuī, —— + dative – to study, to be
eager for, to be interested in
studiōsus, studiōsa, studiōsum + genitive – interested
in, a student of
summus, summa, summum – the top of
Vesuvius, Vesuviī, m. – (Mount) Vesuvius
*Words marked with an asterisk will need to be
memorized later in the chapter.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. What event interrupted the studies of Pliny’s uncle?
2. What did Pliny’s uncle decide to do?
3. What changed his mind?
4. What happened to Pliny’s uncle at the end of the story?
Chapter 16 • 275
LANGUAGE FACT I
PERFECT TENSE VERBS
In the Latin reading passage there are some new forms of verbs already treated in earlier chapters. These are forms of the perfect tense, a tense that refers primarily to past time:
cēpit “s/he/it took” (perfect tense of capiō)
dedit “s/he/it gave” (perfect tense of dō)
fuit “s/he/it was” (perfect tense of sum)
habuit “s/he/it had” (perfect tense of habeō)
In the same passage there are also perfect tense forms of verbs that have not appeared in
previous chapters.
lēgit “s/he read” (perfect tense of legō)
The meaning of the perfect differs in subtle ways from the imperfect—the past tense introduced in Chapter 11. While the imperfect tense refers to a continuing action or state in the past,
the perfect indicates either a single act in the past or a completed action.
For example, dīcēbat, means “s/he was saying” (i.e., a continuing action), but dīxit (the same
verb in the perfect tense) usually means “s/he said” or “s/he did say” (once and for all).
But the perfect has yet another distinctive meaning. It can refer to an action completed just
before the present time. In English the auxiliary verb “have” or “has” indicates this distinction.
In Latin this nuance is clear from the context (e.g., adverbs may indicate that an action has just
been completed). In the following sentences the verb legere (“to read”) is used in the imperfect
tense and in both meanings of the perfect tense.
Librum legēbat. “S/he was reading the book.”
Librum legēbat. Deinde dīxit: “Librum tandem lēgī.” “S/he was reading the book.
Then s/he said: “At last I have read the book.”
Librum lēgit. “S/he read the book.”
When the past action is negative, or is to be emphasized, “did” is used in the translation.
Librum nōn lēgī. “I did not read the book.”
Librum lēgī. “I did read the book.”
EXERCISE 1
Find and translate nine more perfect tense forms from the Latin reading passage.
276 • Latin for the New Millennium
VOCABULARY TO LEARN
NOUNS
ADJECTIVE
avunculus, avunculī, m. – uncle
caelum, caelī, n. – sky, heaven, weather
causa, causae, f. – cause, reason
cinis, cineris, m. – ash
clādēs, clādis, f. – disaster
classis, classis, f. – fleet, class (of people)
fēmina, fēminae, f. – woman
fūmus, fūmī, m. – smoke
incendium, incendiī, n. – conflagration, eruption
lītus, lītoris, n. – shore
māter, mātris, f. – mother
mōns, montis, m. – mountain
nāvis, nāvis, f. – ship
nūbēs, nūbis, f. – cloud
pars, partis, f. – part
fūnestus, fūnesta, fūnestum – deadly
VERBS
legō, legere, lēgī, lēctum – to read, to choose
opprimō, opprimere, oppressī, oppressum – to overwhelm, suppress
studeō, studēre, studuī, —— + dative – to study, to be
eager for, to be interested in
ADVERB
numquam – never
CONJUNCTION
igitur – therefore (usually the second word in its clause)
EXERCISE 2
Find the English derivatives based on the Vocabulary to Learn in the following sentences. Write
the corresponding Latin word.
1. Celestial phenomena greatly interest me.
2. Archaeologists found several cinerary urns at that site.
3. These people are introducing a totally subjective mode of thinking in which causality plays
no role.
4. Terrible destruction was caused in the city by incendiary bombs.
5. Naval architecture is a very exacting science.
6. Karl Marx advocated an entire philosophy of history based on class confl ict.
7. Your teacher has a very avuncular manner.
8. The littoral region here sustains a wide variety of plant and animal life.
9. Th is part of the hospital is the maternity ward.
10. Underprivileged people in the Roman world were cruelly oppressed.
11. The gender of this noun is feminine.
12. The carpet in the apartment was so dirty it had to be fumigated.
13. Why were you not present at the lecture?
14. I agree with you only partially.
15. I will be a lifelong student.
Chapter 16 • 277
EXERCISE 3
Translate each sentence with special attention to the previously discussed meanings of the perfect tense verb in parentheses.
Example: “Perīculum nōn intellēxī (fi rst person singular), sed nunc intellegō,” inquit avunculus.
“Iam igitur dēcrēvī (fi rst person singular) ad hominēs, quī prope montem habitant, nāvigāre.”
“I did not understand the danger, but now I understand <it>,” said uncle. “Therefore I have already decided to sail to the people who live near the mountain.”
1. Nautae prope lītus manēbant. Caelum semper cōnspiciēbant. Deinde cōnsilium cēpērunt
(third person plural). Nāvem parāre dēcrēvērunt (third person plural).
2. Epistulam ad hominēs, quī in viā exspectābant, statim mīsimus (fi rst person plural), et eōs
ad nōs venīre iussimus (fi rst person plural).
3. Nautās exspectābāmus. Nunc eōrum nāvēs vidēre possumus. “Nautae,” inquit amīcus meus,
“vēnērunt (third person plural)! ”
LANGUAGE FACT II
PERFECT STEM, PERFECT ACTIVE TENSE OF ALL
CONJUGATIONS
The perfect is not only distinctive in its meaning; it has a series of forms that are very distinctive too.
You have already learned that the principal parts of a verb are used to make different verb
forms. Most verbs have four principal parts. The fi rst and second principal parts are important
for the present, imperfect, and future tenses discussed in previous chapters. But the forms of the
perfect active tense are derived from the third principal part of any verb.
Below are the principal parts of a verb from each conjugation. Note carefully the third principal
part: this principal part is the form of the fi rst person singular of the perfect active indicative.
First conjugation:
Second conjugation:
Th ird conjugation:
Fourth conjugation:
Th ird conjugation (-iō):
parō, parāre, parāvī, parātum – I prepare
teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentum – I hold
dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum – I say
audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum – I hear
capiō, capere, cēpī, captum – I take
Learning the perfect forms is much easier than it might at fi rst appear, because the perfect active endings are the same for all four conjugations. These endings are added to the perfect stem,
which is found by dropping the -ī found in the third principal part.
278 • Latin for the New Millennium
Here are some general patterns for forming the perfect stem:
• Many fi rst conjugation verbs form their perfect stem by adding -v- after the -ā- in the present
stem (parāvī).
• Many fourth conjugation verbs form their perfect stem by adding -v- to the -ī- in the present
stem (audīvī).
• Many second conjugation verbs have a perfect stem that ends in -u- before the -ī of the perfect ending (as in tenuī above).
None of these patterns is absolutely consistent.
Remember: add the same endings to the perfect stem of any verb, regardless of conjugation.
Here is the perfect active of parō and capiō. Since the endings are the same, you do not need to
learn different paradigms for all conjugations.
Perfect Active: parō
Singular
First Person
parāv-ī
parāvī
I prepared, did prepare (or) I have prepared
Second Person
parāv-istī
parāvistī
you prepared, did prepare (or) you have prepared
Th ird Person
parāv-it
parāvit
s/he/it prepared, did prepare (or) s/he/it has prepared
Plural
First Person
parāv-imus
parāvimus
we prepared, did prepare (or) we have prepared
Second Person
parāv-istis
parāvistis
you prepared, did prepare (or) you have prepared
Th ird Person
parāv-ērunt parāvērunt
they prepared, did prepare (or) they have prepared
Perfect Active: capiō
Singular
First Person
cēp-ī
cēpī
I took, did take (or) I have taken
Second Person
cēp-istī
cēpistī
you took, did take (or) you have taken
Th ird Person
cēp-it
cēpit
s/he/it took, did take (or) s/he/it has taken
First Person
cēp-imus
cēpimus
we took, did take (or) we have taken
Second Person
cēp-istis
cēpistis
you took, did take (or) you have taken
Th ird Person
cēp-ērunt
cēpērunt
they took, did take (or) they have taken
Plural
STUDY TIP
When you learn a new verb, learn all four principal parts. The endings of the perfect
active are themselves very simple, and the same for all the conjugations.
Chapter 16 • 279
EXERCISE 4
Change each infi nitive into the perfect active form indicated in parentheses. Translate the
changed form.
Example: iubēre (perfect active second person singular)
iussisti you ordered/did order/have ordered
1. sēparāre (perfect active third person plural)
2. legere (perfect active fi rst person plural)
3. discēdere (perfect active third person singular)
4. tangere (perfect active second person singular)
5. ārdēre (perfect active third person plural)
6. respondēre (perfect active second person plural)
7. cadere (perfect active second person singular)
8. dēlēre (perfect active third person plural)
9. opprimere (perfect active third person singular)
10. neglegere (perfect active fi rst person plural)
11. stāre (perfect active third person plural)
Daylight view of the excavated ruins of Pompeii with Mt. Vesuvius in the background.
280 • Latin for the New Millennium
EXERCISE 5
Change the following present tense verbs into the perfect, keeping the same person and number.
Translate the changed sentence. The Reading Vocabulary may be consulted.
Example: Ad hominēs nāvigāre dēcernō.
Ad hominēs nāvigāre dēcrēvī. I decided to sail to the people.
1. Ego et avunculus librōs legimus.
2. Nūbem novam in caelō cōnspicimus.
3. Hominēs rērum nātūrae studiōsī causam nūbis novae intellegunt.
4. Dīcit nauta: “Mē iubēs nāvēs statim parāre.”
5. Perīculum valdē timētis. Novum igitur cōnsilium capere dēbētis.
6. Saxa et cinerēs calidī ē caelō subitō cadunt.
7. Eōrum epistulam iam legō.
LANGUAGE FACT III
PERFECT TENSE OF SUM AND POSSUM
You have already learned the principal parts of the irregular verbs sum and possum. You will remember that they lack a fourth principal part, but each has a third principal part, which is the
fi rst person singular of the perfect tense.
sum, esse, fuī, —— – to be
possum, posse, potuī, —— – to be able
BY THE WAY
Sum and possum have no passive forms.
Now it is easy to supply all the forms of the perfect active for each verb.
Chapter 16 • 281
Perfect Tense of sum
Singular
First Person
fu-ī
fuī
I was (or) I have been
Second Person
fu-istī
fuistī
you were (or) you have been
Th ird Person
fu-it
fuit
s/he/it was (or) s/he/it has been
First Person
fu-imus
fuimus
we were (or) we have been
Second Person
fu-istis
fuistis
you were (or) you have been
Th ird Person
fu-ērunt
fuērunt
they were (or) they have been
Plural
Perfect Tense of possum
Singular
First Person
potu-ī
potuī
I was able, could (or) I have been able
Second Person
potu-istī
potuistī
you were able, could (or) you have been able
Th ird Person
potu-it
potuit
s/he/it was able, could (or) s/he/it has been able
Plural
First Person
potu-imus
potuimus
we were able, could (or) we have been able
Second Person
potu-istis
potuistis
you were able, could (or) you have been able
Th ird Person
potu-ērunt
potuērunt
they were able, could (or) they have been able
Statue of a dancing faun in the impluvium
of the atrium in the House of the Faun in Pompeii.
282 • Latin for the New Millennium
EXERCISE 6
Translate into Latin. The Reading Vocabulary may be consulted.
1. Were you (plural) able to see the stones and hot ashes in the sky?
2. At that time you were able to send a man to the people who lived near Mount Vesuvius.
3. We were not able to read the woman’s words.
4. Then there was suddenly a conflagration in the mountain.
5. I have already been able to read the letter of the woman. Now I am preparing the ships.
6. You were able to free the people from great danger.
LANGUAGE FACT IV
DATIVE OF POSSESSION
In the passage at the beginning of this chapter you might have thought the following sentence
was distinctive. Here you see a usage of the dative case that has not been discussed so far.
Animus fortis avunculō erat.
My uncle had a brave spirit.
Th is sentence has been translated with the verb “have,” even though the Latin verb “to have”
is not present. The person who owns or has something may be expressed in the dative case with
some form of the verb esse (“to be”). Here the Latin literally says “For/to my uncle there was a
brave spirit.” The dative of possession emphasizes the fact of possession.
Another example:
Mihi sunt multī librī.
I have many books.
BY THE WAY
You can, of course, express possession using the verb habeō. In this case, the dative of
possession is not used:
Multōs librōs habeō.
Chapter 16 • 283
EXERCISE 7
Translate into Latin in two ways, using both the verb habeō and the dative of possession.
Example: I have many friends.
Multōs amīcōs habeō. Mihi sunt multī amīcī.
1. Do you have an uncle?
2. He has a small mouth.
3. We have cruel enemies.
4. What names do you (plural) have?
5. They have rustic villas.
A street in excavated Pompeii. Note the narrow road, the sidewalk, and
in the middle of the street are raised stones that allowed people to cross
the road, which might be fi lled with water or garbage.
284 • Latin for the New Millennium
EXERCISE 8
Translate the following passage into English. Refer both to the Reading Vocabulary and the
words explained below.
Plīnius: Nūbem māgnam, quae est in caelō prope montem Vesuvium, iam cōnspexit māter.
Nūbemne, avuncule, vidēre potes?
Avunculus: Nūbem vidēre possum. Sum senex, sed mihi sunt oculī bonī atque validī.
Plīnius: Quae est haec nūbēs? Ēius fōrma mihi vidētur esse nova. Tālis forma arboribus, nōn
nūbibus esse solet.
Avunculus: Ubi prīmum māter tua nūbem mihi ostendit, eam esse inūsitātam intellēxī. Ad
montem igitur nāvigāre causamque nūbis investīgāre cupīvī. Sed cōnsilium mūtāvī.
Plīnius: Cūr cōnsilium mūtāvistī?
Avunculus: Fēmina, cūius vīlla ā monte Vesuviō nōn longē est, epistulam ad mē mīsit, in quā
dīxit flammās ē monte venīre: saxa cinerēsque calidōs in hominēs cadere: ibi esse perīculum
māgnum.
Plīnius: Tūne igitur dē hominibus, quī ibi habitant, cōgitāvistī?
Avunculus: Ita vērō.
Plīnius: Quid faciēs?
Avunculus: Illūc nāvigābō hominēsque perīculō māgnō līberābō.
Plīnius: Animus tibi est fortis!
haec (feminine demonstrative) – this
investīgō, investīgāre, investīgāvī, investīgātum – to
trace out, investigate
ita vērō – yes indeed
mūtō, mūtāre, mūtāvī, mūtātum – to change
tālis, tāle – such a
ubi prīmum – as soon as
validus, valida, validum – healthy, strong
TALKING
fēriae, fēriārum, f. pl. – vacation
fēriās agere – have a holiday
acta, actae, f. – the (sandy) seashore
aprīcor, aprīcārī – to sunbathe
assāre in crāticulā (assō, assāre, assāvī) – to barbecue
folle volātilī lūdō (lūdere, lūsī, lūsum) – to play volleyball
harēna, harēnae, f. – sand
natō, natāre, natāvī, —— – to swim
Chapter 16 • 285
sōl, sōlis, m. – the sun
sōle adustus, adusta, adustum – suntanned
sub dīvō – in the open, under the sky
umbella, umbellae, f. – sunshade, umbrella
unguentum, unguentī, n. – sunscreen
natātōrium, natātōriī, n. – swimming pool
RELAXING AT THE BEACH
Helena: Quandō (when), Christīna, ē lītore in urbem revēnistī (returned)?
Christīna: Et ego et parentēs herī (yesterday) revēnimus. Fēriās (holidays) bonās ēgimus. Lītus
enim valdē amāmus.
Marīa: Adusta sōle mihi nōn vidēris. Nōnne (surely) tū et parentēs in actā aprīcārī solētis?
Christīna: Numquam forīs (outside) iacuimus, nisi (unless) unguentō oblitī (smeared). Medicī
dīcunt hominēs nōn dēbēre diū in sōle manēre nisi unguentīs oblitōs.
Helena: Quid aliud cum parentibus in lītore fēcistī?
Christīna: Parva castella (castles) ex harēnā aedificāvimus. Folle volātilī lūsimus. Vespere (in
the evening) cibum (food) in crāticulā assāre sub dīvō semper solēbāmus.
Mārcus: Ea omnia in terrā fēcistī. Aquamne timuistī? Nōnne natāre solēbātis?
Christīna: Māne (in the morning) in natātōriō natāre solēbam. Hōrīs postmerīdiānīs (in the
afternoon hours) autem saepe in actā sub (under) umbellā iacēbam prope mare librīsque
studēbam.
Mārcus: Etiam in lītore, etiam in fēriīs librōs cūrābās! Quī homō sīc (so) umquam fuit dīligēns
(diligent) ut (as) tū?!
Christīna: In scholā Latīnā (in the Latin class) ante fēriās dē montis Vesuviī incendiō lēgimus.
Eō tempore, quō incendium in monte fuit, Plīnius et ēius avunculus forīs iacēbant librīsque
studēbant!
286 • Latin for the New Millennium