10
4. Causes and prevention
of food losses and waste
Food is wasted throughout the FSC, from initial agricultural production down to final household
consumption. In medium- and high-income countries food is to a high extent wasted, meaning that it
is thrown away, even if it is still suitable for human consumption. Significant food loss and waste do,
however, also occur earlier in the food supply chain. In low-income countries food is mostly lost during
the production-to-processing stages of the food supply chain.
In industrialized countries food gets lost when production exceeds demand. In order to ensure delivery
of agreed quantities while anticipating unpredictable bad weather or pest attacks, farmers sometimes
make production plans on the safe side, and end-up producing larger quantities than needed, even if
conditions are “average”. In the case of having produced more than required, some surplus crops are sold
to processors or as animal feed. However, this is often not financially profitable considering lower prices
in these sectors compared to those from retailers.
Prevention: Communication and cooperation between farmers. Cooperation among farmers could reduce
risk of overproduction by allowing surplus crops from one farm to solve a shortage of crops on another
(Stuart, 2009).
In developing countries and, sometimes, developed countries, food may be lost due to premature harvesting.
Poor farmers sometimes harvest crops too early due to food deficiency or the desperate need for cash
during the second half of the agricultural season. In this way, the food incurs a loss in nutritional and
economic value, and may get wasted if it is not suitable for consumption.
Prevention: Organizing small farmers and diversifying and upscaling their production and marketing.
Small resource-poor farmers can be organized in groups to produce a variety of significant quantities
of cash crops or animals. In this way they can receive credit from agricultural financial institutions or
advance payments from buyers of the produce.
Box 2. Snapshot case: appearance quality standards
Carrot quality standards, by the supermarket chain Asda
As research for the book ‘Waste – understanding the global food scandal’ (2009), Tristram Stuart visited several
British farms in order to understand how quality standards affect the level of food waste. Among others, Stuart
visited M.H. Poskitt Carrots in Yorkshire, a major supplier to the supermarket chain Asda. At the farm, the
author was shown large quantities of out-graded carrots, which, having a slight bend, were sent off as animal
feed. In the packing house, all carrots passed through photographic sensor machines, searching for aesthetic
defects. Carrots that were not bright orange, had a blend or blemish or were broken were swept off into a
livestock feed container. As staff at the farm put it: “Asda insist that all carrots should be straight, so customers
can peel the full length in one easy stroke” (Stuart, 2009). In total, 25-30% of all carrots handled by M.H.
Poskitt Carrots were out-graded. About half of these were rejected due to physical or aesthetic defects, such as
being the wrong shape or size; being broken or having a cleft or a blemish.
Chapter 4 − Causes and prevention of food losses and waste
11
High ‘appearance quality standards’ from supermarkets for fresh products lead to food waste. Some
produce is rejected by supermarkets at the farm gate due to rigorous quality standards concerning weight,
size, shape and appearance of crops. Therefore, large portions of crops never leave the farms. Even though
some rejected crops are used as animal feed, the quality standards might divert food originally aimed for
human consumption to other uses (Stuart, 2009).
Prevention: Consumer surveys by supermarkets. Supermarkets seem convinced that consumers will not
buy food which has the ‘wrong’ weight, size or appearance. Surveys do however show that consumers are
willing to buy heterogeneous produce as long as the taste is not affected (Stuart, 2009). Consumers have
the power to influence the quality standards. This could be done by questioning them and offering them
a broader quality range of products in the retail stores.
Prevention: Sales closer to consumers. Selling farm crops closer to consumers without having to pass the
strict quality standards set up by supermarkets on weight, size and appearance would possibly reduce the
amount of rejected crops. This could be achieved through, e.g., farmers markets and farm shops (Stuart,
2009).
Poor storage facilities and lack of infrastructure cause post-harvest food losses in developing countries. Fresh
products like fruits, vegetables, meat and fish straight from the farm or after the catch can be spoilt in hot
climates due to lack of infrastructure for transportation, storage, cooling and markets (Rolle, 2006; Stuart,
2009).
Prevention: investment in infrastructure and transportation. Governments should improve the
infrastructure for roads, energy and markets. Subsequently, private sector investments can improve
storage and cold chain facilities as well as transportation (Choudhury, 2006).
Unsafe food is not fit for human consumption and therefore is wasted. Failure to comply with minimum
food safety standards can lead to food losses and, in extreme cases, impact on the food security status of a
country. A range of factors can lead to food being unsafe, such as naturally occurring toxins in food itself,
contaminated water, unsafe use of pesticides, and veterinary drug residues. Poor and unhygienic handling
and storage conditions, and lack of adequate temperature control, can also cause unsafe food.
Prevention: develop knowledge and capacity of food chain operators to apply safe food handling practices.
Food chain operators should be skilled and knowledgeable in how to produce safe food. Foods need to
©FAO / V. Maximov
Box 3. Snapshot case: poor post-harvest facilities
Lack of facilities for rice threshing,
drying and winnowing, Tajikistan
A farmer winnowing rice in Tursunzade, Tajikistan
in 2010. Sun drying exposes rice to rodents and
parasites, which may eat or damage the harvested
crops. Proper storage facilities are also important
in order to reduce the amounts of food lost during
post-harvest handling and storage.
Global food losses and food waste
12
Box 4. Snapshot case: food safety at risk
©FAO / g. diana
Rickshaws transporting milk in Bangladesh
Rickshaws transporting milk from the countryside
to processing plants in Baghabarighat, Bangladesh.
Transporting milk in the warm and humid climate
of Bangladesh without a proper cold chain may
cause milk losses. The rickshaw transportation on
narrow and winding roads prolongs the time milk
is handled in warm temperatures.
be produced, handled and stored in accordance with food safety standards. This requires the application
of good agricultural and good hygienic practices by all food chain operators to ensure that the final food
protects the consumer.
‘Disposing is cheaper than using or re-using’ attitude in industrialized countries leads to food waste.
Industrialized food processing lines often carry out trimming to ensure the end product is in the right
shape and size. Trimmings, in some cases, could be used for human consumption but are usually disposed
of. Food is also lost during processing because of spoilage down the production line. Errors during
processing lead to final products with the wrong weight, shape or appearance, or damaged packaging,
without affecting the safety, taste or nutritional value of the food. In a standardized production line these
products often end up being discarded (Stuart, 2009; SEPA, 2008).
Prevention: develop markets for ‘sub-standard’ products. Both commercial and charity organizations
could arrange for the collection and sale or use of discarded ‘sub-standard’ products that are still safe and
of good taste and nutritional value (SEPA 2008).
© H. Graber
Box 5. Snapshot case: disposing is cheaper than using or re-using
French fries production in The Netherlands
During his thesis, D. Somsen interviewed a Dutch french
fries producer to better understand the causes of food
waste in the french fries production line (Somsen, 2004).
The company reported several steps in the production line
where raw material was lost and wasted, e.g. during the
size reduction in which potatoes are cut into strips. French
fries are fragile and easily break when transported during
processing as well as when packaged. The unwanted
products are sorted out and occasionally end up wasted.
In addition to this, some potatoes are sorted out prior
to entering the factory, due to damage during loading,
transport from producer to factory and/or during storage.
Chapter 4 − Causes and prevention of food losses and waste
13
Box 6. Snapshot case: poor market facilities
©FAO / o. argenti
Central wholesale market in Pakistan
Central wholesale market in Lahore, Pakistan. These
bananas are traded among unsanitary conditions,
causing major health hazards since food is handled
and piled on the ground close to the gutter. This
kind of market environment also causes food waste,
since the unsanitary conditions and rough handling
cause deterioration of fragile fresh products.
Lack of processing facilities causes high food losses in developing countries. In many situations the food
processing industry doesn’t have the capacity to process and preserve fresh farm produce to be able to
meet the demand. Part of the problem stems from the seasonality of production and the cost of investing
in processing facilities that will not be used year-round.
Prevention: develop contract farming linkages between processors and farmer. Governments should create
a better ‘enabling environment’ and investment climate, to stimulate the private sector to invest in the food
industry and to work more closely with farmers to address supply issues.
Large quantities on display and a wide range of products/ brands in supply lead to food waste in industrialized
countries. Retail stores need to order a variety of food types and brands from the same manufacturer to get
beneficial prices. Consumers also expect a wide range of products to be available in stores. A wide range
of products does, however, increase the likelihood of some of them reaching their “sell-by” date before
being sold, and thereby wasted. When shopping, consumers expect store shelves to be well filled. Although
certainly beneficial for sales statistics, continually replenished supplies mean that food products close to
expiry are often ignored by consumers. This is particularly difficult for small retail stores (SEPA, 2008).
Inadequate market systems cause high food losses in developing countries. To minimize losses, the
commodities produced by farmers need to reach the consumers in an efficient way. There are too few
wholesale, supermarket and retail facilities providing suitable storage and sales conditions for food
products. Wholesale and retail markets in developing countries are often small, overcrowded, unsanitary
and lacking cooling equipment (Kader, 2005).
Prevention: Marketing cooperatives and improved market facilities. Marketing cooperatives are organizations
providing a central point for assembling produce from small farmers and preparing commodities for
transportation to markets and other distribution channels. The marketing cooperatives should be able to
reduce food losses by increasing the efficiency of these activities. Although the development of wholesale
and retail markets should preferably be done by the private sector, local governments and marketing
cooperatives can be instrumental in establishing and improving market facilities (Kader, 2005).
Food wasted at consumer level is minimal in developing countries. Poverty and limited household income
make it unacceptable to waste food. A contributing factor is that consumers in developing countries
generally buy smaller amounts of food products at the time, often just enough for meals on the day of
purchase.
14
Global food losses and food waste
Box 7. Snapshot case: public awareness raising
Voluntary initiatives
‘Stop Wasting Food’ in Denmark give guidance to consumers on how to avoid wasting food by shopping
according to daily needs of households, and promotes better household planning and shopping patterns in
order to encourage a movement away from impulsive to rational food shopping and consumption patterns
In the UK, the Waste Reduction Action Plan (WRAP) encourages leading retailers, brand owners and their
supply chains to identify collaborative approaches towards reducing the amount of food and packaging waste
that ends up in the household bin and ultimately in landfill. WRAP aims at reducing packaging waste and
consumer food waste by carrying out R&D work, by guidance on best practices and by promotion. WRAP
partners with packaging manufacturers, retailers, brands, suppliers, research institutes, universities, design
agencies and environmental and design consultants.
Abundance and consumer attitudes lead to high food waste in industrialized countries. Perhaps one of the
most important reasons for food waste at the consumption level in rich countries is that people simply
can afford to waste food. The amount of available food per person in retail stores and restaurants has
increased during the last decades in both the USA and the EU. A lot of restaurants serve buffets at fixed
prices, which encourages people to fill their plates with more food than they can actually eat. Retail stores
offer large packages and “getting one for free” bargains. Likewise, food manufactures produce oversized
ready to eat meals (Stuart, 2009).
Prevention: Public awareness. Education on these matters in schools and political initiatives are possible
starting points to change people’s attitudes towards the current massive food waste.