SOPAC Training Report 29
May 1990
BASIC EARTH SCIENCE
AND MARINE GEOLOGY COURSE
Course Instructor's Report
by
Russell Howorth
Training Co-ordinator
SOP AC Technical Secretariat
Prepared for: South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)
Training Programme
Contributed by: ESCAP/UNDP RAS/86/l25 Development of South Pacific
Institutional Capability in Marine Minerals and Technology (CCOP/SOPAC);
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation; New Zealand Government
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3
Funding ................................................................................................................................ 3
Participants ........................................................................................................................... 4
Content of Course ................................................................................................................. 5
Budget .................................................................................................................................. 5
Participant Assessment/Examination ................................................................................... 5
Training Programme 1991 ................................................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 6
APPENDICES
1
Course Outline ........................................................................................................7
2
Actual Daily Schedule ...........................................................................................10
3
Self Assessment Questions ...................................................................................18
4
Final Examination Papers .....................................................................................37
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INTRODUCTION
The first part of the three-year Certificate in Earth Science and Marine Geology Programme, the
Basic Earth Science and Marine Geology Course, was held at the Institute of Marine Resources, University of
the South Pacific, from 8 January to 6 April 1990.
On the successful completion of this course and the four advanced courses in the second and third
years, the participants will be eligible to graduate with the Certificate in Earth Science and Marine Geology
awarded jointly by the University of the South Pacific and Victoria University in Wellington.
The Course Instructor was Dr R. Howorth, SOPAC Training Coordinator and Senior Lecturer in
Geology at Victoria University. Persons who assisted with the teaching included Phillip
Woodward, SOPAC Chief Draftsman and Fuka Kitekei'aho who is a Tongan national with a masters degree
in geology.
A two-week workshop on Introduction to Remote Sensing was held as part of this course.
The resource persons included Ms Gail Kelly and Greg Hill from the Australian Key Centre for Land
Information Studies and Peter Stephens from the Aokautere Science Centre in New Zealand. Course
Technician was Mr Fiu Manueli, Institute of Marine Resources, University of the South Paciftc.
FUNDING
The course was financed by funds made available from the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation and the Government of New Zealand. The UN/ESCAP Subregional Remote Sensing Project based in
Suva arranged for the funds necessary for the teachers and the teaching materials for the workshop. UNDP
provided the salary for the Course Instructor who is also the Training Co-ordinator at the SOPAC Technical
Secretariat (Techsec). A donation was received from the following mining companies to cover the costs of
their employees who attended the course; Placer Pacific, BETA Limited, and Poseiden.
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PARTICIPANTS
A total of 19 participants attended the course; they were from 6 countries in the region :
Cook Islands (2), Fiji (7), Papua New Guinea (2), Solomon Islands (3) and Western Samoa (3).
The affiliations of the participants were as follows :
Cook Islands
Tuangaru Bishop
Tua Matepi
Conservation Officer, Aitutaki, Rarotonga
Trainee Technician, Planning and Design Services, Ministry of Works,
Rarotonga
Fiji
Mohammed Aslam
John Banner
Isei Boladau
Isei Bonaseva
Antonio Ganivatu
Sunia Vakacegu
Sakaraia Vunisa
Technical Assistant, Mineral Resources Department, Nabua
Technical Assistant, Mineral Resources Department, Nabua
Field Assistant, Poseiden, PO Box 10356, Suva
Field Assistant, Placer Exploration, Labasa
Nominee of Namosi Provincial Council
Geological Assistant, BETA Ltd, Lautoka
Electronics Technician, Mineral Resources Department, Suva
Papua New Guinea
Jonathan Kuduon
Sarufa Maupua
Technical Officer, Department of Minerals and Energy, Rabaul
Technical Officer, Petroleum Division, Department of Minerals and Energy,
Port Moresby
Solomon Islands
Mason Andrew
Henry Te1oto
Thomas Toba
Field Assistant, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara
Technical Records Assistant, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara
Geological Assistant Trainee, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara
Tonga
Tevita Fatai
Rennie Vaiomounga
Geological Trainee, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Nuku'alofa
Geological Trainee, Ministry of Lands Survey and Natural Resources,
Nuku'alofa
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Western Samoa
Fa'asuaga Leota
Samuelu Taape
Kuatemani Tuapola
Technical Assistant, Apia Observatory, Apia
Assistant Driller, Apia Observatory, Apia
Observer/Data Analyst, Apia Observatory, Apia
CONTENT OF THE COURSE
The outline of the course is given in Appendix 1. The daily work programme, except during field work was
run on a 08HOO-10HOO; 10H30-12HOO; 13HOO-15HOO; 15H30-16H30 basis 6Y2-hour day with the last hour in
the afternoon reserved for students own study. For the greater part, the course was held at the SOPAC Technical
Secretariat. The actual daily schedule is given in Appendix 2. Out of the 66 course days, 10 were spent in the field.
Field trips were held to Wainimasi Creek near Suva, Waya and Drawaqa islands in the Yasawa Group, and three
days were spent introducing the participants to nearshore surveying techniques in Laucala Bay, Suva.
BUDGET
An initial budget for the course was F$76,020 which included funds for 8 overseas participants.
In the event 12 overseas participants attended, a revised budget of F$97,300 was prepared. A statement of income
and expenditure will be provided later to the donors once accounting has been completed.
PARTICIPANT ASSESSMENT/EXAMINATION
Each participant was assessed on their performance during the course (50%) and by two 2hour
examinations at the end of the course. Work was continually reviewed by discussion sessions based on selfassessment questions (Appendix 3). The final examination papers are given in Appendix 4. The final results for the
course were submitted to the Director of USP's Institute of Marine Resources (IMR) and a copy to the Director of
Techsec for advice to member countries along with a confidential report on each student.
Thirteen students gained the 50% final pass mark.
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TRAINING PROGRAMME 1991
It is proposed to run two advanced courses in early 1991 - Advanced Course 1: Earth
Materials, followed by Advanced Course 2: Marine Geology and Earth History.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people provided invaluable assistance which contributed to the success of the course :
-
staff of Techsec
-
staff of IMR/USP
-
villagers of Wayalevu, Waya Island
-
Australian Key Centre for Land Information Studies
-
Aokautere Science Centre, New Zealand
-
UN/ESCAP Subregional Remote Sensing Project
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APPENDIX 1
COURSE OUTLINE
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COURSE OUTLINE
Basic Earth Science and Marine Geology Course
(a)
Broad physical features of the earth: origin and timescale, geometry, plate tectonics, internal
structure, surface structure, morphology, oceanography.
(b)
Brief discussions of offshore and onshore mineral exploration and resources, and energy
resources in the southwest Pacific region.
( c)
Major rock and mineral groups, recognition and desciption of common rock forming and
economic minerals in hand specimen; recognition and description of common rock types in hand
specimen, simple classification of rocks.
( d)
Laboratory thin sectioning techniques, making thin sections, use of petrological microscope;
optical properties of common rock-forming minerals, use of thin section work in rock
classification.
(e)
Laboratory techniques in sieving sediments and data presentation using simple statistics.
(t)
Topographic and bathymetric map interpretation; 3-D thinking; surface morphology, contours,
uses of maps and cross-sections and block models.
(g)
Geological map interpretation, 3-D thinking, outcrop patterns of simple dipping strata - effect
of angle of dip and topography, recognition of simple faults - estimation of dip and throw; uses of
structural contours; three-borehole type problems, simple folds, simple unconformities; completing a
geological map given partial outcrop and assuming simple structures.
(h)
Introduction to geophysical surveying, properties of seismic waves, principles of refraction
surveying, carrying out field surveys and subsequent data reduction and report.
(i)
Introduction to marine surveying, short cruise, echo sounding, simple navigation, use of sextant
for inshore position fixing, inshore sparker and boomer transects, collecting 1-2 metre gravity cores
and grab samples. (All necessary work can be carried out in Suva Harbour).
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(j) Geological field mapping, field trips, pace and compass traversing, perspective sketching, uses of scales,
measuring dips and dip directions, locating geological boundaries, recording in field notebook, outcrop
description, accurate sample collecting/location recognition of zones of alteration and mineralization,
interpreting mesoscopic structures observed, plotting up field maps, data sheets, follow up laboratory
work and report preparation.
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Appendix 2
ACTUAL DAILY SCHEDULE
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APPENDIX 3
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1
1.
Write down the Principle of Uniformitarianism.
2.
What do you understand by relative time?
3.
What do you understand by real time?
4.
List the periods of the Geological Time Scale in order from oldest to youngest.
5.
What is the approximate age of the Earth?
6.
Approximately what age are the oldest rocks in the island nations in the South Pacific
excluding Papua New Guinea?
7.
Approximately what age are the oldest rocks in Papua New Guinea?
8.
Are the rocks in Papua New Guinea generally considered young compared with the age of the
Earth?
9.
Approximately how long ago did the first organisms with hard skeletal parts appear?
10.
Approximately how many million years ago did "hominid" (humanlike) creatures appear?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 3
1.
Express the following word scales as representative fractions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
1 cm to 1 Ian
1 mm to 1 Ian
1 cm to 50 Ian
2.
Express the following representative fractions as word scales, "centimetres to kilometres"
(i)
1: 25000
(ii)
1: 25‫סס‬oo
(iii)
1: 1000ooo
3.
A line scale is still correct after photo reduction or enlargement of a map. TRUE/FALSE.
4.
A word scale is still correct after photo reduction or enlargement of a map. TRUE/FALSE.
5.
On the map of Doubtless Bay provided what is there at the following grid references.
(i)
787998
(ii)
933849
(iii)
059939
(iv)
155903
(v)
949045
6.
Using the map of Doubtless Bay provided, what is the approximate width of Rangaunu
Harbour entrance? Give your answer in kilometres.
7.
Using the map of Doubtless Bay provided, what is the approximate width of Doubtless Bay
from Knuckle Point to Berghon Point?
8.
What is the total area (land plus sea) covered by the Doubtless Bay map?
9.
What is the length of your double pace?
10.
What is the approximate area in square metres enclosed by your traverse of the Mineral
Resources Department compound?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 4
1.
What are the two primary physical features of the Earth's surface?
2.
What proportion of the Earth's surface is underlain by oceanic crust?
3.
What is the abyssal plain?
4.
What is the average depth of the oceans?
5.
On what major global feature is Easter Island situated?
6.
Name five ocean trenches and associated island arcs?
7.
Name an ocean trench NOT associated with an island arc?
8.
Where does the north end of the East Pacific Rise terminate?
9.
What major global physical feature commonly occurs in Tuvalu?
10.
What are the ocean fracture zones and where do they occur?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 5
1.
Distinguish between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
2.
Approximately what percentage of the hydrosphere is seawater?
3.
Define a rock.
4.
Define a mineral.
5.
List the 4 main rock groups.
6.
Sketch the Rock Cycle and clearly indicate the processes which occur as part of the cycle.
7.
What is the average thickness of:
(a)
continental crust?
(b)
oceanic crust?
8.
(i)
(ii)
What is the composition of the core of the Earth?
Approximately what percentage of the volume of the Earth is the core?
9.
(i)
(ii)
What is the composition of the mantle of the Earth?
Approximately what percentage of the volume of the Earth is in the mantle?
10.
At what depth is the core/mantle boundary?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 6
1.
Distinguish between the way in which the particles vibrate in:
(i)
(ii)
a seismic P-wave.
a seismic S-wave.
2.
Which seismic wave travels fastest, and what are their approximate velocities in crustal rocks?
3.
(i)
(ii)
4.
What happens to the velocity of seismic P-waves when:
(i)
they travel into a partially molten rock from a solid rock of the same composition?
(ii)
they travel into rocks of higher density?
5.
(i)
(ii)
(ill)
6.
What does the behaviour of seismic wave in the shadow zone tell us about the physical nature
of the outer core of the Earth?
7.
Distinguish between earthquake focus and epicentre.
8.
Do earthquake waves travel through the Earth in straight lines. YES/NO.
9.
What is the name of the crust-mantle boundary?
10.
At approximately what depth does it occur (i) beneath the continents and (ii) beneath the oceans?
P-waves travel through liquids. YES/NO
S-waves travel through liquids. YES/NO
where is the Shadow Zone associated with a large earthquake?
what happens to the P-waves in this zone?
what happens to the S-waves in this zone?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 7
1.
Where is the pull of gravity strongest, at the equator or at the poles?
2.
Give the reason for your answer to question 1.
3.
Approximately what percentage of the Earth's surface is in isostatic equilibrium?
4.
Which of the following areas are in isostatic equilibrium;
(i) the centre of the continents
(ii) the deep floor of the oceans (iii) the ocean trenches and island arcs?
5.
Explain, with a sketch, Pratt's theory of isostasy.
6.
Explain, with a sketch, Alry's theory of isostasy.
7.
The depth to the Moho is governed by the isostatic behaviour of the crust. TRUE/FALSE.
8.
What is the approximate average height of the mountains? What is the average overthickening of the
crust to compensate for the mountains?
9.
Explain what happens to the position of the Moho as the mountains are eroded away.
10.
Are the rocks in the upper mantle just below the Moho solid or partially liquid? Give reasons
for your answer.
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 9
1.
How many naturally occurring elements are common in crustal
rocks? Name them.
2.
Which two elements are the most abundant in the crust?
3.
What are the three basic parts of an atom and differentiate between them.
4.
What is an isotope of an element, give three isotopes of carbon as examples.
5.
What is an ion, distinguish between an anion and a cation.
6.
Explain how chlorine becomes an anion.
7.
Explain how sodium becomes a cation.
8.
Explain how the ionic behaviour of oxygen and silicon enable the stable, common mineral
quartz to form.
9.
Write down Moh's hardness scale for minerals.
10.
What are the common physical properties of minerals used to identify them in hand
specimen?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 10
1.
What is the standard thickness of a rock thin section?
2.
Which minerals are often used to determine correct thickness?
3.
What colour are these minerals at correct thickness?
4.
Is the colour observed under plane polarised or cross polarised light. TRUE/FALSE.
5.
Sketch a thin section showing the various parts.
7.
If 2 minerals which look the same in hand specimen occur in a rock, a thin section will
enable you to distinguish between them. TRUE/FALSE.
8.
What is used for:
(a)
attaching a rock chip to a glass slide?
(b)
grinding powder?
(c)
mounting the thin section?
9.
A thin section which is not standard thickness is useless. TRUE/FALSE.
10.
List five difficulties you encountered when making your first thin section.
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8.
For a bed of constant thickness what are the relationships between outcrop width and amount of true
dip?
(a)
when ground surface remains flat?
(b)
for different angles of ground slope?
9.
Draw cross-sections parallel to true dip to show
(a)
angle of dip of beds greater than ground slope
(b)
angle of dip of beds less than ground slope
10.
In each cross section for Question 9, show with an arrow the direction you walk to get onto younger
strata.
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 12
1.
White light has a wavelength of 4000-7000 angstroms. TRUE/FALSE
2.
1 angstrom = 10-10 millimetres. TRUE/FALSE
3.
Light is only a small section of the elctromagnetic spectrum. TRUE/FALSE.
4.
Electromagnetic energy vibrations are at right angles to the direction of
motion. TRUE/FALSE.
5.
Light waves are similar to earthquake P-waves or S-waves, which?
6.
Light is transmitted through two pieces of polaroid with the vibration directions at right angles
to one another. TRUE/FALSE.
7.
What is the name of the microscope used for studying rock thin sections?
8.
How does this microscope differ from other microscopes?
9.
(a)
(b)
10.
The polariser may be either IN or OUT. TRUE/FALSE.
11.
When the analyser is in, you are working with cross-polarised light. TRUE/FALSE.
12.
The clips for holding the slide in position should grip the coverslip. TRUE/FALSE.
13.
What are the centering screws used for?
What is the vibration direction of the polariser?
What is the vibration direction of the analyser?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 13
Describe what is meant by the following :1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Dyke
Sill
Breccia
Conglomerate
Stratum
Overturned beds
Asymmetrical Syncline
Axial plane of a fold
Fold limb
Apparent dip
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 14
1.
How many poles does the Earth's magnetic field have?
2.
What is the inclination of the magnetic field at present in the southern hemisphere?
3.
What is the position of the geomagnetic North Pole
(i)
today?
(ii)
over the past one million years?
4.
What is meant by a polarity reversal of the Earth's magnetic field?
5.
How were polarity reversals first recognized?
6.
What is meant by a magnetic anomaly as recorded by a magnetometer at sea?
7.
How are seafloor magnetic anomaly patterns explained?
8.
How are the anomalies arranged geometrically with respect to a mid-ocean ridge?
9.
Approximately how fast is the seafloor being created at the East Pacific Rise?
10.
What is the age of the oldest ocean floor and where is it located?
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 15
1.
List the common mineral groups.
2.
Which mineral group is the most important in petrography?
3.
Sketch the silica tetrahedron.
4.
What is the net charge on a silica tetrahedron?
5.
What is (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
an atom?
an ion?
a cation?
an anion?
the approximate size of an atom?
6.
List the approximate composition of the crust in terms of weight percent of an element.
7.
List in order of size, the common elements in the crust.
8.
What group of elements commonly balance the net charge of the silica tetrahedron?
9.
10.
What is (a)
(b)
(c)
an aluminium silicate?
an hydrated silicate?
an hydrated aluminium silicate?
List the common silicate mineral groups.
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 16
1.
Which metallic cations substitute for one another in olivine?
2.
Which metallic cations substitute for one another in igneous pyroxenes?
3.
What are the similarities and differences between biotite and muscovite?
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.
What is orthoclase?
6.
Describe Bowen's Reaction Series.
7.
What are the common minerals in :
(i)
Granite?
(ii)
Andestite?
(iii)
Basalt?
(iv)
Gabbro?
(v)
Diorite?
8.
List the properties commonly described for a hand specimen of an igneous rock.
9.
Distinguish between aphanitic, phaneritic and porphyritic.
10.
What is the relationship between colour and specific gravity of an igneous rock?
Name the minerals in the plagioclase series.
How do they differ chemically?
How can you recognize them in thin section?
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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 17
1.
Distinguish between isotropic and anisotropic minerals.
2.
Describe what is meant by:
(i)
extinction position of a mineral in thin section
(ii)
parallel extinction
(iii)
oblique extinction.
3.
What are the characteristics of isotropic minerals in thin section?
4.
What are the interference colours of a mineral?
5.
What are the characteristics of opaque minerals in thin section?
6.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
What is meant by pleochroism?
Name two minerals you know to be pleochroic and sketch their pleochroic scheme.
Name four minerals you know to be non-pleochroic.
7.
(i)
(ii)
What is meant by relief of a mineral?
Name two minerals one showing high relief, the other low relief.
8.
Sketch as they appear in thin section:
(a)
Carlsbad twins
(b)
Albite twins
(c)
Microcline twins.
9.
List all the common properties of quartz.
10.
Sketch the cleavage planes as they might appear in basal section for :
(a)
a pyroxene and
(b)
an amphibole.
11.
Sketch the cleavage planes as they might appear in any other section for:
(a)
a pyroxene and
(b)
an amphibole than a basal section.
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APPENDIX 4
FINAL EXAMINATION PAPERS
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