Slide 1
NURS1004 Physical
Dimensions of Being Human
Lifespan Development
Adolescence to Young Adulthood
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Lesley Cuthbertson
(Acknowledgement to Dr Alison Hutton & Dr Julian Grant)
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Slide 2
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Session Outline
Adolescence
Young adulthood
• Characteristics
• Physical Development
• Psychosocial
Development
• Sociological
Perspective
• Cognitive
Development
• Challenges
•
•
•
•
Features
Transitions
Physical Development
Cognitive
Development
• Psychosocial
Development
Love & Friendships
Career
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Slide 3
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Chronological overview of human development
Period of life
Time frame
1. Prenatal
Conception to birth
2. Infancy
Neonate Birth- 4 weeks
Infant 4weeks – 12months
3. Childhood
(a) Toddler
(b) Preschool
(c) Middle childhood (2 phases)
2 years to teens
1 years to 3 years
3 years to 6 years
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6 years to 12 years
Onset of puberty marks the end of this period
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4. Adolescence (3 phases) 12 years to 20 years
5. Young adulthood
20 years to 40 years
6. Middle age
40 years to 65 years
7. Old age (3 phases)
(a) Young
(b) Middle
(c) Old
65 years +
65 years to 70 years
70 years to 85 years
85 years +
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Slide 4
Adolescence (12-20years)
Adolescence encompasses the
second decade of life following
childhood - preceding adulthood
Aside from the first two years of life;
at no other time does the individual
grow and develop as much
One must be careful not to discount
the huge emotional and physical
changes
Changes normally spread over a
period of time
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Slide 5
What is adolescence?
• Adolescence is defined as a transitional
period, and a most uncertain time ‘of our lives’
• Many milestones to deal with;
– Encompassing the physical, cognitive and social
development
– Changes are profound and rapid
• These milestones have a huge impact on the
adolescents current and future well-being
• This decade is seen as a transitional period, fitting
neither into the role of a child or that of an adult
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Slide 6
What is adolescence cont.?
• By naming this period of life as transitional, this
implies that adolescence has ‘no value of its
own’
• Yet this time of transition can be deemed as
unique
• Intricacies of transition makes adolescence
stand apart from being an adult or a child
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Slide 7
Stages of adolescence
• Early adolescence: 12-14 yrs - period of
puberty, parent teen conflict begins - find
peers with similar values
• Middle adolescence: 15-16 yrs – adolescent
sub-culture, turn to peers - peak turmoil in
teen family relationships
• Late adolescence: 17-20 yrs – period of
facing up, turbulence subsides, more adult
friendship with parents
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Slide 8
Chronological Age Implications
• Adolescent development
encompasses pubertal, cognitive,
physiological and psychosocial changes
• The consequence of these concurrent
changes in this age group needs to be
acknowledged
• All of these changes are mostly new the
adolescent - may have not had time to
process how they are feeling
• For the adolescent, the potential for
confusion, about themselves and their body
image is paramount
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Slide 9
Chronological Age Implications cont.
• Adolescence is constantly defined
according to chronological age
• Difference in age parameters can lead
to confusion when attempting to define
what ‘adolescence’ is
• This definition can be limiting as not all
people fit neatly into the same category
• This definition quite ‘mechanistic’ does
not take into account wide variations in
psychological and physiological
development
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Slide 10
Physical growth
• Begins 2 years earlier for
girls
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• Mean age for girls to begin
is 9 years and boys 11
years
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• During growth spurt girls
increase 9cm and boys just
over 10 cm per year
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• Often asynchronous growth –
hands, feet & hands early
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Pubertal Growth Spurt. Santrock
2008
Slide 11
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Physiological Development
It is common to define adolescence through
physiological development
This can be misleading; yet sexual maturation
is often linked to physical development
Many texts define adolescence as starting or
being defined by puberty
Adolescence will begin and end at varying
times
 starts sooner for girls than it does for boys
 girls begin menstruation (menarche) earlier
than boys experience testicular development
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Slide 12
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Puberty
• Most important developmental marker of the
onset of adolescence
• Period of rapid physical maturation
involving hormonal and bodily changes
• Not a single, sudden event
• Characterised by increases in height and
weight and sexual maturation
‘Puberty’ by Edward Munch
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Slide 13
Sexual Maturation
Timing
• Girls: menarche begins between 9 and
15 years
• Boys: sexual maturation begins
between 10 and 13.5 years, last from 36 years
Influenced by:
• Heredity, hormones, body weight and
fat, ie. BMI
• Nutrition, health, environmental factors
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Slide 14
Sexual Development
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Adolescence is a time of first experiences
Sexual awareness coincides with puberty
Sensitive issue
Hormones play a large part in increased
sexual activity of the adolescent
• Not all adolescents are having the same
experience
Love is the answer. But while you are waiting for
the answer, sex brings up some really good
questions!
Woody Allen
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Slide 15
Coitarche
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•
Coitarche – first experience of complete sexual intercourse
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Timing of coitarche is highly variable
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Being ahead of peers can pose problems for long-term
psychological well-being
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Early loss of virginity predicts poor academic achievement – for
both boys and girls
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Early sexual experiences associated with poorer relationships
with parents, less interest in religion, greater tolerance of
deviant behaviour, and high need for independence
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Peterson 2010
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Slide 16
Brain Development
Emotional processing differences between
adolescents (10-18 years) and young adults (20-40
years):
 Adolescents: emotive (impulsive) responses
 Adults: rational, reasoned responses
Limbic system structures (amygdala, hippocampus)
increase in volume and pruning of prefrontal cortex
means:
 Poor self-control; seek rewards and pleasure
 Seek novelty; increased risk-taking
 Lack of practical experiences; immature judgment
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Slide 17
Brain Development cont.
New insights into brain development
• 1990’s information explosion due to brain
imaging techniques (e.g., CT, PET and MRI)
• These brain imaging techniques produce
windows to observe brain development and the
effects of substances on the brain
Adolescence is a period of profound brain
maturation.
We thought brain development was complete by
adolescence
We now know… maturation is not complete until
about age 24/25!!!
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Slide 18
Changes in the Brain
• During late childhood,
neurones increase their number
of connections
• around 11 – GIRLS; 12½ - BOYS
• Some of these connections are
pruned off
• When the pruning is complete,
the brain is faster and more efficient
• But… during the pruning process, the brain is
not functioning at full capacity
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Slide 19
Pruning starts at the back of the brain..
nstruction
Ahead
and moves to the front
Amygdala
Judgment
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Emotion
Motivation
Prefrontal
Cortex
Physical
coordination
Nucleus
Accumbens
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Cerebellum
Notice:
Judgment is last to develop!
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Slide 20
Implications of Brain development for
Adolescent Behaviour
Teenage brain 1 (5.20mins)
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RpMG7vS9pfw&feature=related
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Preference for physical activity
Poor planning and judgment
More risky, impulsive behaviors
Minimal consideration of negative consequences
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Slide 21
Psychosocial Development
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Erikson’s Theory Stage 5 Identity vs Role
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Confusion
• adolescence was a time where people begin to get a
sense of who they are, their own individuality
and thus where they belong in society
• Identity formation
• Variables to identity formation
– societal – cultural beliefs
– relationship with parents and peers
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Adolescence: Virtue = Fidelity
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Slide 22
Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion
Role confusion - where the person
experiences identity or role crisis
The person that experiences role confusion is
one who has not yet fully developed a feeling
of pride or self-confidence about themselves
Furthermore the person in role confusion has
difficulty forming relationships with the
opposite sex or forming intimate relationships
with others
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Slide 23
Adolescent Identity
• Adolescents’ identity development affected by:
 Individuality (self-assertion, separateness)
 Connectedness (mutuality, open to other views)
 Ethnic and cultural group membership.
 Gender (may be more complex for females)
•
Male identity formation may precede intimacy stage
•
Female intimacy may precede identity formation
• Issues related to:
 Body image
 Sexual identity
 Risk taking
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Slide 24
Identity statuses
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Identity achievement – after period of crisis, doubt and soulsearching, a coherent sense of self emerges
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Identity moratorium – involves protracted identity crisis often
involving painful period. Identities that eventually emerge often
exceptionally worthwhile
•
Identity foreclosure – identity is assumed without crisis. May be
imposed by others
•
Identity diffusion – unable to make even simplest identity decision.
These adolescents are apathetic, profoundly confused, insecure and
withdrawn
(Peterson 2010)
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Slide 25
Sociological Perspective
• Adolescence used as a socially contrived state
to meet the needs of society
– economic depression; adolescents portrayed
as immature, psychologically unstable encouraged to spend a prolonged period in
the education system
– economic growth; adolescence is portrayed
as competent, need for continuing education
down played - move quickly into the work
environment
• Social cohort
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Slide 26
Gen Y
1980 - 1995
• “Towering self-esteem and
unabashed assertiveness”
• Unreliable, selfish?
– Backlash from baby
boomers?
– Attempt to socialise into
the status quo?
– A result of authoritative
parenting
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Slide 27
Gen Z
late 1990s…..
• Addicted to technology
• Prematurely mature – a
lowering of innocence
• Risk averse
• Scared to go outdoors
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Slide 28
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory
• Formal operational thought: a stage adolescents
should reach to enter adulthood
• Formal operational thought increases the
capacity for abstract reasoning
• Adolescents become more aware of their
thoughts, feelings and attitudes of these
around them. For example the capacity for
empathy
• Not all people reach this kind of cognitive
thinking until they are well into their adult
years
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Slide 29
Piaget’s theory of adolescent
cognition
• Formal operational thought – ability to reason
logically and systematically about abstract problems
and hypothetical possibilities
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Slide 30
Social Cognition
Elkind’s perspective:
•Adolescent egocentrism - ‘refers to the heightened selfconsciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that
others are as interested in them as they themselves are, and in their
sense of personal uniqueness’ (Santrock 2003, p. 137).
•Personal Fable - adolescent egocentrism involving their sense of
uniqueness. This perception makes them feel that no one can
understand how they really feel.
•Imaginary Audience - involves attention-getting behaviour, a desire
to be noticed, visible and ‘on stage’. ‘Adolescents ..believe that they
are the main actors and all others are the audience’ (Santrock 2003,
p.137).
•‘Argumentativeness’ -‘Adolescents want to practice their new
ability to see the nuances in an issue’ (Gething and Hatchard 1989,
p.287).
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Slide 31
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Today’s challenges….
• Adolescence is a time of rapid growth,
physical maturity and intellectual changes
• In today’s society the adolescent is now
expected to master numerous complex tasks
• Prevalence of social and psychological
problems has increased
• An expectation to a much more rapid shift
from childhood to independence
• Targeted to make choices due to ‘free’
income
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Slide 32
Young Adulthood (20-40years)
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Slide 33
Features of emerging adulthood:
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Identity exploration
Instability
Self focussed
Age of possibilities
Feeling in - between
Self-Perceptions
of Adult Status
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Arnett (2006)
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Santrock 2008, p. 459
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Slide 34
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The transition to adulthood:
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• Occurs in adolescence.
• Begins in biology and ends in culture.
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• Is often marked by full-time employment.
• Is marked by economic independence.
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• Involves accepting responsibility and
consequences for one’s behaviors and
choices.
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• Is influenced by self-perceptions.
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Slide 35
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Possible Markers of Early
Adulthood
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Role transitions
Family capacities
Norm compliance
Individualistic transitions
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(Arnett 2001)
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Slide 36
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Individualistic transitions
• ‘Learning to stand alone’
• ‘Accept responsibility for the consequences
of your actions’
• ‘Decide on personal beliefs and values’
(1998,cited in Arnett 2001, p. 141)
(2001, p. 141)
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(2001, p. 141)
new adulthood is characterised by an
increase in the positive value placed
on personal autonomy ...
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(Dwyer Smith Tyler & Wyn 2005)
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Slide 37
Physical development
• Peak physical performance between 19 and 26
years (under 30)
• People healthiest during this time
• Individuals know what behaviours will prevent
illness and promote health
• Pleasures most often involve physical resources
• Awareness of lifestyle behaviours
• Motor and cognitive skills form new connections
• Neuro-cognitive growth spurts occur
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Slide 38
Cognitive development
• Piaget - adolescents and young adults think the
same way (formal operational thought)
• Other theorists – post formal thought qualitatively
different:
Four characteristics – flexibility, multiple
causality and multiple solutions, pragmatism
and awareness of paradox and contradiction as a
basic aspect of reality
• Absolute thinking becomes reflective/ relativistic
thinking
• Loss of idealism
• Creativity peaks
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Slide 39
Moral development
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Slide 40
Gender and moral reasoning
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Gilligan (1977) – women view moral dilemmas in an intimate social
context, and resolve them using principles of altruism, nurturance,
attachment and sensitivity to others’ concerns
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Men’s and women’s qualitatively distinct experiences throughout adult
life contribute to moral development
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Women and men use same moral principles when faced with same
moral problem
•
Previous findings of sex differences may reflect different types of
moral problems
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Slide 41
Psychosocial development
6th
Erikson’s
stage of psychosocial development:
Intimacy v’s isolation
• Intimacy means ‘finding oneself while losing oneself in another
person’ (Santrock 2008, p. 500)
• Main developmental tasks are to form intimate relationships
• If unable, isolation may result
• Friendship is a close relationships with:
– enjoyment and spontaneity
– Acceptance
– Trust, respect and mutual assistance
– Confidences shared and a sense of understanding
Young adulthood: Virtue = Love
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Slide 42
Attraction, love and close relationships
• People actively seek out
others
• Familiarity necessary for a
close relationship
• Seek out others who are
similar
• Physical attractiveness not
always a factor
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Slide 43
Friendships and Intimate relationships
• Similar in many ways
• Gender differences in friendships
Women:
• Make more friends than men
• Communication central
• More self disclosure than men
• More mutual support
Men:
• Activities central to male relationships
• Share useful information but keep a distance
• Seek practical solutions to their problems
• Less likely to disclose personal weaknesses
• Male relationships more competitive
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Slide 44
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Love
• Complex area of human emotion and comes in
different types of expressions
• Intimacy requires establishment of a stable and
successful identity
• Failure to achieve intimacy results in social
isolation
• Most important aspect of intimacy is
commitment
• Attempts to establish intimacy occur at the same
time that one is seeking personal autonomy
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Slide 45
Sternberg’s
Triangle of Love
3 types of love combine to
form these patterns of love
Present
Absent or low
Passion
Types of Love
Infatuation
Affectionate
Fatuous
Consummate
Santrock
Passion
Intimacy
Commitment
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Slide 46
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Falling out of love
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Includes:
• The collapse of a close friendship
• One person being taken advantage of by another
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• Betrayal of trust
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• Being with someone who does not return your
feelings
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• Causes great distress and hardship
• Emotions like depression and obsessive thoughts
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Slide 47
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Loneliness
• Everyone feels lonely at some time
• Activities of contemporary society can be
causes of isolation
• Married persons are less lonely than non
married
• Loneliness is chronic condition for some
people
• Linked to impaired physical and mental
health
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Slide 48
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Economic Challenges
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•
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Dependency ratios
Incomes
Lifetime incomes
Deregulation of superannuation and
finance
• Deregulation of housing loans
• Privatisation of education and health
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(Pusey 2007)
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Slide 49
Economic Challenges cont.
‘To make matters worse, they will find that the
combined pressures of a deregulated labour market
will, as we have seen, concentrate income and other
economic stresses in those years when they are
seeking to make and give time and resources to
their children’ (Pusey 2007, p. 12)
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Slide 50
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Career
Career as a ‘mindset’
(Dwyer et al 2003)
Emerging solidarity between generations
• aware of nature of economic reform
• new gender contract
• intergenerational transfers
• better communication
(Pusey 2007)
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Slide 51
Most believe they have been faced with a new
adulthood characterised by an increase in the
positive value placed on personal autonomy and on
attaining a balance across life spheres of work,
education, leisure and personal relationships with
family and friends. They see that this demands
greater flexibility on their part to cope with
uncertainty and achieve a genuine balance between
their top priorities in life (Dwyer et al 2005)
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Slide 52
Attachment to love and work
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Peterson 2010
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Slide 53
Transition to parenthood
• Deliberately childless couples
lack approval
• Transition to parenthood stressful
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• Marriage also undergoes upheaval –
underestimation of time and effort involved
associated with greater stress
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• Passing and brief phase for most couples
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(Peterson 2010).
• Parenthood only one option for achieving
generativity
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Slide 54
URL Clip
Emerging Adulthood
Uploaded on Apr 13, 2007 6.10 mins
A documentary film project that introduces the concepts
found in Jeffrey Jensen Arnett's book Emerging
Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens
through the Twenties
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prD3UHDQ-2M
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Slide 55
Summary: the major issues
impacting on young adults
•
•
•
•
Love
Careers
Marriage
The transition to parenthood
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Slide 56
References
Arnett, JJ 2001, ‘Conceptions of the transition to Adulthood: Perspectives
from adolescence through midlife’, Journal of Adult Development, vol.
8, no. 2, pp. 133-143.
Dwyer, P, Smith, G, Tyler, D & Wyn, J 2005, Immigrants in Time: Life –
Patterns 2004, Research report 27, Youth Research Centre, University
of Melbourne.
Dwyer, P, Smith, G, Tyler, D & Wyn, J 2003, Life Patterns, Career
Outcomes and Adult Choices: The Life – Patterns Study, Research
report 23, Youth Research Centre, University of Melbourne.
Pusey, M 2007, ‘It could even be good news?’, Youth Studies Australia,
vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 9-16.
Santrock, J 2010, Life – span Development, 12th edn, Pearson, Boston.
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Slide 57