THE CARIBBEAN TODAY: FACING CHALLENGES AND ASSESSING
OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH
Selected Proceedings from the 2nd Biennial Department of Behavioural
Sciences Postgraduate Research Conference, held at the University of the
West Indies, St Augustine Campus, April 9/10, 2015
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This conference proceeding is based on the 2nd Biennial Department of Behavioural Sciences
(DOBS) Postgraduate Research Conference held at the Learning Resource Centre (LRC), The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine on April 9th and 10th, 2015. Under the theme
“The Caribbean Today: Facing Challenges and Assessing Opportunities through Postgraduate
Research”, several topics were covered and the presenters did an outstanding job of sharing
their research and expertise with the audience. We believe that the diverse and dynamic group
of presenters provided in-depth insight, as well as, actionable and practical tools of engagement
models, methods and mechanisms across a broad spectrum of academic disciplines. Indeed, the
presenters were the fulcrum of this successful conference and they are deserving of plaudits.
Apart from the presenters, the success of the Conference was also due to a multiplicity of
individuals including student attendees, corporate sponsors, academic staff, student volunteers,
members of the public and a host of departments at The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine, who gave freely of their time. This conference is a product of the contributions of
many organisations, departments and individuals, too numerous to mention here and we would
like to express our appreciation for the help we received. Unfortunately, we cannot mention
everyone by name who assisted; however, the following deserve special commendations:
Our first appreciation goes to the Department of Behavioural Sciences, The University of the
West Indies, St. Augustine for providing the key funds for organizing the Conference in
addition to providing the organizing team, through the expertise of Ms. Rachael D’Arceuil in
assisting with the planning and coordinating of the event. Similarly, we wish to thank the
Faculty of Social Sciences for their generous contribution and support in making this
conference a success. We also extend our gratitude to the School for Graduate Studies and
Research who provided a substantial amount financial support and who is responsible for this
ii
this publication. We are most grateful to Nestle, Joe’s Pizza and Rituals Coffee House for
sponsorship.
Specifically, we also thank our Keynote Speaker, Professor Jason Young from City University
of New York for his attendance and delivery of an absorbing speech. We are grateful to
Professor Kit Fai Pun, Chair, Graduate Studies and Research at The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine for providing us with guidance, and for accepting the invitation to
welcome the many presenters to the Conference. A debt of gratitude is also owed to Professor
Derek Chadee, the Head of Department, Behavioural Sciences for his inputs and guidance, Mr.
Errol Simms, Dean (former) of the Faculty of Social Sciences for his overall support, Dr. Acolla
Lewis-Cameron, Head, Department of Management Studies, The UWI St. Augustine, for her
stellar efforts in managing and delivering of the Postgraduate Development Workshop and
Professor Emeritus Ramesh Deosaran for accepting our invitation to be honoured and for his
delivery of some insightful comments.
To the discussants who voluntarily chaired the panels and who ensured that the Conference
proceeded in a timely manner, thank you. The discussants were: Dr. Wendell C. Wallace, Dr.
Bennie Berkeley, Dr. Georgina Chami, Dr. Angelique Nixon, Mr. Harold Pulwarty, Ms.
Michelle Sogren, Dr. Dylan Kerrigan, Dr. Allan Patenaude, Dr. Randy Seepersad, Dr. Rosanna
Yearwood and Dr. Christine Descartes. We also owe a debt of gratitude to the coordinator of
the Poster Session, Dr. Jannel Philip. To the members of civil society groups such as Mr. David
West (Chairman of the Police Complaints Authority, Trinidad and Tobago), Brigadier General
Anthony Phillips-Spencer, Mr. Burton Hill (Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service
representative) and Mr. Anthony Rosales (University of Trinidad and Tobago) who accepted
our invitation to attend, participate and lend support to the presenters, we extend a heartfelt
thank you.
iii
Finally, the contributors and participants deserve our special commendation for their brilliant
presentations and robust, engaging debates which made the conference a success. To all other
persons and organizations, too numerous to mention, who assisted and who made this
conference a success, we say thank you. The names of the paper contributors and poster
presenters are listed against their papers reproduced in this publication.
DOBS Conference Organizing Committee 2015
Dr. Dylan Kerrigan
Dr. Christine Descartes
Dr. Wendell C. Wallace
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Papers Presented
1. Policing with pride: Community policing and the attitudes of frontline Police
officers in the Central Division of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service. Nigel
Toussaint, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
2. A culture of corruption: Understanding Police corruption in Trinidad and Tobago.
Nirmala Sookoo, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
3. Policing your brother as the other: Towards a victimology of paramilitary policing.
Keron M. K. King, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
4. A Phenomenological study of the respect given to private security officers by
private citizens and public Police officers in the Trinidad and Tobago Police
Service. John K. Sylvester, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies,
St. Augustine.
5. Development of an Index for accessing the quality of and level of access to Urban
Ecosystem Services - Environmental Studies, University of Trinidad and Tobago.
6. Confronting the contemporary local and regional challenges to sustainable
development in CARICOM. Kezra Lashley, International Relations, The University
of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
7. A neorealist examination of the capabilities of CARICOM member states to
implement the CSME’s free movement of labour regime: A case study of the role
of the CSME focal point. Kai-Ann D. Skeete, International Relations, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
v
8. The Caribbean Court of Justice as a Change Agent for the Commonwealth
Caribbean? Justice Anthony Gafoor, Mediation Unit, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine.
9. Effectiveness of inventory management in the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard.
Sheryl Leacock, Management Studies, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
10. Exploring a connection between domestic violence and multiple partner fertility
among women. Bernadette Neptune, Sociology Unit, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine.
11. A study of maternal experiences in caring for a child diagnosed with Sickle Cell
Disease between the ages of 6-14 years in Trinidad. Shermaine Belgrave-Ramdial
Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
12. The impact of maternal employment on the behaviour outcomes of adolescents: A
study of adolescents attending secondary schools in Trinidad. Jainap Seheult,
Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
13. Children of divorced and separated parents: A study of how they are affected and
how they cope. Genevieve Bernard Mediation Unit, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine.
14. Abortion in Trinidad and Tobago: Distinguishing between attitude and support.
Siobhonn Job, Psychology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
15. Leading like a Girl: An ethnographic approach to how female cadets lead within
the Trinidad and Tobago Cadet Force. Allyce Woodhouse, Sociology Unit, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
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16. Cash, complexion and carnival: A sociology of beauty in party promotions. Amilcar
Sanatan, Gender and Development Studies, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
17. Beyond control vs. beyond coping: A study of factors contributing to deviant
behaviour in girls brought to the Courts in Trinidad and Tobago. Jolene Romain,
Social Work Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
18. Male and female students’ perspectives and recommendations on the gender
disparity in academic performance at High School level. Dr. Marc Jackman,
University of Trinidad and Tobago.
19. A journey toward Masters’ degree completion: Stories of “Personal Empire
Building”. Alisha Ali, Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
20. Understanding motivation and stress of full time and evening university students –
methodological considerations. Karima Theresa Pragg, Sociology Unit, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
21. An evaluation of the perceived impact of out of school suspension on boys aged 1316 in a selected secondary school in Southern Trinidad. Leslie-Ann Simon,
Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
22. Assessing argument mapping: The development of critical thinking and utility for
pedagogy, Shenelle Boyce, Psychology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
23. Is there room for mediation? A study of elder mistreatment. Dianna Baptiste-Pantin,
Mediation Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
24. Implications of population ageing on the labour market in Trinidad and Tobago.
Katherine Inniss, Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
vii
25. The homebound elderly: An overlooked population. Lisa Finch, Social Work Unit,
The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
26. CPL: The new star of cricket? The commercialization of the Caribbean Premier
League and its influence on the local culture of cricket. Anngell Rampersad.
Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
27. A stakeholder perspective on the Day of the Dead as a dark tourism product within
the community of Orange Walk, Belize. Arturo Gonzalez, Management Studies,
The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
28. Recognition, redistribution and the politics of difference: Understanding the
Multiculturalism Policy of Trinidad and Tobago. Paul Ramlogan, Department of
Political Science, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
29. Eurocentric academia, Rastafari and the quest for re-development. Tyehimba
Salandy, Sociology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
30. Juvenile delinquency in Trinidad and Tobago: Examining the re-entry challenges
of young female offenders. Alaina Boochoon, Social Work Unit
31. An overview of the rehabilitative programs for male juvenile offenders in Trinidad
and Tobago. Arlene Hamblin, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies,
St. Augustine.
32. Social reintegration: A case study exploring the experiences of three males,
institutionalized between the ages of 10-18 years old. Samantha Mendoza, Social
Work Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
33. An investigation of the pre-release programs and post-release services to reduce
recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago: Female Inmates’ Perspectives. Sherry Ann
Ramdeo, Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
viii
34. Pleasure vs. pain: An application of Beccaria’s pleasure pain principle on the
convicted prison population of Trinidad and Tobago. Karen Lancaster-Ellis,
Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
35. The relationship between the introduction of the ferry service between Trinidad and
Tobago and the incidence of narcotic offences in Tobago. Michelle Nicholson,
Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
36. An analysis of the impact of moderator variables on the relationship between
relative deprivation and crime in Trinidad among males aged 16-30. Anna
Ragoonath. Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
37. A study to determine whether the structure of the family impacts on juvenile
delinquency in the county of St Patrick, Trinidad and Tobago. Videsh Rampersad,
Criminology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
38. The unreliability of crime statistics. Shaka Trim, The College of Science,
Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT).
39. The impact of family structure, absent fathers and family relations on criminogenic
behaviour among males age 14-18 years. Andrew Hicks, Criminology Unit, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
40. Technological advances and the Criminal Justice System: Towards a system of
virtual visitation in the Caribbean. Wendell C. Wallace, Criminology Unit, The
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
41. Law enforcement challenges with cyber-crime in Trinidad and Tobago. Candy
Saunders-Alfred, The Trinidad and Tobago Police Service.
42. Predicting crime trends through incarceration. Brittney Stricker, Criminology Unit,
The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
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43. An investigation into the socio-demographic and psychological correlates of
compulsive Internet use among university students in Trinidad. Linda Mohammed
and Marc Jackman, The University of Trinidad and Tobago.
44. Social media and identity in Trinidad and Tobago: The role of Facebook in the
construction of self. Yasphal Kissoon, Sociology Unit, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine.
45. Hair stories: The identity of hair. Michelle John, Sociology Unit, The University of
the West Indies, St. Augustine
Poster Sessions
1. How do furniture aesthetics reinforce power relationships? Angélica RodriguezBencosme, Gender and Development, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
2. Mapping Caribbean consumers' attitudes toward social networking sites. Rhonda
Jaipaul-O’Garro, Management Studies, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
3. Grocery Blues: the opportunity costs of the professional woman at the expense of
family life and fertility. Candice Sobers, Cultural Studies, The University of the
West Indies, St. Augustine.
4. Factor analysis of the adult attachment scale: A review of Trinidadian youngadults. Sue Ann Edwards. Psychology Unit, The University of the West Indies, St.
Augustine.
5. Evidence-based assessment and treatment of a Trinidadian-American adolescent
girl with oppositional defiant disorder. Shari Ross, Florida International
University, USA.
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Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
A Journey Toward Masters’ Degree Completion: Stories of “Personal Empire Building”
.................................................................................................................................................... 2
Alisha Ali
Is There Room for Mediation? A Study of Elder Mistreatment ....................................... 11
Dianna Baptiste-Pantin
Children of Divorced and Separated Parents: A Study of How they are Affected and
How they Cope ....................................................................................................................... 19
Genevieve Bernard
Assessing Argument Mapping: The Development of Critical Thinking and Utility for
Pedagogy ................................................................................................................................. 28
Shenelle Boyce
A Stakeholder Perspective on the Day of the Dead as a Dark Tourism Product within
the community of Orange Walk, Belize ............................................................................... 44
Arturo Gonzalez
An Analysis into the Impact of Moderator Variables on the Relationship between
Relative Deprivation and Crime in Trinidad among Males aged 16-30 years ................. 53
Anna R. Ragoonath
An Investigation of the Pre-Release Programmes and Post-Release Services Needed to
Reduce Recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago: Female Inmates’ Perspectives .................. 60
Sherry Ann Ramdeo
‘Outta Order’: A Study on Young Women brought before the Courts in Trinidad and
Tobago for Behaviour related Offences ............................................................................... 69
Jolene Romain
Evidence-based Assessment and Treatment of a Trinidadian-American Adolescent Girl
with Oppositional Defiant Disorder ..................................................................................... 78
Shari Ross
A Culture of Corruption: Understanding Police Corruption in Trinidad and Tobago .. 89
Nirmala Sookoo
xi
The Two Ends of the Crime Funnel: Predicting and Relating Crime and Incarceration
Trends in Trinidad and Tobago ......................................................................................... 103
Brittney L. Stricker
xii
Introduction
Research conducted by the Postgraduate community throughout the three main campuses of
The University of the West Indies is diverse, wide-ranging and of a high academic standard.
However, opportunities for Caribbean postgraduates to present their work in a professional
conference environment are often limited.
As such, in 2013 the Department of Behavioural Sciences established a biennial Postgraduate
Research Conference at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine Campus to alleviate
this lack of opportunity by highlighting the wide range of research on contemporary issues
facing Caribbean societies as well as possible solutions and recommendations as viewed
through the lens of the next generation of Caribbean scholars.
In this conference proceedings collection, you will find a selection of papers from the 2nd
Biennial conference held on April 9th and 10th, 2015 from a breadth of disciplines including
Sociology, Psychology, Social Work, Mediation and Criminology and Criminal Justice. The
topics covered include: Police, Security, and Crime in Society; Reintegration and Recidivism;
Gender; Family Relationships; Society, Culture and Change; Social Media and the Internet;
and Education.
Each selected paper went through a review process. As such each paper has been slightly
modified from the original presentation to be included in this collection. Special thanks to Dr
Wendell C. Wallace, Dr Christine Descartes, Dr Dylan Kerrigan, Ms. Fareena Alladin, Ms.
Mala Ramesar, Ms. Allyce Woodhouse, Ms. Sherry Ann Ramdeo, and the post-graduate
students for their hard work in the compilation of this proceedings.
1
A Journey Toward Masters’ Degree Completion: Stories of
“Personal Empire Building”
ALISHA ALI
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
This qualitative study provides insight into how MSc Petroleum Engineering students
experience factors internal and external to the university as they journey toward degree
completion. For some of these students the programme is a “means to an end.” To better
understand this “end,” this study suggested the analogy of “personal empire building” as a
process through which students acquire qualifications and can negotiate their social position
within the petroleum engineering field. Structured interviews with a purposeful sample of
twelve (12) participants generated narrative data. Themes describing the experience of masters’
degree students were then generated via coding. The findings reveal the dynamic nature of
degree completion and the significant role of social factors in shaping students’ experience.
This is a timely and pertinent study because an increasing number of students at the masters’
level experience problems completing their programme in a timely manner or opt to withdraw,
thereby wasting resources invested. Additionally, there is limited research on the experiences
of students at the masters’ level and a consequent need to shed light on this area. In this
presentation I provide an overview of the journey some students make toward masters’ degree
completion and a discussion of my findings.
Keywords: Masters’ degree completion; social factors; personal empire building; social capital;
habitus; field
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Introduction
Internationally, regionally and locally increasing access to higher education has corresponded
with a rise in attrition and time-to-degree completion at all levels of higher education. In 2013
Errol Simms, Dean of the Faculty of Social Science at University of the West Indies (UWI)
lamented, “in the case of purely research degrees, we can be honest and we can only say that
the graduation rate has been very disappointing” (Kowlessar 2013). This low rate negatively
affects a wide range of stakeholders in the tertiary education sector: students’ waste of energy,
hope and financial resources. Institutions may receive negative reputations based on high
attrition rates. Society is also affected by the loss of research intended to advance knowledge,
ideas and perspectives (Clark 2010; Myers 1999).
At the UWI St. Augustine (STA), an examination of enrolment, registration and graduation
trends for the M.Sc. in Petroleum Engineering programme demonstrate, despite steadily
climbing rates for new registration, the percentage of students crossing the finish line over the
years has barely budged (The University of the West Indies 2012a; The University of the West Indies
2012b). Over a three-year period from 2009 – 2012, new enrolment in the programme continued
to remain relatively constant, averaging 23 students annually. While registration rates for
continuing students have increased by 54%, this represents more than half. Meanwhile,
graduation rates continue to remain low, averaging 9 students per year from 2009-2012. This
suggests a considerable number of students are either remaining in the programme for a longer
time than necessary or withdrawing.
Given the importance of graduate education to our society it is insufficient to dismiss degree
completion as an issue simply based on personal choice or inability to meet the high demands
of a graduate degree programme. Lovitts (2001; 2008) contends it is important to also consider
wider structural issues students experience through the bottom-up perspective of the students
3
themselves. This qualitative study provides insight into how a sample of M.Sc. Petroleum
Engineering students experience factors internal and external to the university as they journey
toward degree completion and seek to build their “personal empire,” a metaphor for
understanding the students’ experiences.
Methodology
A qualitative method of data collection was most suitable for this research project because
graduate education is considered discipline specific and is well suited to qualitative case
studies.
Sampling
Purposeful sampling through the snowballing method was the most appropriate sampling
procedure due to: the inaccessibility of students who were employed offshore; inability to
source a sample frame to randomly select a sample due to university confidentiality policies;
and the small number of students who passed through the programme.
Data Collection
Semi-structured interviews, utilizing an interview protocol, were conducted with 12 students.
Three (3) students each from four (4) distinct stages in the programme namely: 1) first semester
and began working on their research project; 2) final semester and began working on their
project through the research methods course; 3) on the research project; and 4) recently
completed. The interviews lasted between 45 minutes and one hour and were conducted faceto-face or via Skype and transcribed verbatim.
4
Data Analysis
This study utilised thick descriptions to show rather than tell. Analogies akin to the 15th century
“empire building” process, were devised to narrate the experiences of students at the different
stages of the programme namely: discoverers (first semester and began working on their
research project); settlers (final semester and began working on their project through the
research methods course); explorers (on the research project); and conquerors (recently
completed). 14 themes were generated via coding (Stake 1995 cited in Engle and Schutt 2014).
These themes were then categorised into four major headings. For the purpose of this paper
two themes from each of the following factors will be examined: faculty (professional and
personal faculty-student relations; research project and faculty as research project supervisors);
peers (connection and collaboration with peers; social isolation and the transition to the
research project); family (family education and industry experience; emotional and technical
family support); and workplace (workplace motivation; balancing work and study).
Discussion
One way to conceive the M.Sc. Petroleum Engineering programme for these students is a
“means to an end.” The end is to build their “personal empire” by acquiring qualifications
through which they can negotiate their social position within the engineering field. “Personal
empire building” through the acquisition of qualifications is not clear-cut but rather a fluid,
dynamic and multifaceted process. Students at the four stages of the programme: discoverer,
settler, explorer and conqueror, share similar experiences in relation to the factors internal
(faculty and peers) and external (family and workplace) to the university.
5
Faculty
At all stages, students described their relationship with faculty as both professional and
personal. Generally, students at all levels viewed faculty in a positive light. However, as
students became explorers charting new territory with the transition to the research project,
their views of faculty as supervisors were described as either facilitating or hindering the
research project. Explorers tend to view faculty in a negative light more than students at other
stages of the programme.
Students developed a relationship with their research project supervisors as early as the
discoverer stage and believed these supervisors had a significant effect on their ability to
conquer the programme. Some students reported changing supervisors and infrequent contact
with them hindered degree completion. All students who were stuck on the explorer phase, and
one who conquered the programme but spent two years in the explorer stage, reported a change
in research project supervisor. Some students at the discoverer stage of the programme reported
informal and infrequent contact with their research project supervisor. Wao and Onwuegbuzie
(2011), Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) and Myers (1999) suggest this may be problematic as
the settlers move into other stages of the programme. Other students reported their research
project supervisors were facilitative, particularly with networking. This was important for
students who were not employed in the industry but needed access to industry related
information and faculty bridged that gap.
Peers
Students in the M.Sc. Petroleum Engineering programme generally sought peer academic
support from each other but it was on an informal basis rather than formal study groups. For
discoverers, settlers, explorers and conquerors, academic support was most prevalent during
examinations. Students employed in the petroleum engineering field who already had a habitus
6
(Bourdieu 1997) aligned to the programme through their industry experience were also able to
bridge the gap for their peers who were either unemployed or not employed in the industry.
With the transition to the research project interactions with peers diminished for students who
entered the explorer phase. They felt isolated and believed the research project drove a wedge
between their peers and themselves. For them it was new territory as they moved further inland
and explored the terrain they discovered and settled into. Discoverers and settlers were still
used to being around their peers during the coursework phase and had not yet experienced this
diminished peer interaction.
Family
At the graduate level it is assumed students tend to be older and begin assuming responsibility
over themselves as they enter the world of work. However, most of the participants in this study
had recently completed undergraduate programmes and still relied on their family. Students
who were the first in their families to pursue a tertiary level programme felt as though they
were “living in two worlds” (Gardner and Holley 2011). Others who had siblings and parents
with degrees had “a feel for the game” and could better navigate through the programme. They
had the “cultural capital” (Bourdieu 1997) necessary to understand what tertiary level
education was about and had access to advice or assistance.
Students throughout the programme received both emotional and technical support from family
members. However, technical support was more prevalent for students whose family members
had tertiary education. On the other hand, students whose family members did not have tertiary
level education or education in the petroleum engineering field or experience in the industry,
tend to be less supportive of students’ enrolment in the programme and often did not understand
why students were pursuing the programme. This is perhaps the case because their parents have
less experience in navigating bureaucratic institutions and less knowledge about higher
7
education (Kuh et al. 2006). These students instead received emotional support involving
overall encouragement, esteem building, and love (Jairam and Kahl 2012).
Workplace
Students particularly those in the discoverer and settler stage were employed in the petroleum
engineering field and were motivated to pursue the programme to negotiate their social position
within that field. Others, particularly those in the settler and explorer phase, never worked in
petroleum engineering but pursued the programme to create opportunities to enter the
petroleum engineering field and facilitate a career change. All of the discoverers and two
settlers had experience in the petroleum engineering field which whet their appetite to delve
further into the field.
Most students employed while they pursued the M.Sc. in Engineering programme had to
balance their time between their studies and work. For some students their employers were
facilitating and provided flexible working hours. Whereas others experienced “time poverty”
(Callendar and Feldman 2009) and resorted to doing schoolwork at the office. All students in
this study at the discoverer stage opted to leave their full-time employment primarily due to
difficulty balancing their time between work and study.
Conclusion
Students at the four chronological stages of the programme: discoverer, settler, explorer and
conqueror shared similar experiences. However, the explorer phase appeared to be a defining
point for students and their ability to conquer the programme. Some students were effective at
plotting and navigating through the programme successfully whilst others got lost and
experienced difficulty. Generally, factors internal (faculty and peers) and external (family and
8
the workplace) to the university were mediated by social integration. Where social integration
is weak students generally experience more difficulty completing the programme.
Recommendations
Students in the study and the authors such as Lovitts (2001), Norris and Barnett (1994), and
Bean and Eaton (2001), suggest activities that can increase social integration and contribute to
persistence. Some of these recommendations include: introducing a cohort model since
students at different levels of the programme were enrolled in the same courses and they were
not always familiar with each other, which may contribute to feelings of isolation among some
students. Lovitts (2001) suggests, “Cohorts provide interactions with peers that foster
connectivity and increase social integration, sense of belong and community.” Additionally,
for students who are not employed in the petroleum engineering field, faculty can be overtly
facilitative to students seeking industry linkages for their research project. This would buffer
the perceived inequality experienced by students whose habitus does not mirror the university
setting. Furthermore, the university can consider peer mentoring programmes where
conquerors can speak to discoverers about their first hand experiences and efficient ways to
navigate through the programme. Moreover, the university can consider maintaining statistics
on attrition and time-do-degree completion because it is currently difficult to track which
students have withdrawn entirely.
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Wao, Hesborn, and Anthony Onwuegbuzie. 2011. “A Mixed Research Investigation of Factors
Related to Time to the Doctorate in Education.” International Journal of Doctoral
Studies 6: 115-134.
10
Is There Room for Mediation? A Study of Elder Mistreatment
DIANNA BAPTISTE-PANTIN
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
This study explored the risk factors and mediating factors of elder mistreatment among elder
adults by their caregivers. The sample was based on eighteen males and females who resided
within residential care setting, as well as three caregivers. A qualitative research design was
employed and interviews were used to collect the data on both the elderly and caregivers. Data
analysis suggested that all elders experienced some form of mistreatment. The findings also
revealed that economic strain, caregiver burden and informal social support were some of the
factors associated with elder mistreatment. The study highlighted the mistreatment experienced
by the elders and suggested that the introduction of family mediation could be one of the
measures used to address conflicts in such situations involving the elderly.
Keywords: Elder mistreatment, caregivers, mediation, social support, residential care setting
11
Introduction
Elder mistreatment has been defined by the United Nations as “a single, or repeated act, or lack
of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust
which causes harm or distress to an older person, it also refers to the intentional or unintentional
neglect of the elder” (United Nations 2013). In Trinidad and Tobago elder mistreatment has
been occurring with little recognition or response, as a result there is a dearth of information in
Trinidad and Tobago of any form of sound research that had been conducted in Trinidad and
Tobago with respect to family conflict and mistreatment of the elderly in the society. This
serious social problem has been hidden from the public view and considered mostly a private
matter. Even today, elder abuse continues to be a taboo, mostly underestimated and ignored by
many in society. Elder mistreatment needs societal attention and this study aimed to explore
risk factors and mediating factors of elder mistreatment among elder adults by their caregivers.
Mediation is a promising approach which could be used to resolve disputes between elders and
their caregivers, whether family members or not. Mediation as defined by the Mediation Act
(2004) of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a process in which a Mediator facilitates and
encourages communication and negotiation between the mediation parties, and seeks to assist
the mediation parties in arriving at a voluntary agreement. This study examines the types and
experiences of elder conflict situations in Trinidadian homes and whether Mediation would be
able to assist in the inception and reduction of elder mistreatment. Additionally, the study
attempted to determine the reasons for placement in a residential care setting.
12
Literature Review
Types of mistreatment identified
The characteristics of elder mistreatment have been identified as financial or material (this
includes property), physical, sexual, psychological, controlling behaviours, verbal, emotional
and medicinal (Hassanali 2011). The authors also added the violation of the rights and freedoms
of the elderly.
Risk factors for elder mistreatment
Quinn and Tomita (1997) postulated that the personality of the caregiver and his or her level
of dependence on the older adult and the level of dependency increased the risk of elder
mistreatment taking place. They also believed that other risk factors were social isolation, lack
of social support, dependence, age, gender, impairment, depression and loneliness. Lachs and
Pillemer (2004) believed that risk factors for elder mistreatment were at a shared living space
which increased the probability that the parties would interact with each other on a regular
basis thus resulting in conflict. The authors also concluded that elders who suffered from some
form of ailment were at a higher risk for physical mistreatment. In keeping with Lachs and
Pillemer (2004), this would most likely have resulted from aggressive and disruptive
behaviours of the elder which lead to the caregivers feeling stressed out. The authors deduced
that another risk factor for elder mistreatment was social isolation, where victims were isolated
from friends and relatives, thus decreasing the likelihood of an intervention.
Methodology
For this study Phenomenology was used because its aim was to describe the lived experiences
of the elders who were involved in caregiver conflict as accurately as possible. The purpose of
this study was to administer self-reported questionnaires which could be used to determine the
13
experiences of the elderly in their domestic habitat setting within Trinidad and Tobago and the
reasons for placement in a residential care setting because more recently elders were being
cared for within such settings.
Demographics
The sample population was made up of eighteen individuals; fifteen (n=15) elderly people both
males and females living in a residential setting and three (3) caregivers who took care of them
while they were at home. The caregivers volunteered to give their side of the story when they
heard about the research. Each person was interviewed once for approximately one hour.
Analysis of Data
Throughout the data there were many types of mistreatment identified which
included: physical, emotional/ psychological, medical and financial mistreatment. Based on the
research done, the characteristics of victims of elder mistreatment were frailty, some form of
disability, vulnerability and dependability upon others for support (not solely financially but in
other areas of their lives as well). However, the data showed that psychological mistreatment
followed by financial mistreatment was way ahead of the other forms of mistreatment. Of all
the parties interviewed, 20% had a history of mental illness. 87% of the elders interviewed
were victims of psychological/ emotional abuse, for example they were often yelled at and
cursed by their caregivers who not surprisingly were close relatives to them. The data showed
that elders constantly got into conflict situations with their caregivers because of financial
misappropriation of their pension money, as well as conflict about who the property was going
to be willed to. Quite a few of the respondents’ pension money was taken away from them by
a relative or caregiver, but yet still they were not fed on time or in cases where the caregiver
went to work they were left hungry until that individual returned home late in the evening. 60%
of the individuals interviewed had no idea that they were being taken to live in a residential
14
setting and as such had no say in the decision making process. Most of the elderly respondents
(87%) desired to let their family members and/ or caregivers know how they felt. This 87%
were willing to try mediation as a last resort because they wanted to mend their broken
relationships and once again feel like part of a family. However, the other 13% were not willing
to try mediation because that relationship ‘done dead and gone’.
Three caregivers were interviewed to obtain information from their own perspective about the
reasons for placing their relative into a residential care setting. One caregiver attributed the
emotional maltreatment and neglect of her parents to the neglect which she received as a child:
“... When I was growing up and needed him, he only used to play with the
other children. He did not want me to go to school. I had to stay home and
clean dog shit every day. You don’t know the story ... My parents did not
like me because I used to talk to all the neighbours. I don’t want to see them
no more ... I am a big woman, I must be taking lash!”
The caregivers argued that the most common source of conflict was the burden of caring for
the elder. When the elders were asked what they thought was the root of the conflicts
experienced, some of the elders complained that the caregivers were too hyper and they liked
to quarrel for everything. However, the data revealed that caregivers with high levels of stress
and feelings of overburdened responsibility were more likely to mistreat the elder in their care.
Discussion
The results of this study suggested what the research had hypothesized, that elders within our
society were mistreated by someone very close to them whom they trusted. In this study the
results implied that disputes involving the elderly had led to conflict and mistreatment. Based
on the results, elder mistreatment was in some way connected to a shared living arrangement,
social isolation and caregiver stress. The outcome also revealed that almost all of the primary
15
caregivers resided with the elder. According to Lachs and Pillemer (2004) a shared living
arrangement was a major factor for elder mistreatment because of increased proximity and
opportunities for conflict. Family caregivers consisted of mainly offspring. Lachs and Pillemer
(2004) also found that those offspring who mistreated the elderly were heavily dependent on
the elder for resources and financial assistance. Additionally, the research revealed that conflict
occurred in families with an elder relative who need some form of care. The findings of the
research revealed that elder mistreatment was extremely prevalent in the home. Smyth (2011)
worked in collaboration with the Elder Mistreatment Mediation Project as a means of testing
the feasibility of mediation as a way to resolve everyday disputes involving the elderly. Most
of the caregivers thought that the elder was miserable.
The caregivers believed that they were the ones being mistreated by the elder. One of the
caregivers did not admit she was financially dependent upon the elder, but admitted to using
the elder’s finances to buy things for herself. Caregivers considered themselves to have been
emotionally abused by the elder in their care because they were ‘harassed’ every minute of the
day. Kohn and Verboek-Oftedahl (2011) concluded that caregivers were the ones at risk
because they were constantly badgered by the elders in their care. Caregivers admitted that they
often refused to fulfil their obligations to the elder by denying them food, assistance to go to
the bathroom and their need for ‘fresh air’. Elder mistreatment was therefore seen as a situation
that may soon reach crisis level due to stressful situations and inexperience in elder care-giving
within a domestic setting. What makes an elder vulnerable to being mistreated? The answer is
power imbalance and the unavoidable dependency upon another human being. Consistent with
the findings of this study, Craig (1997), a pioneer in the field of elder mediation, agreed that
stressors such as vulnerability and power imbalance were conflict situations that could lead to
elder mistreatment. Craig (1997), in her study concluded that elder mediation could be used to
curb elder mistreatment at the early stages of elder conflict. Research done by Bagshaw, Wendt
16
and Zannettino (2009) found that the three most common forms of elder mistreatment were
financial, psychological and physical mistreatment. In conclusion, Bagshaw, Wendt and
Zannettino’s (2009) research, proposed that mediation could prevent financial abuse of the
elderly by those close to them.
Conclusion
Mediation approaches are not set in stone, thus there is room for flexibility. Of the many
mediation approaches, the interest-based model and the facilitative model appeared to be the
most conducive with respect to issues where elder mistreatment involving caregivers were
identified. This is because in situations where family members were involved preservation of
the relationship would have been of the utmost importance. The Interest-Based approach could
be used in cases where elder mistreatment and neglect had been identified. This approach
would focus on the interests and needs of the negotiating participants and as such both parties
would have some of their needs met. The facilitative model also deals with elder mistreatment
and neglect and of the two models this one seemed to be the most common. This approach
would help the participants define and understand the underlying issues and experiences which
they may have been dealing with.
Future research should focus on exploring if there is a connection between social issues and
the prevalence of elder mistreatment in Trinidad and Tobago. Although awareness was based
on intuition, research is necessary so as to get a true picture of the risk factors associated with
elder mistreatment based upon the culture of Trinidad and Tobago.
17
References
Bagshaw, Dale Margaret, Sarah Wendt, and Lana Zannettino. 2009. “Preventing the abuse of
older people by their family members.” Australian Domestic & Family Violence.
Clearinghouse.
Craig, Yvonne Joan. 1997. Elder abuse and mediation: Exploratory studies in America,
Britain and Europe. Aldershot: Avebury.
Hassanali, Shaliza. 2011. “Stiffer laws, penalties for abuse of elderly in T & T.”
Trinidad Guardian Newspaper, December 02.
Kohn, Robert, and Wendy Verhoek-Oftedahl. 2011. "Caregiving and elder abuse. “Medicine
and health, Rhode Island 94(2): 47.
Lachs, Mark S., and Karl Pillemer. 2004. “Elder abuse." The Lancet 364(9441): 1263-1272.
Quinn, Mary Joy, and Susan K. Tomita. 1997. Elder abuse and neglect: Causes, diagnosis,
and intervention strategies. Vol. 8. Springer Publishing Company.
The Mediation Act, Trinidad and Tobago Statues. (2004)
Smyth, Gemma. 2011. "Mediation in cases of elder abuse and mistreatment: the case of
University of Windsor mediation services." Windsor Rev. Legal & Soc. Issues 30:
United Nations. 2013. Neglect, Abuse and Violence against Older Women. New York:
Division for Social Policy and Development, Department of Economic and Social
Affairs.
18
Children of Divorced and Separated Parents: A Study of How
They Are Affected and How They Cope
GENEVIEVE BERNARD
University of the West Indies
Abstract
The study examined the effect of parental divorce and or separation on children and how they
could cope with the negative impact of their experience. A qualitative research design was used
which included a purposive sampling method. Participants were selected on the basis of their
suitability to the main research questions. Fifteen participants between the ages of 11 and 27
years were selected based on referrals from practitioners in several disciplines. Data was
collected by way of unstructured interviews with participants and mediation practitioners. The
findings of the study revealed that, consistent with past studies, parental divorce or separation
affected children negatively causing emotional distress and behavioural problems which could
have long-term or short-term consequences. The main emotions which emerged were sadness,
anger, and hate, some of which led to serious behavioural problems such as self-mutilation and
attempted suicide. The individual coping strategies were varied but similar to those used by
children in the wider world. Custody mediation as a state mechanism to lessen the negative
effects of parental divorce was examined, looking at what exists in Trinidad and Tobago as
compared to the North Carolina Custody Mediation Programme.
Keywords: Divorce; Separation; Parental Separation; Coping; Custody Mediation; Trinidad
and Tobago.
19
Introduction
Parental divorce and or separation have been known to be tragic experiences for the children.
This is because they are inevitably caught in the middle of the conflict between their parents.
It also results in loss of at least one of the attachment figures to which they have grown
accustomed. This occurrence creates trauma and instability in their lives. Often the ordeal for
the children does not end with the actual separation but continues through bitter verbal as well
as legal battles about custody, maintenance and visitation issues.
In fact, decades of studies have shown that parental divorce and or separation have had serious
negative effects on the welfare of children of the union. Evidence of this can be found in metaanalyses of 97 studies published through the 1980s (Amato and Keith 1991) and 67 studies in
the 1990s (children’s physical health problems (Troxel and Matthews 2004) which showed that
youth in divorced families had more conduct, internalizing, social, and academic problems than
those in non-divorced families (Wolchik, Schenck, and Sandler 2009).
This study aims firstly to investigate the effects of parental divorce/separation on the children
of the union in Trinidad and Tobago and how these effects have impacted and continue to
impact their lives. It will also look at individual strategies used by the children as well as those
used by the State to assist them to cope with the negative effects of parental separation.
Background to the Problem
The social problem of divorce and the resultant single parenting can be seen as one of the
scourges of the modern era. This issue has been engaging the attention of policy makers and
other prominent figures in Trinidad and Tobago. Chief Justice Ivor Archie, in his speech
Marriage under threat at the opening of the 2012-2013 law term, addressed the issue of divorce
and its negative impact on family life in Trinidad and Tobago. He dealt candidly with the issues
of divorce and single parenting and its effects on children whom he surmised are often times
20
the ultimate victims of divorce. At present, Trinidad and Tobago is besieged with problems of
delinquency, drug use and gang warfare involving the youths of the nation, many of whom are
from single-parent underprivileged backgrounds. This is consistent with the findings of a study
by Deosaran (2007) in which he found that 75% of students in junior secondary schools were
from single-parent backgrounds and many of them were children of poor parentage and
experiences. Single parenting was also identified by Ryan (2014) as one of the key factors
which have contributed to problems in our nation’s schools.
Theoretical Perspectives
This study is guided by perspectives on the role of the family and also perspectives on how
divorce affects the family unit. The functionalist perspective on family alluded to the
importance of the role of both parents in the family unit. Whereas the father fulfils the family’s
economic needs, making important decisions and providing leadership, the mother has the
expressive role of running the household, caring for the children and meeting the emotional
needs of the children (Parsons and Bales 1955). Views on divorce were summarised by Amato
(1993) using five (5) theoretical perspectives regarding the reasons for adverse outcomes of the
divorce process. In taking a brief look at two of these perspectives; the Interpersonal Conflict
Perspectives attributes the diminished wellbeing of the children of divorce to the conflict which
exists between their parents. This view is supported by theorists such as Barber and Demo
(2006) and Benner and Kim (2010). Relatedly, the Economic Hardship Perspective assumes
that economic hardship, which is one of the consequences of divorce, is primarily responsible
for the problems faced by the children of the severed union (Kreider and Elliot 2009).
Method
A phenomenological research strategy was used which allowed persons who have not
experienced this phenomenon to gain insights into the subjective experiences of these children.
21
A purposive sampling method was used to select the participants. In this regard the selection
was done on the basis of referrals from practitioners in various fields and other associates,
based on the participants’ suitability to the research objectives.
Participants were selected based on the following characteristics:
a) They were of ages ranging between 18 and 25 years.
b) They lived with both parents either from birth or for a period of at least 5 years.
c) They experienced parental divorce and or separation.
Research Instruments/Protocols
Data was collected by way of unstructured interviews held with participants as well as two
mediators and a social worker from the Family Court of Trinidad and Tobago. The research
questions which were used were:

How are children in this study affected by their parents’ divorce and separation?

How have they managed to cope with the negative impact of their parents’
separation?

Are these coping strategies the same as those identified for the developed world
from which most of existing theory has been abstracted?

How effective was child custody and visitation mediation as a coping mechanism?
Results of the Study
All of the participants in this study expressed negative feelings about their parents’ separation.
Most of them reported that they had experienced various types of emotional distress as a result
of their parents’ separation, some of which was manifested in various kinds of negative
behaviours.
22
Physical Effects
Pain
At least seven participants talked about feeling pain or hurt as a result of the frustrations brought
about by parental separation.
Self-inflicted Injuries
Two participants reported having experienced severe emotional issues following their parents’
separation which resulted in them engaging in life threatening activities. One of them claimed
to have engaged in self-mutilation as well as self-starvation.
Suicidal Tendencies
The other complained that his experience with parental separation had messed up his emotions.
Therefore, along with self-mutilation he also harboured thoughts of suicide and even went as
far as experimenting with it in one instance.
Other Behavioural Problems
Poor Educational Performance

Of the fifteen participants only two of them, one of whom was attending primary school
and the other secondary school, reported a decrease in school performance.

Another participant was expelled from secondary school while another left school at
age 15 when she found out she was pregnant (both lived in depressed communities).

One participant who also lived under similar circumstances, left secondary school at
eighteen with only two passes.
23
Financial Difficulties
Two participants related the problems they experienced in acquiring the barest of
necessities from their parents due to the continuous conflict between them. They told
of the difficulties they faced to get financial assistance from the non-custodial parent.
Social Exclusion (Lack of Emotional Support)
Three support sources were examined: siblings, friends and extended family. Of the 15
participants in this study, only one reported receiving no support from any of the three sources.
In terms of the other 14, some of them received support from more than one source, six (6)
received support from their siblings, eight (8) received support from friends and seven (7) or
47% received support from their extended family.
Individual Coping Strategies
Religious Beliefs - five participants identified religious belief as a medium of coping.
Physical Activities - with respect to physical activities there were various responses ranging
from liming, playing football, doing household chores to “engaging in masturbation as a form
of comfort”
Musical Entertainment-four participants reported that they found relief in musical
entertainment.
Spending Time with Friends - Four participants said that their friendships with their peers
assisted them.
Avoidance - two participants used avoidance as a means of coping with their situation.
24
Acceptance - four participants admitted that they had arrived at a place of acceptance
“mentally” which actually assisted in their ability to cope with their situations.
Child Custody Mediation
Of the fifteen (15) participants in this study only seven (7) of them experienced the custody or
maintenance process. One of them, her father used the custody agreement as an instrument of
revenge. Another one of them was disappointed about the way the system worked since she
was of the view that there was no proper system in place to ensure compliance:
As for the eight who had not experienced the custody or maintenance process, three of them
felt that it could be useful if applied generally to custody, maintenance and visitation issues but
they believed that it is necessary to have the children actively participate in the process, that is,
“let the children voices be heard.”
Conclusion
The results of this study showed that for each of the participants, the divorce or parental
separation was an unwelcomed intrusion in their lives and one which created various emotional
and physical problems.
These results were consistent with past studies in that the negative effects of divorce such as
emotional disorders and poor behavioural tendencies were quite evident (Wolchik, Schenck,
and Sandler 2009; Cameron 2008). Additionally, the availability of social support systems
impacted on the children’s ability to cope with divorce.
The results also revealed that there is a need for a revision of the custody mediation process in
Trinidad and Tobago with a view to adequately provide for the needs of its main target base
which is the children of those severed unions. According to the views of some of the
participants in the study, there is a definite need to consider the issue of the inclusion of children
25
in the actual process of mediation. Apart from hearing their views about what parental
arrangements they believe are in their best interest, it will also give the mediator an indication
of whether the child requires further intervention. In this regard mediators should also receive
specialized training to deal with mediation involving children. This will equip them to
recognize whether there is in fact a need for further intervention.
Interestingly, the findings revealed that children affected by emotional distress due to the
separation of their parents experienced ongoing conflicts between these parents, lack of
financial support as well as inadequate social support. As such, it is necessary to have
psychological support readily available to compliment the child custody mediation process.
Finally, the findings of this study provided valuable insights into the need for scientific analysis
to understand the phenomenon of parental divorce/separation in Trinidad and Tobago. There
is also a need for analyses to be conducted regarding parental relationship qualities and their
effects on children’s ability to cope with divorce with a view to establishing intervention
strategies for parents on how to relate to their children.
References
Amato, Paul R. 1993. “Children’s Adjustment to Divorce: Theories, Hypotheses, and
Empirical Support.” Journal of Marriage and Family 55(1): 23-38.
Amato, Paul R., and Bruce Keith. 1991. “Parental Divorce and the Well-being of Children: A
Meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 110 (1): 26-46.
Barber, Bonnie L. and David H. Demo. 2006 “The Kids Are Alright (At Least Most of Them):
Links Between Divorce and Dissolution and Child Well-Being.” Handbook of Divorce
and Relationship Dissolution, edited by Mark Fine and John Harvey. Mahwah, NJ
Erilbaum.
Benner, Aprile D., and Su Yeong Kim. 2009. “Intergenerational Experiences of Discrimination
in Chinese American Families: Influences of Discrimination and Stress.” Journal of
Marriage and Family 71(4):826-77.
Cameron, Leah. 2008. “The Possible Negative Emotional and Psychological Consequences in
Children of Divorce.” Essay 6: Article 15. http://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol6/iss1/15
Deosaran, Ramesh. 2007. “Crime Delinquency and Justice: A Caribbean Reader.” Kingston:
26
Ian Randle Publishers.
Kreider, Rose M., and Dianna B Elliot. 2009a. “American Families and Living
Arrangements.” Current Population Reports. 20-556. U.S. Census Bureau.
Washington, DC.
Parsons, T & Bales, R. (1955). Family, socialization and interaction process. United States:
Free Press.
Ryan, Selwyn. 2014. “Schools in Turmoil.” Trinidad and Tobago Express, November 8.
Troxel, Wendy M., and Karen A. Matthews. 2004. “What Are the Costs of Marital Conflict
and Dissolution to Children’s Physical Health?” Clinical Child and Family Psychology
Review 7(1): 29-57.
Wolchik, Sharlene A., Clorinda E. Schenck, and Irwin N. Sandler. 2009. “Promoting
Resilience in Youth from Divorced Families: Lessons Learned from Experimental
Trials of the New Beginnings Program.” Journal of Personality 77(6): 1833-68.
27
Assessing Argument Mapping: The Development of Critical
Thinking and Utility for Pedagogy
SHENELLE BOYCE
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
Critical thinking has received increasing research interest both locally and internationally, as
an integral outcome of the education system (Jules 2010; Gibbons 2010; Francis 2010; DancyBenjamin and Green 2004). With the rapid development of tools designed to foster critical
thinking, there has been little to no research on their use within our current context. This paper,
therefore, seeks to examine the applications of computer assisted argument mapping on the
development of critical thinking skills among tertiary level students. In addition, it will seek to
extrapolate varied ways in which argument mapping may encourage the employment of
cognitive and metacognitive strategies related to critical thinking. The study will comprise of
a pre and post-test design, and will assess the roles of potential confounding variables, student
motivation and academic level, on the development of critical thinking. The assessment will
employ a control group to facilitate comparisons across groups and better understand how the
use of argument mapping may affect critical thinking. The study also seeks to explore whether
use of computer assisted argument mapping in one domain will transfer skills across another.
Comparisons will be made between baseline (pre-test) and post-test measures of critical
thinking, individual motivation, and the transferability of potentially learned skills. Results will
be interpreted with considerations for pedagogical practice.
Keywords: Argument mapping, critical thinking, pedagogy
28
Introduction
Critical thinking has long been argued to be a fundamental component of our education system,
which, according to The University of the West Indies, Institute of Critical Thinking (2010, 1),
“…create[s] learners who have the appetite to think analytically and critically, to use what they
know to enhance their own lives, and also to contribute to their society, culture and
civilization.” However, as a society, even with the limited understanding of critical thinking
and its importance to the livelihood of the individual and the society, there has been a lack of
fundamental research into how such thinking may be taught, or developed, and its long-term
effects on our development. This study aims at exploring critical thinking within our local
context, as well as examining tools and techniques which have developed to engage students
in skills of critical, analytical thought. Though at the onset, this study will focus on the ways
in which such skills may impact the student academically, this can be viewed as one of many
studies to come which narrows in on critical thinking and the varied ways in which it can be
utilised to enjoy, “…a good quality of life” (UWI Institute of Critical Thinking 2010).
This study therefore is an evaluation of one tool, argument mapping, which can be utilised to
engage persons in observable and measurable behaviours related to critical thinking. These
involve metacognitive strategies such as self-regulation in the employment of higher order
thinking such as problem solving, decision making, judgement and analysis, and evaluation.
Critical thinking within the study’s scope therefore, is not a matter of “good thought”, but the
employment of such skills which extend beyond memory and recall of facts/streams of
information, but how these facts can then be extrapolated and used within different contexts
(Facione 2011; Halpern 2013). This is of particular importance, not only within the classroom,
but also within other areas of life. Should our concern, as a society, truly be on improving the
standards of living for others, then one should also concern itself with the ways in which
29
persons are being exposed to these patterns of thought and their successful employment to
enhance/improve their lives and decision making.
This research is geared towards an examination of critical thinking skills within a tertiary level
student population. It will examine whether the argument mapping tool encourages selfregulation, and the effective extrapolation of knowledge in the areas of problem solving,
analysis and evaluation, and judgement/decision making. Further to this, the longevity of
critical thinking skills will also be explored, that is, the research will seek to explore if the skills
are developed through the use of argument mapping strategies, how long lasting these effects
may be. The study will also attempt to examine whether skills which may have been learned
through argument mapping will transfer to other critical thinking activities. It will also explore
the implications of such a tool in pedagogical practice, as well as potential correlates with
academic achievement. The hope of this research is to begin to better examine critical thinking,
considering its important implications towards the development of Trinidad and Tobago, in
and out of the classroom. Particularly as a result of the following statement by the then Ministry
of Science, Technology and Tertiary Education (MSTTE), Trinidad and Tobago, that our
systems of education be on the fore of such by developing individuals who are, “…capable of
critical-thinking and possess the ability to creatively confront the plethora of challenges which
face us, while grasping the opportunities as they arise” (2010, p 3).
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has been widely explored across varying schools of thought and practice;
namely in the fields of education, philosophy and psychology. Though with differing
perspectives on some elements of critical thinking, there are central themes which remain
consistent and prominent across the literature: critical thought is pervasive and purposeful;
30
critical thinking is important to the processes of analysis, judgement, decision making and
problem solving and; critical thinking skills can be learned.
Dewey was one of the first researchers to suggest the pervasive and purposeful nature of critical
thinking, indicating that it is a thought process that one actively engages in. This is in keeping
with cognitive psychology and the understanding of critical thinking as a higher order cognitive
process. The implication is that its nature is not in the mere storage and recitation of learned
facts, but the ways in which such information can be utilised to engage in problem solving
strategies, for example. Notably, this also aligns with research proposed through Bloom's
taxonomy within educational practice. As such, therefore, one must focus on critical thinking
as a process comprised of various stages leading to a specific, and often, desired outcome.
Furthermore, persons must become consciously aware of their underlying thoughts and the
ways in which stored knowledge can be applied across varied contexts. This is particularly
important since such a distinction suggests the crucial role of meta-memory and self-regulation
within the process of critical thinking.
Further to the pervasive and purposeful nature of critical thinking, are the key areas within
which critical thinking are implied to be more heavily utilised. Research demonstrates that
critical thinking is particularly important to components of thought such as analysis and
evaluation, judgement, decision making and problem solving. Yet it is often noted that these
processes occur even when there is no critical thinking taking place. This is an important
distinction to note and adds further to the argument of critical thinking being defined as "good
thought." Within this context, critical thinking across varied situations and contexts would
imply that strategies and processes utilised would lead to the best outcome for the individual;
yet still, persons have not successfully demonstrated this in their own lives, and in particular
within the context of the learning environment.
31
Existing literature also suggests that while thought cannot be taught, specific skills in thinking
can be practised and learned over time (Halpern 2003; Dwyer, Hogan and Stewart 2014; van
Gelder, Bissett and Cumming 2004). This occurs through deliberate and explicit instruction in
such thinking strategies. This approach is more in line with the cognitive scientific focus on
those processes of thought that are concrete and observable. This does not undermine the
underlying processes involved but gives way for these strategies to potentially influence the
underlying and related phenomena toward the application of critical thought. It also allows for
the observable to be reliably and realistically measured and evaluated. This approach may also
influence the practical implications for teaching critical thinking skills within varied learning
environments, which is an important aspect of this research design. In subsequent components
of this paper the roles of innate qualities, such as dispositions, will be examined in relation to
the employment of critical thinking. For the purposes of the present study however, it is
important to understand the skills of critical thinking and the distinct tools which may be
utilised to assist persons to successfully employ critical thinking across differing contexts and
domains.
Motivation
Within the present research there is much debate on the measurement of the factors which may
influence critical thinking. There continues to be great dialogue between dispositions and
motivation. However, it should be noted that both play an important role in the use of the skills
of critical thinking. Researchers such as Valenzuela, Nieto and Saiz (2011), in their study of
critical thinking, suggest that rather than look at dispositions as sole internal contributors
toward the tendency to engage in critical thought, the school and theory of motivation should
be employed to study this phenomenon. Related to this, they conducted research to create their
own measures to test the role of motivation in engaging critical thinking strategies. According
32
to the theory, dispositions are one component within the scope of motivational factors which
influence a person to think critically in various contexts, and motivation may be viewed as the
central figure in the use of critical thinking skills to attain desired outcomes (Bandura 1997;
Eccles and Wigfield 2002; Valenzuela, Nieto and Saiz 2011).
Although the motivational perspective lacks a valid and reliable measurement tool, its
theoretical foundation provides an important approach to be further explored and expounded
upon as a means to better understand the motivational factors which may influence critical
thought. The model of motivation chosen by Valenzuela, Nieto and Saiz (2011), was the
expectancy/valence model, since unlike the intrinsic/extrinsic model of motivation, it allows
for persons to identify intervening means through which motivational behaviours may be
encouraged to lead to desired outcomes. Accordingly, therefore, motivation to perform specific
tasks depends upon the expectancy and task value of the prescribed task. The authors suggest
that while critical thinking may not be a concrete/definable task in itself, it is the prescribed
type of behaviour to be encouraged through motivational properties (Valenzeula et al. 2011).
In defining it as such, expectancy relates to personal expectations about performing tasks well
or with favourable outcomes. In this way, the notion defines itself upon a person’s future
potentials to competently become self-efficacious in carrying out particular tasks (with
continued practise I will perform well on this and similar tasks). Another important component
to this model of motivation is the value given to the task. Value may be broken down into four
sub-components, attainment, utility, cost, and interest value. Thus, persons will be motivated
to think critically based on how important it is for them to perform the task well, how much
enjoyment will be derived from carrying out the task, what is the usefulness of fulfilling this
task (critical thinking), and how much effort is needed to perform this task. The attainment
value is most related to a person’s identity about his/her given ability to perform critical
thinking, whereas the interest component relates to a person’s intrinsic enjoyment from
33
performing critical thinking strategies. Intrinsic enjoyment is important in that it has been noted
as a crucial element to the positive performance outcomes in a variety of contexts (Deci and
Ryan 1985). Thus, the interest aroused in a person to engage in critical thinking strategies will
have important impacts on the employment of such skills. The utility component of the model
identifies with an individual’s perception as to where the use of critical thinking will fit into
his/her future self-plans, that is, will it be an important tool to the person in other areas/stages
of life. The cost aspect of the value category relates specifically to the amount of effort required
to perform the critical thinking skills (effort and emotional cost, see Neuville, Bourgeois and
Frenay 2004).
Further to such research has been a growing body of research indicating the important role of
external factors in students' employment of critical thinking skills. Notably has been the
demonstration that students tend toward the use of critical thinking when the environment
encourages them to be autonomous thinkers (Linck, Wolberg and Salmon 2012; Mathews and
Lowe 2011). Additionally, it has been suggested that educators need to model the behaviours
to motivate students, as well as to give guidelines to how they should engage in critical thinking
throughout the course of the subject matter in question (Mathews and Lowe 2011). However,
research is still required to better elucidate the interaction of motivation and critical thinking
skills. Thus this study aims to better examine the ways in which motivation may affect the
employment of critical thinking, particularly since these factors may have important
implications to pedagogical practice and the later demonstration of critical thinking within the
classroom (Valenzuela et al. 2011).
Metacognition
In the study of critical thinking, particularly within the field of education, researchers suggest
that the theoretical construct, metacognition, act as the bridge that brings together the various
34
trends of thought related to critical thinking (Kuhn 1999, 2004; Halpern 1994, 1998, 2010).
Many definitions of critical thinking, in the fields of philosophy, education and cognitive
psychology, suggest that to think critically one must be aware of his/her thought (Anderson
and Krathwohl 2001; Bloom 1956; Kuhn 2004; Marzano 2001; Romiszowski 1981, 1984).
Metacognition refers to awareness and management of personal thought, or thinking about own
thinking. Within cognitive psychology, it is examined under the term of executive control.
Educators, therefore, in utilising the definition provided for this higher level order of cognitive
processing can support its development in students. That is, they can encourage students to
reflect upon and evaluate their own thinking practices and outcomes (Kuhn 2004). Students
can be engaged in discourse with teachers about how they know certain things they mention,
or investigate the reasons the students may make certain inferences or judgments. In this way
students are made to become more aware of their thinking and facilitate students in their own
self-reflection when thinking. Caution should however be exercised, since persons may decide
to make metacognition synonymous with the idea behind critical thinking (Halpern 2000).
Rather, this is one means through which persons may engage others in more self-reflective and
controlled thinking, enabling them to employ strategies of critical thought (Kuhn 1999, 2004).
Argument Mapping
Argument mapping is one proposed technique which attempts to reduce cognitive load and
increase efficiency in the representation of arguments and coherently and accurately analyse
and evaluate its component parts (Chang, Sung and Chen 2002; Rider and Thomason 2008;
Twardy 1991; van Gelder 2001). Argument maps are two dimensional representations of the
structure of an argument, the main propositions, its related component parts, and conclusions
drawn (Harrell 2008). They are typically represented using box and arrow pictures indicating
relationships in an argument structure (see Figure 3.1). Argument maps help persons to
35
articulate the, “implicit, but crucial, unstated premises” (Rider and Thomason 2008, 114) in an
argument. Thus, it is an important tool in the training of the informal reasoning which Toulmin
spoke to and which we deal with in the context of the real world within which we operate.
Argument mapping allows persons to visualise an argument and represent its component parts
in a flexible and easy to manipulate manner, highlighting crucial relationships in the data (van
Gelder 2001; Harrell 2008), as well as facilitates recognition of unstated premises within an
argument structure (Larkin and Simon 1987; Rider and Thomason 2008; Harrell 2008). This is
crucial especially when one has to evaluate or analyse the conclusions made within the
argument, when positing own arguments, and when analysing the strength of the argument
(Chang, Sung and Chen 2002; Halpern 2003; van Gelder 2001).
Methodology
Sample
For the study Year 1 and 2 undergraduate students will be randomly selected among a tertiary
level population. The sample sought to capture students enrolled in full time, part time or
evening university modules. The sample also sought to target students between the ages of 18
– 40 years, which would provide for a more accurate representation of present student
populations within the current system of tertiary level education. Recruitment will be done
electronically on social media sites and through emails sent to registered students of the
University. Participants will also have the opportunity to receive a prize upon the completion
of the study. The pilot sought to capture responses from sixty persons, while the full study
sought to capture responses from 120 persons. After persons complete the initial pre-tests,
participants will be randomly assigned to the control and experimental groups.
36
Materials and Measures
Materials to be provided during the course of study are five arguments to be mapped, exercises
in critical thinking and memory recall tasks.
The study will also employ the use of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Short
Form (WGCTA-S), the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) and the
Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Analytical Writing Test.
The WGCTA-S (Watson and Glaser 2008) will be administered at pre- and post-testing. The
WGCTA-S comprises of 40 multiple choice questions. These questions assess the critical
thinking skills of inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation and
evaluation of arguments. The questions are all based on different scenarios related to the
identified critical thinking skills. The maximum score on this test is 40 and the minimum score
is 2. Test re-test reliability is robust, ranging from .75 to .92 (El Hassan and Madhum 2007;
Watson and Glaser 2008, 2012; Williams, Oliver and Stockdale 2004). The internal consistency
of the scale is .81 (Watson and Glaser 2008).
The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ; Pintrich et al. 1991) was
administered to attain base measures of participants’ motivation at the pre-testing stage and to
assess differences between groups at the post-testing stage. This is based on the assumption
that motivation plays a significant role in the employment of critical thinking (Ennis 1998;
Dwyer et al. 2011; Garcia et al. 1992; Dwyer 2014). The MSLQ employed within the study
consisted of 44 questions responded to utilising a seven-point Likert scale. The sub-scales
included within the study were those which measure motivation towards elaboration, critical
thinking, effort regulations, metacognitive self-regulation, organisation, control of learning
37
beliefs and extrinsic goal orientation. Internal consistency for sub-scales range from 0.65–0.88
(Pintrich et al. 1991; Dwyer 2014)
The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Analytical Writing Test was utilised as a post-test
measure to evaluate the transferability of learnt skills through argument mapping exposure.
This test comprises of two component parts: the analyse issue and analyse argument essays.
Each component takes 30 minutes to complete. Scores range from 0-6 with higher scores
indicating higher levels of performance.
Procedure
The study will take place over a period of six (6) weeks. Prior to participants being assigned to
groups they will complete pre-test measures on the WGCTA-S and the MSLQ. Participants
will also complete a demographic questionnaire to capture, age, course of study and programme
level.
Three groups will participate in the study: those within the implicit instruction group, those
within the explicit instruction group and the control group. Both the implicit and explicit
instruction groups will be instructed through the use of argument mapping (AM), however, for
those within the explicit group, the goals of critical thinking development will be made clear
while for those within the implicit instruction group, the goals of critical thinking will not be
expressed. The three groups will be exposed to the same basic content of the study that is, they
will be given 30 proposition texts and be given fifteen minutes to read/study and then will be
asked to complete an exercise which comprises of both memory recall tasks and critical
thinking tasks. Those within the instruction groups however, will be taught how to create and
manipulate argument maps over a fifteen-minute teaching period prior to being given the
proposition text. With their propositions, they will be instructed to create argument maps within
38
the same fifteen-minute period given to the control group. The instruction groups will then
complete the task, within fifteen minutes, which will be the time given to all groups within the
study.
Although recent research has focused primarily on critical thinking instruction as part of
specific course curricula (Davies 2008; Dwyer 2011; Harrell 2008; Norman 2007; Rider and
Thompson 2008; Twardy 2004), there has been a growing trend in studying the implications
of explicit instruction of critical thinking techniques in stand-alone critical thinking courses
(Marin and Halpern 2011; Helsdingen 2010; Abrami et al. 2008; Hatcher 2006). These two
trends in the study of critical thinking are indicative of the specific and general approaches to
this higher order cognitive function. Further to these approaches are studies which differentially
suggest the implications of the implicit and explicit approach to critical thinking and their
correlates to critical thinking outcomes. Review of both the implicit approach and the explicit
approach lend to mixed understandings of the significant correlation between the approaches
and critical thinking (Hatcher 2006; Marin and Halpern 2011; Abrami et al. 2008). Both, for
example, demonstrate significant outcomes for students (van Gelder 2005; Davies 2008;
Swartz 2003) but some researchers argue explicit instruction to be better for long-terms
outcomes (Halpern 1998; Marin and Halpern 2011; Abrami et al. 2008; Hatcher 2006) as
opposed to the intrinsic approach, although there is no clear research evidence to support such
a notion. There have not, however, been numerous studies which examined the use of tools
outside of specific curricula guidelines that have concurrently employed the implicit and
explicit approaches to assess their roles in the development of critical thinking skills among
individuals. It would be important to investigate this, and the potential ramifications for the use
of such materials outside of the classroom context, and how these tools may also impact
performance across varied classroom contexts. As such, this study proposes to investigate the
use of the argument mapping software outside a particular scope of study.
39
Students within the study will be trained to create and manipulate argument maps using
RationaleTM AM software.
Upon the completion of this six-week period, post-test assessments on the WGCTA-S and the
MSLQ will be completed online. Participants will also complete a critical thinking task
utilising the GRE Critical analysis task. This will be utilised as a measure to assess the potential
transferability of skills learned through AM. Two weeks after the completion of the study,
participants will again complete the WGCTA-S online to assess the potential longevity of
critical thinking even though AM training has stopped.
Discussion
The aims of the study are to investigate the utility of argument mapping within a tertiary level,
Caribbean sample, as a means through which the skills of critical thinking may be developed.
Further to this, the study will also explore related mechanisms and processes involved in the
development of critical thinking skills.
The results of the study will then be utilised to better understand the usefulness to students, the
implications for pedagogical practice and the future of critical thinking research within our
local context. Questions which this research will help to explore include, how is critical
thinking currently envisioned within the curricula, how can these skills be taught, and how may
we better equip education professionals to assist students in the development of these skills?
While the present study will not observe current pedagogical practices employed across the
university, it will attempt to demonstrate how technology can be utilised as part of the teaching
and learning process to help facilitate specific forms of development among the student
population. Consideration will also be given to the potential usefulness of a tool such as
argument mapping, as part of student learning within tutorial classes. This study positions itself
40
as one of many to come which will fully investigate critical thinking and varied means through
which the skills of such thought may be developed within our classrooms. It is however,
important to note that this initial study will be limited in making generalizations and is to be
considered only as the beginning of this field of research locally. It will however, begin an
important discussion and exploration for those within the field and practice of education, as
well as local researchers who will be able to guide, through their research, a more holistic
understanding to critical thinking, its related skills, and its potential development among our
students.
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43
A Stakeholder Perspective on the Day of the Dead as a Dark
Tourism Product within the community of Orange Walk, Belize
ARTURO GONZALEZ
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
The advent of niche tourism brought about many smaller pockets of tourism, catering to the
needs and wants of many tourists. Coupled with globalization the tourism industry saw the
formation of newer types of niche tourism inclusive of dark tourism. Dark Tourism may be
referred to as “the act of travel to sites associated with death, suffering and the seemingly
macabre” (Stone 2006, p146). Given that the world is experiencing new atrocities everyday,
it is quickly becoming a popular past time to visit these places. Dark tourism is rapidly growing
to become a niche product that is attracting the attention of many within the tourism industry
and the academic field. This study, through quantitative and qualitative research, discovered
that the residents of Orange Walk, Belize are very much ignorant of this new niche tourism
product. Given that the country is heavily marketed as an eco-tourism destination, it was the
researcher’s aim to introduce the concept of dark tourism within the community through the
revival of the festival of day of the dead. As the festival deals with deceased loved ones, it was
thought ideal to be used as a dark tourism product. Upon closer examination the community
expressed their doubts on the product and many expressed their concern should it be used as a
tourism product. The recommendations focused on educating the community on benefits that
would be brought about both socially and psychologically through the revival of a cultural
heritage and the performance of obligations to the deceased.
Keywords: Dark Tourism, globalisation, Belize, niche, community, stakeholder
44
Introduction
Edgar Allen Poe in his stories once stated that “Death’s a good fellow and keeps open house”
(Poe 2010, 153). Today that statement is relevant since death is allowing itself to be more
accessible to many, especially in the tourism field. From ancient to modern times, travel and
death have had a correlation and mutual understanding for each other. For example, in ancient
times when people travelled to see gladiatorial games and, similarly, during the Middle Ages
people took it upon themselves to witness public executions. Today “dark tourism” is evident
in modern day travels when people visit homes of dead celebrities and haunted houses. The
history surrounding the public displays of death prove that dark tourism is often used for the
amusement of the people. It is apparent that people made these occasions into family outings,
and occasions in which family bonding can take place and the ability to see new things and
experience new sensations are evident. Leisure and death are two topics that are not usually
placed together, but travel and death is fast becoming an integral role in shaping new tourism
markets.
The Difference between Mass and Niche
Over the past few years the need to become aware of the heavy negative impacts tourism is
making on the environment and the socio-cultural aspects, has triggered many to re-evaluate
what exactly tourism can do to give back. Technology is no doubt the main supporter for the
influx of mass consumption; in fact, mass consumption and mass production are the main
motivators to continue to build and expand a mass touristic product. Novelli (2005, 2) states
that mass tourism refers to the production, structure and organization of tourism akin to an
industrial process whereby economies of scale are sought to meet market needs. Niche tourism
being of a smaller scale can be more easily monitored, planned, managed and can offer a more
widespread benefit to the community. Butler (2007, 12) states that “small-scale developments
45
of tourism, all other things being equal, could reasonably be expected to have fewer and less
severe impacts than large-scale developments and thus be more sustainable”.
Tourism
consumption has become increasingly based on advanced travelling experiences and selective
knowledge of choices and destinations according to particular needs, wants, and desires. Given
this particular knowledge of choices a specific type of tourism is now emerging offering a
controversial choice to tourists.
Dark Tourism
In 1996 two professors of Glasgow Caledonian University in Scotland came up with the
concept of Dark Tourism. “Dark Tourism” is a study within the tourism field that deals with
sites associated with death or the macabre. Lennon and Foley (2002) describe dark tourism as
“a commodification of anxiety and doubt.” Following on the heels of Lennon and Foley many
other academics (Stone 2006; Tarlow 2005; Walter 2009; Seaton 1996) have attempted to
define dark tourism? These definitions include:

“Travel to locations wholly or partially motivated by the desire for actual or symbolic
encounters with death” (Seaton 1996, 237)

“Visitations to places where tragedies or historically noteworthy death has occurred and
that continue to impact our lives” (Tarlow 2005, 48)

“The act of travel to sites associated with death, suffering and the seemingly macabre”
(Stone 2006, 146)

“Contemporary dark tourism does not present death per se, but rather represents certain
kinds of death” (Walter 2009, 74)
These authors among others have paved the way for many in the academic field to better
understand what dark tourism really is.
People discovered that dark tourism can be
commercialized as a new form of tourism, many sites became labelled as a dark site and many
46
new studies have emerged to properly explain the phenomenon of dark tourism. Yet as much
as dark tourism would like to be thought of as a “form of special interest tourism” (Farmaki
2013, 287) it must be understood that dark tourism has had its roots in cultures and the history
of the world and has been transmitted down the ages to present day. Dunkley et al. (2007)
following in the footsteps of other authors went ahead and sub divided dark tourism into
segmented types which can either stand alone or can become part of a whole. For example,
warfare tourism can become part of genocide tourism. The different sub segments of dark
tourism are:
1.
Horror Tourism – which involves the visitation of sites associated with murder, torture
and infamous crime, such tourism, is reminiscent of the torture chambers of the past or the
brutal murders committed
2.
Grief Tourism – this tourism is divided into two parts firstly it involves visiting the
burial sites or resting places of the victims of tragedy, and secondly it includes sites famous for
their association with death.
3.
Hardship Tourism – involves the visiting of sites where individuals have experienced
or are experiencing human hardship, struggle and in many cases death
4.
Tragedy Tourism – this tourism involves natural/accidental or deliberate/premeditated
disasters or accidents, whether on a global or local scale to individual or mass effect.
5.
Warfare tourism – tourism that includes portraying every aspect of war, including
battlefields, war museums, battle re-enactments and war memorials.
6.
Genocide Tourism – involves visiting sites associated with exposing the deliberate
killing of people or a nation.
47
7.
Extreme Thana tourism – involves a connection with ‘live’ events: the witnessing of
death and depravation or associated rituals as they happen.
Given the many sub segments within the realm of dark tourism the researcher chose to
investigate the role of “Extreme Thana Tourism” in the Hispanic festival of the Day of the
Dead celebrated in the community of Orange Walk, Belize.
Day of the Dead
Every culture has remembrances to their deceased. The Mestizo culture portrays and celebrates
those remembrances in a distinctive way. This celebration is known today by many names, yet
all of them mean the same thing “el dia de Animas (Soul’s day), el dia de los Finados (The day
of the deceased), or el dia de los fieles difuntos (The day of the faithful departed)” (Brandes
2006, 6). On these days emphasis is placed on the return of the deceased, as if a member of
the family is returning after a long journey. Entire families go through enormous efforts to
prepare for the day and the altars to perfection “it is important to take into account the respect
that families have for the deceased and the conscientiousness with which they prepare the
altars, out of affection for the dead” (Cervera 2004, 35). The celebration of the day of the dead
coincides with the liturgical calendar of All Saints day and All Soul’s day of the Roman
Catholic Church yet this celebration has grown around these dates to take on a more
homogenous celebration to partially include the Church in its rituals.
Methodology
In trying to achieve a balance to better understand dark tourism the mixed method is considered
ideal to carry out the study. By combining both the quantitative and qualitative approaches it
reduces the limitations such research brings. In other words, the approach seeks to maximize
on the strengths of the two research types and minimize the limitations that are characteristic
48
in single method research studies. The mixed methods approach would combine both a
questionnaire and a survey to better understand the community’s reactions to this type of
product. The research was conducted in the community of Orange Walk, Belize. Following
on the guidelines of Seaton’s (2009) heritage force field the questionnaire and survey were
directed to the 4 types of stakeholders namely the owners/controllers, Host Community, Subject
groups and visitor Groups.
Findings
Questionnaire: The data collection highlights the community’s view of such a tourism venture.
The questionnaire asks members of the community if they have heard about dark tourism and
if the introduction of such a tourism product would be accepted within the community. The
questionnaire reveals that 81% of the community have never heard of dark tourism, 70% of the
population went on to express that they do not think dark tourism can be introduced within the
community, and 61% of the population in the community expressed that the community would
not be accepting of using Day of the Dead as a dark tourism product.
Interviews: The semi structured interviews were administered to the tourism representatives
within the community and the gatekeepers that would influence the creation of a dark tourism
site. In the interviews a representative each of the Belize Tourism Industry Association,
National Institute of Culture and History, a hotel representative within the community and a
Jesuit of the Roman Catholic Church were interviewed. The responses gathered from these
representatives were that even though they applaud the heritage aspect of the tourism product
they foresee that since the celebration is heavily influenced by Catholic rituals many within the
community especially the non-Catholic denominations would be against it. When interviewing
Fr. Jose Antonio Vega superior of the Jesuit Order in Belize he explained that he understands
the allure of it but given that the day of the dead is considered a communion with God, it should
49
not be used to put on a “show”. Fr. Vega made very clear that given the sacredness of the
celebration and the Church’s view on the matter he would be certain that the community would
not be much receptive to the idea.
Discussion
It has been noted by the research that many obstacles exist within the community when it comes
to dark tourism and the day of the dead. One important factor that stands out among the
research is the conflict between religions when it comes to Day of the Dead and dark tourism.
One institution would like to keep the celebration as a religious sacred ritual to be used for the
consolation of their congregation while the other would like to secularize death so as to assert
their doctrine and make the pain of loss less pronounced.
Given that the two religious
institutions hold much ground within the community, there is much reluctance for the
participant’s willingness to venture into such a tourism product. Though many of the tourism
representatives accepted the heritage role in the celebration they also pointed out that this
specific celebration is too entrenched in religion for it to be used without angering a sector or
many sectors of the community.
Conclusion
Dark tourism has indeed had a very controversial beginning and continues to cause a stir within
the tourism industry. This research was done in the spirit to educate and introduce a new type
of tourism to the country of Belize, widely known more for its ecotourism package. Yet what
started as just an introduction of a tourism product delved into a deeper understanding of dark
tourism and the many emotions that come with it. No other tourism product has stirred the
imagination, controversy and emotions when it comes to dark tourism. Even in today’s ever
globalizing world death still holds sway and many either try to embrace it or try to repel it. The
study highlighted the need for further education into the matter and the proper introduction of
50
new tourism products within the community. Dark Tourism allows for the newer generation
to fully appreciate the concept of death and in the case of day of the dead also learn about the
cultural value attached to it.
References
Brandes Stanley. 1998 “The day of the dead, Halloween, and the Quest for Mexican National
Identity” Journal of American Folklore 111(442).
____________. 2006. Skulls to the living, Bread to the Dead. UK, Australia, USA: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Butler, W. Richard, 2007. “Sustainable Tourism: A State of the Art Review.” Tourism
Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment
1(1): 7-25
Cano Morales, L., and A. Mysyk. 2004. “Cultural Tourism, The State, and Day of the Dead.”
Annals of Tourism Research 31(4): 879-898
Cervera, Calero Gabriela. 2004. Hanal Pixan – Yesterday and Today the Mayan Ritual of the
dead. Mexico: Merida Yucatan.
Dunkley R., S. Westwood, and N. Morgan. 2007. “A shot in the dark? Developing a new
conceptual framework for thanatourism.” Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality
Research 1(1): 54-73
Farmaki, Anna. 2013. “Dark Tourism Revisited: A supply/demand Conceptualization.”
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research 7(3): 281-306
Lennon, John. 2005. “Journeys into understanding: what is dark tourism” The Sunday
Observer, October 23. Accessed March 3, 2014.
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2005/oct/23/darktourism.observerescapesection
Novelli, Marina. 2005. Niche Tourism – Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases. Oxford:
Elsevier Press.
Poe, Edgar Allen. 2010. Edgar Allen Poe – Collected Stories and Poems. Collector’s Library
Omnibus Editions. London: CRW Publishing Ltd.
Seaton, A. 1996. “Guided by the Dark: From Thanatopsis to Thanatourism.” International
Journal of Heritage Studies 2(4): 234-244
Seaton Tony. 2009. “Purposeful Otherness: Approaches to the Management of
Thanatourism.” In The Darker Side of Travel, edited by Richard Sharpley and Philip
R. Stone, 75-108. Bristol: Channel View Publications.
51
Stone, Phillip. 2006. “A Dark Tourism Spectrum: Towards a Typology of Death and The
Macabre Related Tourist Sites, Attractions and Exhibitions.” Tourism: An
interdisciplinary International Journal 54 (2): 145-160
Tarlow, P. 2005. “Dark Tourism – The Appealing ‘Dark’ Side of Tourism and More.” In
Niche Tourism – Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases, edited by Marina Novelli,
47-57.Oxford: Elsevier Press.
Walter, Tony, 2009. “Dark Tourism, Mediating between the Dead and the Living.” In The
Darker Side of Travel, edited by Richard Sharpley and Philip R. Stone, 39-55. Bristol:
Channel View Productions.
52
An Analysis into the Impact of Moderator Variables on the
Relationship between Relative Deprivation and Crime in Trinidad
among Males aged 16-30 years
ANNA R. RAGOONATH
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
Relative deprivation can lead to crime but this is not usually the case in empirical studies. In
spite of this, relative deprivation is reported to influence crime through moderator variables.
That is, under certain conditions relative deprivation can lead to crime while in the absence of
these conditions there is little to no relationship. These conditions can be specified as moderator
variables which affect the relative deprivation-crime relationship by either strengthening or
weakening this relationship. The moderator variables used in this research include criminal
peers, criminal values/attitudes, low self-control and illegal opportunities. However, for the
purpose of this paper emphasis will be placed on criminal peers. Secondary data was utilized
which was gathered through a survey conducted throughout Trinidad among males 16-30 years.
The research instrument used was a questionnaire which consisted of closed ended questions
and was conducted in the form of face to face interviews. In analysing the data, the median
split approach was used. The results indicated that the relationship between relative deprivation
and crime was stronger in the presence of criminal peers while the relationship weakened in
the absence of criminal peers. Therefore, this paper assesses the impact of criminal peers have
on the relative deprivation-crime relationship.
Keywords: Impact; moderator variables; relative deprivation; crime; Trinidad; males
53
Introduction
There are many factors that have been attributed to the causation of crime in society. One such
factor is relative deprivation, a term coined by Stouffer, Suchman, DeVinney, Star, and
Williams (1974) in their study of American soldiers. For the purpose of this paper relative
deprivation is limited to its economic aspect. Although it can be argued that relative deprivation
influences crime (see Figure 1 below) this is typically not the case in empirical studies. In spite
of this, it is postulated that relative deprivation can lead to crime in the presence of moderator
variables. A moderator variable is a third variable that affects the direction and/or strength of
the independent or predictor variable and the dependent or criterion variable (Baron and Kenny
1986). Criminal peers was used as the moderating variable. The moderator variable will be
analysed to determine its impact on the relationship between relative deprivation and crime.
For the purpose of this paper the emphasis will be on the moderator variable criminal peers.
However, there were three other moderators used in the study which includes criminal
values/attitudes, low self-control and illegal opportunities.
Relative Deprivation and Crime
The term relative deprivation refers to the discontent that people feel when they compare their
position to those around them and realize that they have less than which they believe
themselves to be entitled (Boundless 2014, 2). That is, relative deprivation is a situation where
an individual compares themselves to other people (who are similar to them in terms of
economic and social standards) and is of the belief that they have gotten less than they are
entitled to. The foundation theories of relative deprivation postulate that there are some people
who are dissatisfied with what they have as compared to what they believe they are entitled to
in reference to other persons or groups while others do not experience dissatisfaction (Davis
1959; Gurr 1968a, 1968b; Davies 1962; Runciman 1960; Crosby 1979).
54
The persons that experience this dissatisfaction are the ones who feel relatively deprived. It is
therefore argued that the disparity between what an individual has and what an individual feels
they are entitled to may lead the individual to find some solution to correct this disparity, one
of which is the engagement of crime. However, it is argued that relative deprivation can lead
to crime in the presence of certain conditions such in the presence of moderators (Agnew 1999;
Agnew Cullen, Burton, Evans and Dunway 1996; Kaplan and Lin 2000). That is to say even
though individuals are dissatisfied with their situation they would be more likely to respond
using criminal acts if there is a third variable present (such as criminal peers) rather than in the
absence of the third or moderating variable.
Criminal peers as a moderator
Criminal behaviour is often argued to be learned behaviour (Sutherland 1947). Many
researchers have highlighted the importance of social interaction in comprehending criminal
behaviour (Bayer, Hjalmarsson and Pozen 2009) The social interaction that occurs between
peers replace formal networking with informal networking, allows for the dissemination of
knowledge and skills needed to commit criminal acts. Criminal behaviour is learnt through
these interactions as criminal peers act as role models to persons reinforcing the values and
attitudes needed to commit criminal acts.
Agnew (1999) postulates that criminal peers can emphasize the notion that crime is an
appropriate and reasonable response to deprivation. In a study conducted by Agnew, Cullen,
Burton, Evans and Dunaway (1996), criminal peers were tested as moderators of relative
deprivation. Agnew et al. (1996) found that criminal peers moderated the relationship between
relative deprivation and crime. Their findings indicated that in the presence of high criminal
peers, relative deprivation will lead to crime. However, when there were low levels of criminal
peers, relative deprivation most likely would not lead to crime. Therefore, in the presence of
55
criminal peers, relative deprivation will most likely lead to crime rather than in the absence of
criminal peers.
Hypothesis
The following hypothesis was derived from the literature review. That is to say based the
existing literature there were several gaps that were discovered. In order to account for the gaps
and provide some solution a hypothesis was developed. The hypothesis derived test the
influence of criminal peer on the relative deprivation-crime relationship. It states that in the
presence of criminal peers, relative deprivation would lead to crime rather than in the absence
of criminal peers.
H1: Relative deprivation is more likely to lead to crime for persons who have criminal peers
than for those who do not.
Methodology
A quantitative research design was used for data collection and analysis. A secondary data set
was utilized in this study. The survey type method was used to gather data using a questionnaire
as the research instrument. The questionnaire consists of a number of pre-set closed ended
questions conducted in the form of face to face interviews. The sample was randomly chosen
with a sample size of 950 male participants between 16-30 years throughout Trinidad. There
was a 100% response rate. The median split approach was used to analyse the effect of
moderation which was done by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Results
Median Split Method
The median split method of moderation analysis was used to examine the influence of
moderators on the relationship between relative deprivation and crime. Crime within
56
respondents’ lifetime was the dependent variable, relative deprivation was the independent
variable and criminal peers was the moderator variable used in the analysis. The median split
method requires the sample to be split into two subsamples. The sample was split using the
median score of criminal peers. The median score for criminal peers was calculated as 2.75.
One group consisted of high scores or scores above the median for criminal peers (criminal
peers > 2.75) while the other group consisted of low scores or scores below the median for
criminal peers (criminal peers < 2.75).
The relationship between relative deprivation and individual crime was calculated using
Pearson’s Correlation under the condition criminal peers > 2.75. This represented persons who
are associated with criminal peers, those above the median. For persons who had a high number
of criminal peers, r = .216 (p<.001), there was a positive relationship between relative
deprivation and crime. The coefficient from the regression analysis showed that under the
condition (criminal peers > 2.75) relative deprivation significantly predicted variance in crime
r2 =.046 (p <.001). This indicates that under the present condition relative deprivation
accounted for 4.6% of variance in crime.
On the other hand, under the condition criminal peers > 2.75, that is, persons who are below
the median or have little to no association with criminal peers, relative deprivation was a
weaker predictor of crime. That is, r = .079 (p < .087). The coefficient from the regression
analysis showed that under the condition (criminal peers < 2.75) relative deprivation is
insignificant at predicting crime (r2 =.006 (p <.087). Therefore, this indicates that relative
deprivation is a stronger predictor of crime in the presence of high levels of criminal peers but
in the absence or low levels of criminal peers, relative deprivation is a weak predictor of crime.
It should be noted that the other three moderators produced similar results as criminal peers
using the median split method of moderation analysis.
57
Conclusion
This paper attempted to analyse the impact moderator variables have on the relationship
between relative deprivation and crime in Trinidad. Through the use of statistical analysis, it
was shown that in the presence of criminal peers (moderator) relative deprivation is a stronger
predictor of crime. However, in the absence of criminal peers, relative deprivation is a weak
predictor of crime. Similar results were produced using the other three moderators as well.
Therefore, this indicates that persons who experience relative deprivation have a greater chance
of committing criminal activities in the presence of moderators rather than in the absences of
moderators.
References
Agnew, Robert, T. Francis Cullen, Velmer S. Burton Jr., David T. Evans, and G.R. Dunaway.
1996. “A New Test of Classic Strain Theory.” Justice Quarterly 13(4): 681-704.
Agnew, Robert. 1999. “A General Strain Theory of Community Differences in Crime Rates.”
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36(2): 123-155.
Bayer. P., R. Hjalmarsson, and D. Pozen. 2009. “Building Criminal Capital Behind Bars:
Peer Effect in Juvenile Corrections.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (1):
105-147.
Baron, R. and D. Kenny. 1986. “The Moderator-Mediator Distinction in Social Psychological
Research: Conceptual, Strategic and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 51: 1173 - 1182.
Boundless. “Relative Deprivation Approach.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 27 Jun.
2014. Retrieved 03 Apr. 2015.
https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociologytextbook/social-change-21/social-movements-140/relative-deprivation-approach-7711936.
Crosby, Faye. 1979. “Relative Deprivation Revisited: A Response to Miller, Bolce and
Halligan.” The American Political Science Review 73(1): 103-112.
Davies, James C. 1962. “Toward a Theory of Revolution.” American Sociological Review
27(1): 5-19.
Davis, James A. 1959. “A Formal Interpretation of the Theory of Relative Deprivation.”
Sociometry 22(4): 280-296.
58
Gurr, Ted R. 1968a. “Psychological Factors in Civil Violence.” World Politics 20(2): 245278.
________. 1968b. “A Causal Model of Civil Strife: A Comparative Analysis Using New
Indices.” The American Political Science Review 62(4): 1104-1124.
Gurr, Ted R., Richard Jensen, and Hugh Davis Graham. 1969. Violence in America: Historical
and Comparative Perspectives: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes
and Prevention of Violence National commission on the causes and prevention of
violence, Vol. 2. California: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Kaplan, H. B., and C. Lin, C. 2000. Deviant Identity as a Moderator of the Relation between
Negative Self-feelings and Deviant Behavior.” Journal of Early Adolescence. Special
Issue: Self-esteem in early adolescence: Part II 20(2): 150-177.
Runciman, W.G. 1966. Relative Deprivation and Social Justice: A Study of Attitudes to
Social Inequality in Twentieth-century England. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Stouffer, S., E. Suchman, L. DeVinney, S. Star, and R. Williams. 1949. The American
Soldier: Adjustments During Army Life (Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press
Sutherland, Edwin H. 1947. Principles of Criminology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
59
An Investigation of the Pre-Release Programmes and PostRelease Services Needed to Reduce Recidivism in Trinidad and
Tobago: Female Inmates’ Perspectives
SHERRY ANN RAMDEO
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
There is a paucity of academic research concerning the pre- and post-release needs of female
inmates in Trinidad and Tobago. The extant literature indicates that the programming needs of
females are different from those of males and that gender-responsive programming may lead
to more positive outcomes for female offenders. This study sought to better understand those
factors that contribute to recidivism and the effectiveness of prison-based programming from
the female inmates’ perspective. Semi-structured interviews of female inmates at the Golden
Grove Women’s Prison explored the participation in and utility of existing pre- and post-release
programmes and services. Consensus emerged regarding the efficacy of current programming
and the resources needed to improve them as well as policy recommendations needed to reduce
the risk of recidivism among this population.
Keywords: pre-release programmes, post-release services, recidivism, female offenders,
Trinidad and Tobago.
60
Introduction
There is a paucity of academic research concerning the pre-and post-release needs of female
inmates in Trinidad and Tobago and an association between the availability of services that
address those needs with the rates of recidivism. The etiology of female recidivism is a
worldwide concern as prisons struggle to address the needs of returning female inmates and,
by extension, public safety. There has been an increase in research in recent times that focus
upon gender-specific approaches and gender-responsiveness to dealing with female criminality
in an attempt to better understand the factors that contribute to recidivism (see Bloom and
Covington 1998; Covington and Bloom 2000, 2007; van Wormer 2010). Once the factors that
contribute to recidivism are understood, solutions that may decrease the rates of recidivism
among female offenders can be provided (Zamble and Quinsey 1977; Banks 2003; van Wormer
2010).
Gender-responsiveness seeks to address women’s issues and realities by developing
programmes, content and material that treat with women’s needs. Social and cultural factors
such as poverty, class, and gender as well as abuse, violence, family relationships, substance
abuse, and mental disorders and other co-morbidities are acknowledged in an attempt to build
the individual’s skills and promote self-efficacy. Women’s pathways to criminality have been
acknowledged as unique from those of men and multidimensional approaches that are based
on theoretical perspectives need to be developed (Covington and Bloom 2000). Developing
gender- responsive programmes may assist in decreasing the rates of recidivism among female
inmates.
In Trinidad and Tobago, policies and services have focused primarily on male offenders and
this approach has been justified not only because female offenders commit fewer and less
violent crimes than men but also because female offenders account for only 2.67% of the total
number confined (The International Centre for Prison Studies 2014). However, this problem is
61
not limited to Trinidad and Tobago since there is a paucity of gender-responsive programmes
for dealing with women who are already in prisons worldwide, and who upon release may
recidivate because of a lack of services available to assist them with successfully reintegrating
into society (Bloom 1999; Covington and Bloom 2007; Kempf-Leonard 1998; Koons et al.
1997).
In order to decrease recidivism, it is necessary to understand the factors that existed in the
individual’s life prior to incarceration and how these factors affected their offending
behaviours. Female offenders may have unique life experiences and issues and understanding
these experiences and issues may assist with developing programming that decrease the risk of
them re-offending. The pathway perspective (Daly 1992), the risk-needs-responsivity model
(Andrews, Bonta, and Hoge 1990) and feminist theories have contributed to the understanding
of the etiology of female criminality and can assist with developing programmes and services
that may reduce offending and re-offending by this population.
Research is indicating that the pathway to criminality is different for female offenders and they
have different needs from male offenders, addressing those specific needs may decrease the
likelihood of them recidivating. The risk-needs-responsivity (RNR) model (Andrews, Bonta,
and Hoge 1990) states that the risk of re-offending is linked to an inmate’s needs and individual
characteristics and it is relevant to their treatment needs therefore meeting those needs may
decrease recidivism. Feminist theories each offer different perspectives on gender relations in
society and the effect that those relations have on law, crime and criminal processing. Creating
gender-responsive programmes that treat with the specific needs of female inmates may
decrease the risk of them re-offending.
The pre- and post-release needs of offenders in Trinidad and Tobago have not been studied
from the perspective of the female inmate. The purpose of this study is to investigate female
62
inmates’ needs from their perspective to provide what Webber (1992) described as policy
knowledge that will contribute to further policy recommendations to ameliorate the needs of
this population.
Methodology
A qualitative research method that is emic in nature was utilized in this study. Female offenders
at the Golden Grove Women’s Prison were interviewed using semi-structured interviews each
consisting of 12 open-ended questions. The purpose of the interviews was to gather data about
the pre-release programmes and post-release services offered by the prison system from the
inmates’ perspective. The interviews ranged from 30 to 90 minutes in length and were
conducted over a three-day period. The interview process was flexible and allowed participants
to not only answer the open-ended questions in their own words but also allowed for
spontaneity in regards to additional topics that were discussed based on what the inmate
perceived as important at the time. Theoretical saturation was accomplished during the 11th
interview. To confirm saturation, an additional four interviews were conducted and no new
data emerged. A total of 15 interviews were conducted for this study.
Analytical Framework
This study utilized Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic network analysis as its method of
analysis. Thematic network analysis is non-iterative, less complex and less time consuming
than other methods of analysis. This method allowed the researcher to identify, examine, and
record codes or keywords and develop themes that emerged from within the interviews.
Thematic networks systematize the extraction of basic themes which are the lowest-order
premises evident in the text; organizing themes which are categories of basic themes grouped
together to summarize more abstract principles; and global themes which are the super-ordinate
themes encapsulating the principal metaphors in the text as a whole (Attride-Stirling 2001).
63
The steps involved in analysing the data from this study were: (1) coding the material which
involved examining each interview transcript line-by-line and extracting salient and/or
reoccurring words and phrases as well as specific topics or words that were relevant to the
research questions. The extracted text was reduced to codes, that is, phrases, single words and
sentences and they were placed in a new document. This process continued until all the data
was reduced to codes. The interviews were re-read to ensure that all relevant codes were
identified and extracted; (2) Identifying themes: A total of 101 codes were identified from over
600 text segments and were grouped into 12 basic themes, these basic themes emerged from
the repeated analysis of the coded data which focused on themes that were common and salient
throughout the interviews; (3) Constructing the thematic network: The 12 basic themes were
revised and summarized to more abstract principles or organizing themes as the analysis
progressed (Attride-Stirling 2001), a total of four organizing themes emerged. The global
theme of Reduced recidivism emerged from the clustering and interaction of the four organizing
themes. Table 1-1 illustrates the relationship between the basic, organizing and global themes
that emerged from this study.
64
Table 1-1: Relationship between Basic-Organizing-Global Themes
Basic Themes
Organizing Themes
Pre-release programmes offered
Pre-release programmes
Global Theme
inconsistently
Problems with programmes
Pre-release programmes needed
Treatment
Rehabilitative treatments
Counselling
Reduced
Support
recidivism
Pathway to criminality
Spirituality
Improvements
Legal System
Prison and justice system
changes
Financial/housing post-release services
Post-release services
needed
needed
Self-help post-release services needed.
Source: Fieldwork (2014)
Findings
The findings indicate that from the perspective of the female inmates, pre-release programmes
and post-release services are needed to assist them with successfully reintegrating into society,
thereby decreasing the likelihood of them recidivating. The current pre-release programmes
65
are thought to be helpful; however, the inmates felt that academic pre-release programmes that
lead to the accomplishment of degrees in areas such as psychology, law and social work are
needed and will increase the likelihood of employment at post-release. Vocational pre-release
programmes such as interior decorating, agriculture, cosmetology and animal rearing among
others were identified by the inmates as necessary to assist them with self-employment upon
release.
All inmates indicated that counselling is needed to treat with their psychological issues such as
past traumas, anger and depression. Increased visitation from their children, family and friends
and self-help programmes such as parenting classes as well as drug rehabilitation programmes
are needed at pre- and post-release to increase the likelihood of the inmates successfully reintegrating into society. All inmates indicated that improvements are needed in the
administration of the current pre-release programmes; for example, there is a need for
consistency in course offerings, for up-to-date books as well as for teachers to facilitate the
courses to their completion.
The inmates also outlined a number of areas they felt needed improvements including adjusting
the times that meals are served, in particular dinner which is served at 4 -5pm and then there
are no meals served until breakfast the next day which is at 7am. Other areas identified were:
being paid fairer salaries for work done in prison, having gym facilities to assist with
maintaining their health and restocking of the canteen for visitors to be able to purchase
necessities for the inmates. Legal system changes such as greater sentencing options, time off
for good behaviour, instituting a parole system and the use of ankle bracelets were identified
by the inmates as areas for consideration. These legal system changes mentioned by the inmates
are outside the scope of this thesis, however, it is an area of concern among the inmates.
66
All inmates felt that post-release services such as assistance with employment, housing,
financial assistance in the form of loans, acquiring documents such as national identification
cards, birth papers, and driver’s licenses, counselling to re-establish and maintain bonds with
their children, family and community and continued drug rehabilitation programmes are
needed. At the time the interviews were conducted there were no post-release services being
offered by the prison service; however, some of the religious organizations do offer temporary
housing for female offenders. Additionally, all inmates indicated that accessible pre-release
programmes and post-release services will be utilized and will help reduce the likelihood of
them recidivating.
Conclusion
Gender-responsive pre-release programmes and post-release services may decrease the rates of
recidivism among female offender in Trinidad and Tobago. This research found that from the
perspective of the female inmates, pre-release programmes and post-release services are
needed to assist them with successfully reintegrating into society, thereby decreasing the
likelihood of them recidivating. This research adds to the body of knowledge on the pre- and
post-release needs of female offenders in Trinidad and Tobago and it contributes knowledge
that may be used in policy formation to ameliorate the needs of this population. Future
researchers may consider conducting this type of research with male offenders to understand
from their perspective their pre- and post-release needs in an attempt to decrease the risk of
them recidivating.
67
References
Andrews, D.A., K. Bonta, and R.D. Hoge. 1990. “Classification for Effective Rehabilitation:
Rediscovering Psychology.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 17(1): 19-52.
Attride-Stirling, J. 2001. “Thematic Networks: An Analytic Tool for Qualitative Research.”
Qualitative Research 1(3): 385-405.
Banks, C. 2003. Women in Prison A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, California: ABCCLIO Inc.
Bloom, B. 1999. “Gender-responsive Programming for Women Offenders: Guiding
Principles and Practices.” Forum on Corrections Research 11(3): 22-27.
Bloom, B., and S. Covington. 1998. “Defining ‘gender-specific’: What does it mean and Why
is it Important?” Paper presented at National Institute of Correction’s Intermediate
Sanctions for Women Offenders National Meeting, Longmont, CO, September, 1998.
Covington, S., and B. Bloom. 2000. “Gendered Justice: Programming for Women in
Correctional Settings.” Paper presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the American
Society of Criminology, San Francisco, California, November, 2000.
______________________.2007. “Gender Responsive Treatment and Services in
Correctional Settings.” Women & Therapy 29(3-4): 9-33.
Daly, K. 1992. “Women’s Pathways to Felony Court: Feminist Theories of Lawbreaking and
Problems of Representation.” Review of Law and Women’s Studies 2: 11-52.
Kempf-Leonard, K. 1998. “Disparity Based on Sex: Is Gender-specific Treatment
Warranted.” Paper presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Annual
Meeting. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Koons, B., J. Burrow, M. Morash, and T. Bynum. 1997. “Expert and Offender Perceptions of
Program Elements Linked to Successful Outcomes for Incarcerated Women.” Crime
& Delinquency 43(4): 512-532.
The International Centre for Prison Studies. 2014. “Trinidad and Tobago.” Accessed
http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/trinidad-and-tobago
van Wormer, K. 2010. Working with Female Offenders a Gender-Sensitive Approach.
Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Webber, D.J. 1992. “The Distribution and Use of Policy Knowledge in the Policy Process.”
Policy Studies 10: 383–418.
Zamble, E., and V. L. Quinsey. 1997. The Criminal Recidivism Process. Cambridge U.K.:
Cambridge University Press.
68
‘Outta Order’: A Study on Young Women brought before the
Courts in Trinidad and Tobago for Behaviour related Offences
JOLENE ROMAIN
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
Previous research in the area of delinquency mainly emphasized issues relating to boys. Thus,
research specific to girls was seen as necessary to enhance the limited knowledge available on
the topic. The present study examined issues which resulted in girls being brought before the
Courts in Trinidad and Tobago for being beyond parental control. The study sought to
understand this issue from the perspective of the lived experiences of eight (8) young women,
who were institutionalized for misconduct at a correctional institution in Trinidad and Tobago.
In its final stages, the study advocated for a more sensitive and female specific restorative
approach to treating with these matters in Trinidad and Tobago. The study’s aim was to raise
awareness of the foundational issues that contributed to the behaviour exhibited by the girls
studied. The study utilized semi-structured interviews and a qualitative data analysis. The
findings revealed underlying factors that contribute to the existence of girls being beyond
control. There are numerous implications emanating from this study for legislators, policy
makers and social work practitioners in Trinidad and Tobago. These implications and results
would be briefly discussed.
Keywords: “Outta” order; young women; Courts; Trinidad and Tobago; behaviour related
offences
69
Introduction
‘Outta Order’ is a term in the local youth parlance of Trinidad and Tobago which is used to
refer to a person who is rude or a dysfunctional situation. Like any other colloquial phrase, it
can be used to translate the message the communicator wants to send to the audience. In this
instance, it is used to jolt readers into the reality of the circumstances faced by young women
in the juvenile justice system. In addition to the aforementioned, this article has been used as a
forum to discuss the plight of these young women in relation to their life experiences and the
origination of their behavioural challenges.
This article begins by defining the key terms utilized in the study. It then outlines the
methodology, explains the rationale for the study, highlights the statement of the problem,
briefly touches on the literature review, and itemizes some of the findings of the study before
concluding. It concludes by making a plea to continue bringing to the fore the issues faced by
these young women, so that more informed state policies and decisions can be made.
Definition of Terms
Trinidad and Tobago is ‘an independent republic in the West Indies, comprising the islands of
Trinidad and Tobago’ (Dictionary.com, Random House Inc., 2015). A young woman in the
context of this article refers to a female who has not yet attained the age of adulthood.
According to the Act No. 12 of 2012 (The Children’s Act of Trinidad and Tobago), a child is
defined as ‘a person under the age of eighteen years’. The Courts in this article refers to the
legally recognized forum for the settlement of disputes through the application of legal forms
and principles. In this instance specific reference is made to magisterial courts, where juvenile
matters are presided over. Behaviour related offences denotes for the purpose of this article,
juvenile matters, particularly those where children are brought to the court as beyond control.
70
In Trinidad and Tobago, the Children Act, No. 12 of 2012 is the guiding legislation for juvenile
offenders in the island, yet the Act does not define the term ‘juvenile’ or ‘juvenile offender’;
however, it outlines that a Court in which a magistrate hears charges against or applications
related to children shall be referred to as a Juvenile Court (Trinidad and Tobago 2012). A
person who falls into the category of ‘juvenile’ in Trinidad and Tobago is under the age of
eighteen (18) years and is generally assumed to be an adolescent. The Children Act, No. 12 of
2012 (Trinidad and Tobago) outlines in Section 61 that a child can be brought before a Court
as beyond control ‘where a parent, guardian or person with responsibility for a child proves to
a Court with jurisdiction in family matters that he is unable to control the child, and he desires
the child to be sent to a Community Residence under this Part, the Court shall order that the
child be brought to the attention of the Children’s Authority.’ The Act further provides in
Section 62 for the child, if seen as necessary, to be placed under the supervision of a Probation
officer.
Rationale for the Study
Previous research in the area of delinquency favoured tracking the trends of boys as it relates
to being beyond control. Shaffner (2006) highlighted that “academic studies, policy
development and funding have and continue to focus on the situations and experiences of
boys.” However, delinquency in girls has been proven to be a growing issue locally and
regionally. Therefore, examining the factors that contribute to delinquency in girls was
important to enhance the limited knowledge available on the topic. This study was unique in
its exploration, as no prior studies were found to have addressed the issue of juvenile
delinquency from this perspective.
Statement of the Problem
Statistics obtained from the Family Court of Trinidad and Tobago (2012) revealed that from
the period May, 2006 to November, 2010, the Family Court dealt with a total of seven hundred
71
and sixty-two (762) beyond control cases. It should be noted that this Court provides
magisterial services to persons residing in the western part of the country, extending eastward
to the district of San Juan. Statistical trends indicated that children between the ages of fourteen
(14) and fifteen (15) years old accounted for the highest number of beyond control cases at the
Family Court in all its years of existence. Instructively, this problem is not unique to Trinidad
and Tobago. Statistical information has proven that youth delinquency rose in the 1990s in
virtually all parts of the world. For example, in a study conducted by the United States
Department of Justice (2010) the results indicated that there was an increase in delinquency in
girls between 1991 and 2000, but by 2004, girls accounted for thirty per cent (30%) of all
juvenile arrests in the United States of America. On the other hand, Western Europe saw a fifty
per cent (50%) increase in juvenile delinquency between the mid-1980s and the late 1990s and
since 1995 Eastern Europe has been experiencing dramatic increases in juvenile delinquency
(Cox 2013).
Deosaran and Chadee (1997) point out the complexity in the definition and use of the term
delinquency. For example, Deosaran and Chadee (1997) quoted Savitz (1967, 15-16), who
defined delinquency as “all crimes for which adults are liable, plus many other acts which are
prohibited only to juveniles until they reach adulthood, are subsumed under “delinquency.”
Purely juvenile delinquencies include such offences as truancy, incorrigibility, and running
away from home, as well as some rather trivial offences…such as use of obscene language,
street-corner lounging, visiting “gaming places” and smoking cigarettes.’ In light of this
definition, juvenile delinquency constitutes both criminal/non-criminal, acts by youthful
offenders.
A UNICEF (1997) synthesis of studies report on juvenile justice in the Caribbean, which was
conducted in 1997 revealed that children have been used by adults in carrying out criminal
activities, such as transport and peddling of drugs, robbery, larceny and house breaking. In
72
Barbados, Belize, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago girls in particular have been known to be
used in sex crimes, such as pornography and prostitution. The report also highlighted that
juveniles have been found to be involved in crimes on their own accord. These crimes included
wounding, armed robbery, rapes and murder, as well as offenses, such as using obscene
language, possession of weapons, guns and ammunition.
Although research has not revealed any gender specific statistical trends for Trinidad and
Tobago as well as the Caribbean region, the problem of youth crime and delinquency is now
more recognized than in previous years and is no longer an issue ascribed solely to boys. It has
also been documented that there has been an increase in crime committed by persons under the
age of twenty-five (25) in Trinidad and Tobago (UNCEF 1997). Lambert-Peterson (2007, 149)
also highlighted this upsurge in juvenile offending as she proffers the view that “there has been
great concern in Trinidad and Tobago in recent years about the level of juvenile delinquency
and the increased number of young persons within the criminal justice system on very serious
criminal or capital charges.” Data from the International Centre for Prison Studies (2012)
indicates that of an estimated annual prison population of three thousand, eight hundred (3,800)
persons in Trinidad and Tobago in 2012, juveniles and minors constituted 6.4% of the
incarcerated population.
Literature Review
The prevalence of juvenile delinquency in girls has been climbing slowly since 1986 (see
Chesney-Lind and Sheldon 1999). This population accounts for the fastest growing segment in
the juvenile justice system in America (Acoca 1999). However, although statistical trends
continue to show an increase in delinquency in girls in America, boys still comprise the higher
number of juvenile delinquents (Knoll and Sickmund 2012). A study on children beyond
parental control in Singapore revealed the opposite to the trends in America. The study showed
that girls accounted for a total of sixty five per cent (65%) of the juvenile population in that
73
country (Ching 1996). Indeed, girls are no longer the ‘forgotten few’ in the juvenile justice
system (Bergsmann 1989). The seemingly global trend towards increased juvenile delinquency
in girls’ raises the question of how this has come to pass and what are the factors contributing
to this phenomenon. Research studies have revealed that there are many contributing factors to
female juvenile delinquency. These factors include low socio-economic background,
personality, and a history of crime among family members or peers, mental health problems,
high levels of negative life events, sexual abuse and maltreatment.
Methodology
The study was geared towards exploring the precipitating factors resulting in the phenomenon
of girls beyond parental control in Trinidad and Tobago. The study unveiled these factors by
understanding the lived experiences of eight (8) girls, who were remanded to a correctional
institution by Magistrates in various districts in the country for behavioural offences.
Semi-structured interviews were utilized in the collection of data. The study challenged
whether the girls exhibited negative behavioural patterns as a coping mechanism for the
emotional distress brought on them by traumatic incidents in their lives.
Findings
In fulfilling the purpose of this study it was important to understand the life experiences of the
girls prior to their institutionalization to determine whether there was a relationship between
their behaviour and their life circumstances. The findings of the study emerged under themes,
some of which were; ‘my own way’, family history of crime, family instability. Six (6) of the
eight (8) participants disclosed that they chose to do things their own way and act against the
advice or guidance of their parents and relatives. The responses of the participants indicated
that doing things their ‘own way’ gave them a sense of autonomy over their lives. Family
history of crime was a factor that emerged in only one of the participants of the study. However,
74
it was an important contribution, as the participant’s mind-set and orientation appeared to be
built strongly around a life of crime. Family instability was reported to have been experienced
by four (4) of the eight (8) participants were reported to have been affected by varying degrees
of family instability such as; unstable living arrangements, poor family relationships, low
income family backgrounds and unhealthy family relationships.
Conclusion
The issue of juvenile delinquency in girls is a serious social problem in modern society. Women
in today’s world are geared towards seeking upward mobility and equal rights. However, this
social problem, if not managed well, stands to stunt the progress of many young women.
According to Schaffner (2006), “a correlation can be drawn with young women’s early
experiences of harm and exploitation and later problems with juvenile authorities” (Schaffner
2006, 5). Behavioural problems in girls also often result in a lack of education and further
victimization for their problems, due to the lack of resources in many countries to address the
issues faced by girls. Young women brought into the Court system and placed in correctional
institutions often leave at the age of eighteen (18) years with little to no support and a history
of behavioural problems. This leaves such girls vulnerable to many risk factors, such as
unstable living arrangements, abusive relationships, unwanted pregnancies, prostitution,
substance addiction and a life of crime.
It is important to understand the depth of this problem and the experiences of the young women.
The author’s experience has pointed to the fact that in addition to the presenting problems in
these situations, there are underlying factors to the behaviour of the girls. It is believed that
these girls have for the most part adopted non-conformist behaviour as a poor coping
mechanism to treating with trauma and deep emotional disturbances in their lives. It is only
75
when the underlying factors for such negative behavioural patterns are understood fully, then
social service and other professionals can work towards providing more effective interventions.
In recent times, it has been reported that the media has focused more attention on female
juvenile crime, but their emphasis has been noted to be mostly around sensationalized issues,
such as “girls and gangs” (Bloom and Covington 2001). Due to this emphasis, research on
issues, policies and programs for at-risk adolescent females has for the most part been ignored
(Bloom and Covington 2001). Information on the experiences of girls is therefore sparse and
this area requires more attention from researchers, gender specialists, legislators, policy makers
and social service professionals. Perhaps this is a reflection of society’s deeper thoughts on
women’s rights and development, despite efforts towards a more gender inclusive world.
References
Acoca, Leslie. 1999. Juvenile Justice: Investing in Girls a 21st Century Strategy. Washington,
DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of
Justice.
Bergsman, Ilene R. 1989. “The Forgotton Few: Juvenile Female Offenders.” Federal
Probation 53(1): 73-78.
Bloom, Barbara., and Stephanie Covington. 2001. “Effective Gender-Responsive Intervention
in Juvenile Justice: Addressing the Lives of Delinquent Girls.” Paper presented at the
2001 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, Georgia,
November 7-10, 2001.
Chesney-Lind, Meda., and Sheldon, Randall G. 1999. “Juvenile Delinquency in Girls.” In
Juvenile Justice Investing in Girls a 21st Centry Strategy, edited by Leslie Acoca, 335. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S.
Department of Justice.
Trinidad and Tobago. 2012. Children Act, No. 12 of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain,
Trinidad: Judiciary of Trinidad and Tobago.
Ching, L.H. 1996. Children Beyond Control. Research Bulletin. Singapore: Subordinate
Courts.
Cox, P. 2010. “Juvenile Justice Around The World.” Youth Justice Journal Understanding and
Responding to Girls' Delinquency: 227-244. United States Department of Justice.
Accessed August 18, 2013. http://www.ncjrs.gov.pdf.
76
Deosaran, Ramesh, and Derek Chadee. 1997. “Juvenile Delinquency in Trinidad and Tobago:
Challenges for Social Policy and Caribbean Criminology.” Criminal Journal of
Criminology and Social Psychology 37-83.
Dictionary.com Random House, Inc. 2015. Definition of Trinidad & Tobago. Accessed
September 19, 2015. http://www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/trinidadandtobago.
Family Court of Trinidad and Tobago (Statistician at the Family Court of Trinidad and Tobago)
2012. Interview by author, January 20, 2012, 2:00pm. The Family Court of Trinidad
and Tobago.
Knoll, C., and M. Sickmund. 2012. Juvenile Offenders and Victimization National Report.
United States of America: Office of Justice Programs.
Lambert-Perterson, B. 2007. “Juvenile Delinquency, Juvenile Justice and Legal Reform.” In
Crime, Delinquency and Justice: A Caribbean Reader, edited by Ramesh Deosaran,
149-158. Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.
Savitz. L. 1967. Dilemmas in Criminology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Schaffner, L. 2006. Girls in Trouble with the Law. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
UNICEF. 1997. Synthesis of Studies. Juvenile Justice in the Caribbean. A Rights Approach to
Children in the Juvenile Justice System. Accessed September 25, 2013.
http://www.unicef.org/lac/.../synthesis.
77
Evidence-based Assessment and Treatment of a TrinidadianAmerican Adolescent Girl with Oppositional Defiant Disorder
SHARI ROSS
Florida International University
Abstract
The objective of this research paper is to determine whether the behavioural problems of an
American adolescent female of Trinidadian descent can be eliminated through the use of
evidence-based assessments and interventions. Oppositional defiant disorder is a type of
disruptive behaviour disorder that is characterized by negativistic patterns of defiance,
noncompliance and negativity toward authority figures. It is a growing concern as it is a leading
cause for parents of adolescents entering the mental health system. Two evidence-based
interventions were used to treat the adolescent including individual cognitive behavioural
therapy for the adolescent and parent training; specifically, the Community Parenting
Education Program (COPE) with her parents. Results showed that based on the evidence-based
assessments administered throughout the course of treatment, behavioural problems exhibited
in school and at home were greatly diminished. The adolescent’s cognitive awareness was also
improved. The parenting skills of both parents did not improve, likely due to a lack of treatment
adherence. Conclusions: Cognitive behavioural therapy can be effective when used with
adolescents of mixed American and Caribbean backgrounds. Parent training as a form of
intervention may be ineffective with parents of Trinidadian descent due to a lack of treatment
adherence and cultural influences.
Keywords: oppositional defiant disorder, disruptive behaviour disorder, adolescents
78
Introduction
Children and adolescents can sometimes be oppositional and defiant when met with the
demands of authority figures such as their parents, teachers or other adults to whom they must
answer. However, when the oppositionality and defiance are disproportionate to the
developmental stage of the individual, and when this oppositionality and defiance cause
detrimental problems and go on into adulthood, then a disruptive behaviour disorder might
exist. One such behaviour disorder is called Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). ODD is
defined as “a recurrent pattern of developmentally inappropriate levels of negativistic, defiant,
disobedient, and hostile behaviour toward authority figures” (Greene at al. 2002, 1214).
According to the diagnostic criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders 5 (DSM-5), ODD is “a pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant
behaviour, or vindictiveness lasting at least six months as evidenced by at least four symptoms
from any of the … categories, and exhibited during interaction with at least one individual who
is not a sibling” (American Psychological Association 2013, 462). The categories are as
follows: Angry/Irritable mood with symptoms of often losing temper, often being touchy or
easily annoyed and often being angry and resentful, Argumentative/Defiant behaviour with
symptoms including often arguing with adults or those in authority, actively defying or
noncompliance with requests and rules of authority figures, often deliberately annoying others
and often blaming others for their own mistakes and behaviour and Vindictiveness including
the symptom has been spiteful or vindictive at least twice within the past six months.
79
Evidence-based Assessment
Evidence-based assessments use research and theory to inform the selection of assessment
targets, methods and measures to be used and the manner in which the assessment process
will unfold and be evaluated (Hunsley and Mash 2007, 29). They are conducted for a number
of purposes including making an accurate diagnosis, helping to identify appropriate
treatment, monitoring treatment progress and screening individuals for a particular problem
or diagnosis.
Evidence-based Intervention
The American Psychological Association 2005 Presidential Task Force on Evidence Based
Practice defines and discusses evidence-based practice in psychology. A well-established
treatment is defined as having at least two randomised clinical trials with research having been
carried out by independent researchers. It is the integration of the best available research with
clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture and preferences (American
Psychological Association 2006, 272).
Materials and Methods
Case
The client, I.J. is a 15-year-old Caribbean American female who is in the 9th grade, and has met
the diagnostic criteria for ODD according to the DSM-5. She has been showing at least four
symptoms of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour and vindictiveness for at
least six months, disturbance in behaviour causing distress to the individual and others and
negatively impacting on different life domains. The symptoms were categorised as moderate
as they caused distress in two domains; home and school. The client also reports that she has
80
problems with anger management. The Diagnostic Impression she received according to the
DSM-5 is 313.81 Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Moderate.
Evidence-based Assessments
Two evidence-based assessments used during treatment include the Brief-FAM III and a Daily
Behaviour Report Card (DBRC) or Daily Report Card (DRC). The Brief-FAM III is a 14-item
screening measure that is used to assess the overall functioning of the family or to obtain a
basic idea of whether there are problems in family functioning. The items’ answers use a 4point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The raw scores that are
obtained are then age and family role (mother, father, daughter etc.) normed (T-scores) with a
mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
In order to get an idea of behavioural problems at school, one evidence-based assessment tool
used is the DBRC. DBRC’s have four characteristics (Vannest et al. 2010, 656) – they clearly
outline behaviour being targeted for modification, there is intermittent assessment of behaviour
measured on a value-judgment scale, there is a system by which behaviour is monitored on a
daily basis and there is a school to home communication component.
Other assessments used which were not evidence-based include the number of calls made home
by the school for negative behaviours, client self-report of use of skills learned in treatment,
client & parent self-report of treatment gains and clinical observation.
Evidence-based Intervention
Two evidence-based treatments were used. The first was used with the parents of the client and
is the Community Parent Education Program (COPE). This is a parent training community
based workshop for parents of children who have disruptive behaviour disorders between the
ages of 3 and 18. It includes four core elements: 1) interventions are conducted with parents,
81
2) there is emphasis on prosocial goals, 3) content includes instruction in the social learning
principles, addressing child behaviour, positive reinforcement, punishment and command
implementation and 4) techniques such as didactic instruction, modelling and role playing are
used. The programme typically has 13 identical sessions. The aims of COPE are to improve
availability, improve utilisation, improve parenting skills, build problem solving skills and
improve family functioning.
Cognitive-behavioural skills training is the second treatment used. It is a model of skills
training which assumes that when children and adolescents with behaviour problems
experience an anger or frustration arousing event, “their emotional, physiological, and
behavioural reactions are determined by their cognitive perceptions and appraisals of that
event, rather than by the event itself” (McMahon, Wells and Kotler 2006, 180). Therefore, the
focus of treatment is on these cognitive perceptions and appraisals.
Treatment Goals
The treatment goals for I.J. are as follows; 1) to increase the number of points on the Daily
Report Card (DRC), 2) to decrease the number of calls made home from school weekly from
6 to 0, 3) to learn and practice skills to reduce aggressive and oppositional behaviour, 4) to
change cognitive distortions that lead to oppositional and aggressive behaviour, 5) parents learn
and implement behaviour management skills and 6) to improve overall family functioning.
Results
The results for each treatment goals were as follows; goal 1: the points on the DRC for week 6
of treatment decreased dramatically (see Figure 1 in Appendix), goal 2: the number of calls
decreased from 6 at pre-treatment to 0 post-treatment (see Figure 2 in Appendix), goal 3: based
on client report, the client learned and practiced skills to reduce aggressive and oppositional
82
behaviour. Parent report shows that skills were learnt and practiced in only some areas (see
Table 1 in Appendix), goal 4: based on client self-report and clinician observation, I.J. is able
to link her thoughts, feelings and behaviours and recognise cognitive distortions such as “I am
a bad person and I can never do anything right” to positive cognitions such as “I have made
mistakes in the past but it is up to me to change in the future. I can make the right choices if I
try”, goal 5: the client’s parents learned all of the behavioural management skills. Clinician and
parent (mother) reports show that not all of the skills were implemented at home (see Table 2
in Appendix), goal 6: From pre- to post- treatment the mother’s T-score went from 38 (12th
percentile) to 50 (50th percentile) indicating an improvement in family functioning. At posttreatment, the client’s T-score dropped from 62 (88th percentile) 52 (58th percentile) indicating
a deterioration in overall family functioning (Table 3 in Appendix).
Discussion
When all of the results are taken at post- treatment, it can be concluded that the use of evidencebased assessments and treatments for the culturally diverse adolescent female and her family
proved to be moderately successful. A majority of the goals were met including decreasing the
number of calls made home from school, learning and practicing skills to reduce aggressive
and oppositional behaviour, changing cognitive distortions, parents learning child behaviour
management skills and improving overall family functioning (according to the mother). The
goal of increasing the point on the DRC was not met; the points dropped in the sixth week of
treatment likely due to a confrontation which occurred in the fifth week of treatment between
client and mother which resulted in acting out at school. Also, although the parents learned the
behaviour management skills they were not adequately implemented. This may be because of
a lack of and belief in the treatment due to culturally based ideas on how punishment and child
behaviour modification should occur. Lastly, the client’s Brief-FAM III results show that there
was a deterioration of overall family functioning. This is perhaps due to a broadening of
83
cognitions which helped the client to realise that problems occurring within family may not
have been entirely her fault.
Conclusion
Overall, it can be concluded that cognitive behavioural therapy can be effective when used with
adolescents of mixed American and Caribbean backgrounds. The results showed that the
evidence-based treatment; cognitive behavioural therapy, was effective in reducing and in
some cases eliminating behavioural problems in the female adolescent. However, parent
training as a form of intervention may be ineffective with parents of Trinidadian descent.
Although this needs to be explored further, this ineffectiveness can be due to a lack of treatment
adherence as a result of attribution of problem behaviour solely to the child and not to the self
(parent) as well. It is recommended that this type of treatment is done with a larger sample to
determine its effectiveness. It is also recommended that parent training materials be adapted to
suit parents of Caribbean nationality.
References
American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.
American Psychiatric Association. 2006. “Evidence-based Practice in Psychology”. American
Psychologist 61(4): 272.
Greene, Ross W., Joseph Biederman, Stephanie Zerwas, Michael C. Monuteaux, Jennifer C.
Goring, and Stephen V. Faraone. “Psychiatric Comorbidity, Family Dysfunction, and
Social Impairment in Referred Youth with Oppositional Defiant Disorder.” The
American Journal of Psychiatry 159: 1214-1224.
Hunsley, John, and Eric J. Mash. “Evidence-Based Assessment”. The Annual Review of
Clinical Psychology 3: 29-51.
McMahon, Robert J., Karen C. Wells and Julie S. Kotler. 2006. “Conduct Problems”. In
Treatment of Childhood Disorders, edited. Eric J. Mash and Russell A. Barkley, 137268. New York: The Guilford Press.
Vannest, Kimberley J., John, L. Davis, Cole R. Davis, Benjamin A. Mason, and Mack D.
Burke. 2010. “Effective Intervention for Behavior with a Daily Behavior Report Card:
A Meta-analysis”. School Psychology Review 39(4): 654-672.
84
Appendix
20
M
15
T
10
W
TH
5
F
0
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Figure 1 Bar graph showing points on the Daily Report Card for Weeks 4, 5 and 6 of
treatment (goal 1).
Parent-School Contact
Contact
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Week 8
Week 9
Week 10
Week 11
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 2 Line graph showing the number of calls made home from school from pre-treatment
to the last week of treatment (goal 2).
85
Table 1 showing client and mother report of skills learned and practice during treatment (goal
3).
Symptom
Client
Mother
↓ intensity of
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
↑ compliance
Yes
Yes
↑ respect &
Yes
Yes
defiance
↓ frequency of
defiance
Termination of
temper
tantrums
cooperation
86
Table 2 showing mother report and clinician observation of behavioural management skills
learned and implemented during treatment (goal 5).
Skill Learned
Implementation
Mother
Clinician
House Rules
Yes
No
Special Time
No
No
Commands
Yes
Yes
Positive
Yes
No
reinforcement
Table 3 showing pre and post-test scores for client and mother for the Brief-FAM III (goal 6).
Pre
Raw Score
T-score
Percentile
Client
23
62
88
Mother
7
38
12
Post
Raw Score
T-score
Percentile
Client
17
52
58
Mother
13
50
50
87
A Culture of Corruption: Understanding Police Corruption in
Trinidad and Tobago
NIRMALA SOOKOO
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
An under studied area in criminological research within Trinidad and Tobago is corruption
within the police service. There exists the infamous Scott Drug Report of 1986 which painted
a picture of a police service tainted with involvement in the drug cartel, bribery, murder and
reputed with the use of brute force. A review of the literature has revealed that this phenomenon
is typically influenced by the nature and context of police work, inadequate salaries, limited
opportunities for promotion as well as individual traits. Not only is police corruption impacted
upon by organisational and individual traits but by culture. Organisational and national culture
which support and perpetuate corruption would influence the selection, socialisation and
institutionalisation of corruption within the police service. It is argued that cultural tolerance
to corruption at the societal levels also filters to the policing institution which has bred tolerance
of corruption within the agency. With this in mind, this research explored the effects that
national and organisational culture has upon the phenomenon. This paper seeks to fill the
research gap of police corruption within Trinidad and Tobago as well as understanding the
linkages between culture and corruption.
Keywords: Organisational culture; individual traits; police corruption; Trinidad and Tobago
88
Introduction
Police corruption is an international problem and it certainly is a source of grave concern within
the twin republic of Trinidad and Tobago (Gomes 2007). Corruption is the misuse or the abuse
of one’s authority for personal gain (Bayley and Perito 2011) and this occurs within the very
institution entrusted with the responsibility to prevent and arrest those who commit acts of
corruption. Transparency International (2000) recognised numerous appearances that
corruption may take. Police corruption may appear in the form of bribery, misappropriation of
funds; deceit, extortion abuse and misuse of power; treason, misuse of insider and confidential,
information, fraud, perversion of justice; non-performance of duties, nepotism, approval of
improper, fees, gifts along with speed money and entertainment; operations in black market;
cronyism; illegal surveillance; and public personnel dealing with criminal actors (Transparency
International 2000).
Background to the Problem
Corruption within the police service of Trinidad and Tobago is a problem perceived as very
grave (Gomes 2007). In Trinidad and Tobago. Police officers are not only accused of excessive
use of force (Deosaran 2002) but have been linked to theft of state property as well as the
possession of illegal narcotics and unlicensed guns and ammunition hidden in the ceilings of
police stations (Simon 2009). Not only are police suspected in theft of illicit drug taken as
seizure and held as evidence, they are suspected in the active involvement in the illicit drug
trade (Figueira 2002) and informants to gangs (Parks and Mastrofksi 2008). In 1986, the then
Commissioner of Police of the TTPS, Randolph Borroughs along with 51 police officers (under
his control) were accused of being involved in a drug cartel (Griffith 1997). Furthermore, police
officers are often accused of soliciting bribes. Park and Mastrofski (2009) submitted that in the
2008 Model Stations Community Survey, 42.9% of the respondents) from Trinidad and Tobago
89
perceived that police accept bribes or favours. This created a low level of confidence as only
14% perceived that the police were efficient. This reduced confidence in the police lowered the
rates at which the public would cooperate with the police in terms of the reporting of crimes.
According to Loree (2006) when citizens no longer revere the police, the government's ability
to function in its role as a public agent deteriorates. Additionally, police corruption poses a
threat to national development by challenging economic and political stability, and eventually
presents a threat to international financial stability (Pfaff 2010). Instructively, nations which
have higher levels of perceived corruption have lower levels of economic development
(Nazario 2007). Additionally, Police corruption wastes resources, undermines security, makes
a mockery of justice, slows economic development, and alienates populations from their
governments (Bayley and Perito 2011).
Systemically, corruption not only influences justice, but also the wider institution of
government. The police are agents of the government, and their duty is to defend the rights of
the people being governed. Violating citizen trust, results in a negative opinion directed not
only toward the police, but also toward the government as a whole. When the public no longer
respects or has confidence in the police, the government's capacity to operate in its role as a
public agent deteriorates (Loree 2006).
Literature Review
A number of variables are linked to police corruption such as the low opportunities for
promotion (Kappeler, Sluder, and Alpert 1994)), a small salary (Klockars, Kutnjak and
Haberfeld (2004), poor quality of leadership (Domoro and Agil 2012), and demographics such
as older officers (Yokoyama 2004), males and low educational attainment (Cheung and Chan
2008). However; in this paper, the focus is on the influence that culture has upon police
90
corruption. In this study culture is divided into three dimensions; national, organisational and
police subculture.
Organisational Culture
Seldom ever do persons work in isolation; rather, they perform as parts of a larger
organizational structure (Kleinig 1996). The organisation acts to bond persons together,
producing a set of commonalities, social bonds and a common culture disconnected from the
person's own cultural ideology. The institution of the police as an organisation plays an
extremely significant role in the transmission of organizational cultures. The organisation
police culture is divided along four dimensions; leadership or quality of supervision,
punishment, peer supervision and transparency of punishment.
Leadership: The literature determines leadership to be a main variable predicting corruption.
Supervisors who themselves commit acts of corruption or chose to ignore their subordinates’
misdemeanours as well contribute to corruption. A work environment in which many police
officers either accept
the existence of corruption or partake in corrupt activities calls into
question the quality of leadership. Within the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service, poor
relations, extremely weak leadership due to managerial inefficiencies, a lack of communication
among senior officers, ineffective disciplinary procedures, high supervisor turnover, uneven
and unclear officer workloads, and a lack of respect for senior officers among junior officers
may precipitate corruption (Committee on the Restructuring of the Police Service 1984).
Discipline: The discipline or non-discipline of police who have been charged guilty of
corruption predicts the culture of corruption. Officers who are not punished strengthen the
convictions that corruption amongst the police are accepted. The enforcement of administrative
91
policies curbs corruption as an officer learn to discern types of misconduct which are serious
offenses (Klockars, Ivkovic and Haberfeld 2000). The absence of accountability within the
police service will hastily guide the way to a disregard for the policy, and a boost in misconduct
and corruption of that policy. In the TTPS, this is indeed an issue as there is a lack of internal
investigations and internal disciplinary procedures can take as long as five years (O'Dowd
1991).
Peer Supervision: Police corruption is also influenced through an officer's peers. Peer
supervision tends to be closer and better informed than that of senior officers (Klockars,
Ivkovic and Haberfeld 2000). If an officer's peers fail to follow organisation code of conduct
and the law, the officer is apt to ignore the law as well.
Transparency of Disciple: Transparency speaks to how open an institution is to public scrutiny.
Organisations that abstain from, or are forbidden to make public statements concerning their
treatment of disciplinary procedures are more apt to cultivate an environment of suspicion
(Seaby 1993) and influence increased corruption.
Police Subculture
In this study police subculture is limited to two main dimensions; cynicism and blue code of
silence. According to Becker (1963) many officers view the world as a “we versus them”
environment. They tend to see the world as being composed of insiders and outsiders and see
outsiders as suspicious (Kappeler, Sluder, and Alpert 1994. Their world view inculcated
through training and isolation in the barracks push them towards becoming cynical which is
related to them having a higher taste to engage in corruption (Pfaff 2010).
92
The blue code of silence is similar to the theme of police solidarity; the code was initially
intended to protect police officers from genuine threats (Kleinig 2001). This code of silence
reinforces protection and social support of police officers. At the same time, it can facilitate
corruption. Police may fail to report their peers and lead corruption. The police wall of silence
has its counterpart in the Mafia code of silence (Andvig and Fjeldstad 2008).
Extent of Corruption in Society
The community and political environment are influential in establishing attitudes toward
corrupt activities. When corruption is found in other government agencies, among judges,
prosecutors, and politicians, and in the business world, it contributes to the ability of the police
officer to rationalize his or her own behaviour (Newfield and Barret 1988; Roberg and
Kuykendall 1993). This is especially the case in developing countries as there is high political
corruption, a lack of accountability and corruption brigs desirable results. Corruption in the
government is an important indicator of corruption in a police department. A non-corrupt
government is unlikely to allow corruption to flourish in a police department, but a corrupt
government is more likely to use the police to fulfil their own goals, as well as tolerate other
occurrences of low level corruption. Developing countries are particularly susceptible to
systemic corruption as a result of challenged political structures and a lack of accountability to
the public.
The culture of corruption is pervasive in countries such as Mexico, India and Russia. In India,
the use of bribery is widespread in every aspect of public life (Satishchander 2014). Bribes may
be demanded in order for an official to do something he is already paid to do. They may also
be demanded in order to bypass laws and regulations. Interviews were conducted with sixty
persons by the current author in 2014. Participants in Aranguez, Moruga, les Couteax, and
93
Golden Lane, Tobago revealed that the use of bribery is seen as necessary to get things done
(Sookoo 2015). The police service is not totally disconnected from the national culture and
may even be influenced by the larger culture of corruption.
Theoretical Framework
The conceptual model was built from cultural variables which were found to be significant in
influencing police corruption. The model shows how national, organisational and police culture
impacts upon corruption. National culture has two dimensions; level of political corruption and
public tolerance of corruption. Their impact upon corruption was tested and found significant
Pfaff (2010) and Satishchander (2014). The second variable; organisational culture has several
dimensions; ineffective leadership (Pfaff 2010), lack of punishment (Klockars, Ivkovic and
Haberfeld 2000), reduced peer supervision (Klockars, Ivkovic and Haberfeld 2000) and lack
of transparency in punishment (Seaby 1993) which were significant in impacting upon police
corruption. The final variable was police subculture, which had two dimension; cynicism and
blue code of silence which were tested by Pfaff (2010) further work on the code of silence
was reported influential (Andvig and Fjeldstad 2008). Therefore, the source of the conceptual
model was collated from several variables focusing on the impact of culture upon police
corruption. These variables were gleaned from significant research findings.
94
Figure 1: Conceptual Model Illustrating the Influence of the Criterions upon Police Corruption
National Culture
Level of political corruption
Public tolerance of corruption
Organisational Culture
Ineffective Leadership
Lack of punishment
Reduced peer supervision
Insufficient transparency of
punishment
Police Corruption
Police Subculture
Cynicism
Blue Code of Silence
Source: Pfaff (2010); Satishchander 2014; Klockars, Ivkovic and Haberfeld 2000; Seaby 1993; Andvig and Fjeldstad 2008.
Research Hypotheses
 H1: The level of political corruption increases police corruption
 H2: Public tolerance of corruption increases corruption
 H3: Ineffective leadership impacts upon corruption
 H4: The lack of punishment of police officers predicts corruption of police in
Trinidad and Tobago.
 H5: The lack of positive peer supervision produces police corruption
 H5: The lack of transparency leads to police corruption.
95
 H6: Authoritarianism predicts police corruption
 H7: Police cynicism effects corruption among officers in Trinidad and Tobago.
 H8: The blue code of silence impacts upon police corruption.
Methodology
The methdology which would be utliise for this research will be mixed mode; both quantitative
and qualitative methods would be used to attain a reliable and valid measurement of the
phenomenon of police corruption. Thus, two methods of data collection shall be employed.
One shall be a survey of police officers randomly selected via multi-cluster sampling through
the nine policing divisions. The questionnaire used in the survey shall be closed ended and use
previous tested scales as well as those created for the purpose of this study. Table 1 illustrates
the variable and the measurement scales together with its sources and established reliability.
96
Table 1: Measurment Scales of the Independent and Dependent Variables
Variable
Measurement
Source
# of Items
Reliability
Leadership
Leadership Style
Leadership Style Questionnaire
12
.93
Questionnaire (2001)
(2001)
Discipline
Self constructed scale
Author
Peer supervision
Self constructed scale
Author
Transparency
Police Transparency
Chanin (2014)
10
Authoritarianism
Authoritarian Spillover
Johnson, McGure and Kruger
6
.74
(2005)
Cynicism
Cynicism Scale
Cochran and Broomley (2003)
9
.83
Blue Code of Silence
Police integrity Scale – Code
Klockars, Ivkovic and Haberfeld
7 for each
.83
of Silence
(2000)
vignette
New measure for this study
Author
New meansure for this study
Author
New measure for this study
Author
Police Integrity Scale
Klockars, Ivkovic and Haberfeld
Extent of political
corruption
Use of corruption by the
public
Tolerance of corruption
by the public
Corruption
11
.83
(2000)
Source: Chanin 2014; Johnson, McGure and Kruger 2005; Cochran and Broomley 2003; Klockars,
Ivkovic and Haberfeld (2000).
97
Interviews with police officers as well as experts in the field such as personnel in the Police
Compaints Authority would be initiated. The sample size will be obtained when saturation of
data is achieved.
Expected Results
Data collection will be initiated in 2016. However, previous results from the region as well as
international sources have shown the various research hypotheses to be significant. Please see
table (2) which shows the hypotheses used to test the conceptual model and the associated
studies which have suuported those hypotheses.
Table 2: Illustrating the Hypotheses and the Supporting Sources
Hypothesis
Empirical Sources which have supported the hypotheses
Political corruption increases police corruption
Supported in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago (Pfaff
2010)
Public tolerance of corruption influences corruption
Supported in Mexico (Sabet 2010)
Ineffective leadership impacts upon corruption
Supported in Trinidad and Tobago (Pfaff 2010)
The lack of punishment of police officers incraeses police
Supported in Trinidad and Toago (Pfaff 2010)
corruption
The lack of transparency influences corruption.
Supported in Russia (Becks and Robertson 2005
Authoritariansm predicts police corruption
Supported by McCafferty, Souryal and McCarrferty (1998)
Police cyncism increases police corruption
Supported in Trinidad and Tobago (Pfaff 2010)
The blue code of silience among officers impacts upon police
Supported in Chicago (Juarez 2004)
corruption
Source: Pfaff (2010); Sabet (2010); Becks and Robertson (2005); McCafferty, Souryal and McCafferty
(1998); Juarex 2004).
98
Conclusion
Police corruption has been identified as a problem plaguing Trinidad and Tobago. The goal of
this paper is to illustrate that corruption is not the result of the individual but wider societal,
organisational and sub-cultural pressures. The officer is impacted by the values and beliefs of
the wider society. Corruption embedded within the organisation as seen in poor quality
leadership, lack of punishment, insufficient transparency of punishment and reduced peer
supervision push officers to the path of corruption. The subculture of the police which is
inculcated during training and work protects the corrupt brother/sister in the force as they watch
over one another. Finally, a government perceived to be a corrupt and a society which tolerates
it and even offers bribes to police promotes the image that corruption exists in all spheres and
generally accepted. Thus, the officer is surrounded in a web of cultural values and beliefs of
corruption.
References
Andvig, Jens Chr. and Odd-Helge Fjedlstad. 2008. “Crime, Poverty and Police Corruption in
Non-Rich Countries.” NUPI Working Paper. Department of International Economics.
Oslo: Norwegian Institute of International Affairs.
Bayley, David and Robert Perito. 2011. Police Corruption: What Past Scandals Teach about
Current Challenges? Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.
Becker, Howard. 1963. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press.
Becks, Adrian and Annette Robertson. 2005. “Policing in post-Soviet Russia.’ In Ruling
Russia. Law, Crime and Justice in a Changing Society, edited by W. A. Pridemore,
247-260. Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield
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Chanin, Joshua, and J. Courts. 2014. Examining the Determinants of Police Department Online
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Cochran John and Max Bromley. 2003. “The Myth of the Policing Subculture.” Policing 26
(1): 88-117.
Committee on the Restructuring of the Police Service. 1984. Report of the Committee on the
Restructuring of the Police Service. Port of Spain: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.
Deosaran, Ramesh. 2002. “Community Policing in the Caribbean: Context, Community, and
Police Capability.” An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management
25(1): 125‐146.
Domoro, Omer M. Othman, and Syed Omar Syed Agil. 2012. “The Influence of Organizational
Culture on Police Corruption in Libya.” Journal of Business and Management 2 (5):
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Inc.
Gomes, Carolyn. 2007. “Police Accountability in the Caribbean: Where are the People?” A
Paper Presented at the Workshop on Police Accountability at the Civicus World
Assembly, May 23-27, 2007 Glasgow, Scotland.
Griffith, Ivelaw. 1997. Drugs and Security in the Caribbean: Sovereignty under Siege.
Pennsylvania State University Press.
Juarez, Juan Antonio. 2004. Brotherhood of Corruption: A Cop Breaks the Silence on Police
Abuse, Brutality and Racial Profiling. Chicago, IL: Chicago Review Press.
Johnson, Wendy, Matt McGue, and Robert F. Krueger. 2005. “Personality Stability in Late
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Kappeler, Victor E., Rochard D. Sluder, and Geoffrey P. Alpert. 1994. Forces of Deviance:
Understanding the Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
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Integrity. California: Sage.
Klockars, Carl B., Sanja Kutnjak Ivkovi, and M.R Haberfeld. 2000. Measurement of Police
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101
The Two Ends of the Crime Funnel: Predicting and Relating
Crime and Incarceration Trends in Trinidad and Tobago
BRITTNEY L. STRICKER
The University of the West Indies
Abstract
Crime statistics in Trinidad and Tobago reveal a cyclic pattern with a slight drop in overall
crime from 1990 to 2012 while the corresponding prison population has increased substantially
during the same period. Research has shown that crime rates decline with increases in
incarceration rates (Levitt 1996; Marvell and Moody 1994; DeFina and Arvantis 2002); yet,
Trinidad and Tobago is believed to be an exception to this truism. This study will examine both
the crime and incarceration rates by major crime categories and status (remanded or sentenced)
on admission. Prison recidivism rates are difficult to determine and predict in this country given
the state of digital recordkeeping and that most recidivism studies have primarily been based
on the self-reports of inmates; the latter has suggested a 50% recidivism rate based on answers
to survey questions asking inmates if they had ever been imprisoned. Although this analysis
will provide short- to medium-term trends, it is expected that analyses of the crime and
incarceration trends will not correspond to the literature, they will nonetheless provide initial
policy knowledge and a stepping stone for future, more sophisticated examinations of
recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago and other Caribbean nations.
Keywords: crime rates; incarceration rates; crime category; projection; recidivism, Trinidad
and Tobago
102
Introduction
Trinidad and Tobago is a developing island state in the southern Caribbean. In the last decade,
it has been home to dramatic increases in both crime and prison admissions (Maguire and King
2013; Sookram, Basdeo, Rai and Saridakis 2009). It is important to understand the relationship
between crime rates and incarceration rates because it allows us to predict future crime trends
and with a certain degree of accuracy, examine recidivism. The use of crime trend projections
to predict future crime can allow for the development of a more consistent and coherent
understanding of crime. Developing such a knowledge base is important for not only improving
public policies but also targeting government expenditures related to crime prevention. They
also have been used by some criminologists and policy makers in crime reduction and even
crime prevention (Schneider 2002, 1).
Although the ability to predict crime has its merits, it does not come without challenges,
especially in developing nations, such as Trinidad and Tobago. For example, gaining access to
accurate crime statistics and data is sometimes difficult in Trinidad and Tobago. This is
primarily due to the fact that there are many organizations that obtain crime data, such as the
Crime and Problem Analysis Branch of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service (TTPS), the
courts, and other various Government of Trinidad and Tobago ministries (for example,
National Security). Barriers to obtaining this type of information include but are not limited to
the fear of misinterpretation and misuse of the data obtained but also the overall time it takes
for the approval process to be completed.
This study aims to explore the relationship between crime and incarceration trends and status
on admission to prisons (remanded and sentenced). Furthermore, it will identify some
challenges faced by researchers in the field. It anticipates making a contribution to the field of
103
criminological research by providing some initial small- to medium-crime trends that can be
used to inform policy making in Trinidad and Tobago as well as other Caribbean nations.
Research Questions
This proposed study is guided by the following research questions:

What are the short-to-medium trends and projections on crime in Trinidad and Tobago?

What implications do these crime/incarceration trends have on future crime and recidivism?

Are there differences in respect to crime projections and gender?

What are the challenges of obtaining crime and incarceration data in Trinidad and Tobago
and what are potential solutions to overcoming these challenges?
Methodology
The research design is a quantitative approach which will use both crime and incarceration data
garnered from police and prison organizations in Trinidad and Tobago. Crime trend data will
be collected from the Crime and Problem Analysis (CAPA) Branch of the Trinidad and Tobago
Police Service, and incarceration data will be obtained from the Trinidad and Tobago Prison
Service. The scope of the research will only include Trinidad and Tobago.
Analyses
The data obtained will be statistically analysed by using the software program, Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The statistical tests that will occur include
correlation, and standard regression.
Findings
Currently, there are no findings to report as this is a work in progress.
104
Challenges
Crime Data
Crime is multi-faceted, difficult, and complex and changes over time and place. What is
deemed a crime today might not be considered a crime tomorrow; therefore, explaining why
changes in crime occur is often a challenge for researchers. Crime cannot be measured by only
using one type of measurement (Thornberry and Krohn 2003). Many statistical techniques can
be employed in order to offer a wide scope of results in relation to crime projections.
Obtaining crime data in Trinidad and Tobago can be very difficult due to the high levels of
bureaucracy and government control. Getting permission from the various sources (courts,
police, prisons, and government ministries) often takes an extended period of time. Gathering
various crime statistics also poses its own challenges, as some crime events are documented
and others are not. The primary source to obtain crime data is through the TTPS’s Crime and
Problem Analysis Branch (CAPA). If we only use police reports as the basis for crime
projection, it will be biased and many crimes will have gone undetected and/or unreported. The
best way to obtain this missing information would be through a victimization survey.
Generating consistent data over time is a challenge because reporting capabilities change over
time. With new technology come new reporting capabilities. While one program might offer
detailed data, a new one could limited or may omit some important information that is much
needed to project crime trends.
As Figure 1 reveals, crime and corresponding rates of incarceration can be understood as a
funnel. The direction of flow through this funnel is typically from the top downwards. The
nature of the funnel is with a large lip at the top, narrowing as we go down, resulting in a
smaller spout that represents the decreasing number of people involved in the criminal justice
105
process. Not only for that reason does the crime funnel pose a challenge when it comes to
identifying crime trends, but also due to the fact that it is merely a snapshot of the case
processing for a given year. In short, the amount of crime that we can use to draw on our
projections might not accurately be represented for a number of reasons, including the fact that
crime often goes unreported by the victims or the number of crimes that occur exceed the
crimes reported to the police; the police might use their discretion to release the offender with
a warning; the case might be diverted out of the courts (as seen with juveniles and probation);
the case might not even make it to court as an offender could jump bail; the long wait on remand
and to obtain a court date might actually diminish the reality that an offender will go to court;
and lastly, an offender can be placed on probation and, therefore, incarceration is not potentially
an option.
106
Figure 1: Example of the Crime Funnel
1,000 Serious Crimes
500 Crimes Reported
100 People Arrested
65 Considered for Prosecution
40 Cases Accepted for
Prosecution
30 Cases Go to Trial
25 Sentenced
20 Adults are
Incarcerated
Source: Hill and Paynich (2014, 134-135)
Incarceration Data
As with crime data, collecting and interpreting incarceration data holds its own unique
challenges. First, there are three ways of obtaining incarceration data and they include: firstly,
the number of admissions for a given year; the average daily counts for a given year; and lastly,
a snapshot during the year (typically done on either July 1st, or December 31st (of a respective
year) (Correctional Services Program 2013/2014). Each prison system collects data in different
ways, which means that being able to use this data consistently is often challenging and time
consuming. Secondly, there are difficulties in transferring data collected from those
incarcerated in youth facilities to adult facilities. Often, information is lost or neglected when
107
it is being transferred through systems. Lastly, there is an issue with correctional offender
management systems, which in the case of Trinidad and Tobago is non-computerized.1 This
means that correctional officers must manually document information on inmates into
logbooks and inmate files.
The number of consistent data produced is often a challenge especially when examining
incarceration trends. In addition to offender management systems, there is the concern over the
lack of biometrics to confirm the identity of an offender across the criminal justice system.
Criminals in Trinidad and Tobago often will give the police, the courts, and correctional staff
aliases and/or altered names. A consequence of this practice is that the validity of recidivism
studies based on this information is compromised. There is no way to know if the offender is a
recidivist if there is no way to confirm his or her identity. This is potentially why most of the
recidivism studies in Trinidad and Tobago are potentially flawed as they have been based on
self-reports from the inmates themselves saying that they have or have not been in prison
previously.
Conclusion
To some degree, projections of crime and incarceration trends can help governments and
organizations anticipate changes in crime and identify areas of grave concern. It is hoped that
with a deeper examination of both sets of data that not only small-to-medium trends can be
identified, but the proposed study will help with solutions to the challenges in conducting
recidivism studies in a developing island nation, such as Trinidad and Tobago.
1
Anecdotal information revealed that the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service has recently
instituted a computerized offender management information system which is currently
being populated.
108
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