Introduction
Forest lands are a tremendously important natural resource in and to Alabama.
Of Alabama’s total estimated land area of 32.6 million acres, 67 percent or 21.9 million
acres of it is forested. Alabama’s forests have always and still do make a substantial
and essential contribution to both the economic and environmental well-being of her
citizens. Only 5% of Alabama’s forest land is publicly owned and managed by a
government entity. The rest of the forest land is private property (62% is owned by
families and individuals, 25% is owned by forest industry and the remaining 7% is
owned by other corporate investors).
Alabama’s land surface consists of eight distinct physiographic regions, each
having some similarities and some differences in soils, topography and climate. Within
each region, further diversity is provided through local variations in topography, soils
and drainage patterns which create micro-sites within the landscape. Besides natural
factors, a great deal of diversity in the landscape and forest composition occurs as the
result of historical and recent human activity. Land ownership and development
objectives determine the extent of land or forest manipulation in terms of appearance,
age, size and shape. The degree of change to forest composition depends upon the
type and amount of management, abuse or neglect that has been applied. A third factor
in forest diversity comes from the adaptability of each tree species. Some species can
survive and thrive under a wide variety of site conditions (generalists), while others are
very restrictive in their habitat requirements (specialists).
Forestry's Effects on the Alabama Economy
 Forestry is Alabama's #1 industry
 Forestry generates approximately $13 billion for Alabama each year
 Forestry generates approximately $4.2 billion in Alabama wages each year
 Over 170,000 Alabamians are employed directly or indirectly by the Forestry
industry
 The above statement represents about 10% of Alabama's total work force
 There are over 1,100 Forest Manufacturing operations in the state
 Hunting and Fishing, activities which rely heavily on Alabama's healthy forest
lands, generate over $600,000 in taxes, license fees, hunting rights and
equipment sales every year
 The Forest industry averages $800 to $900 Million a year in capital spending in
Alabama
 Alabama forest product companies inject approximately $1.9 Billion into local
communities in the form of payroll
Forestry Presence in Alabama
 Alabama currently has around 23 Billion cubic feet of timber "in the bank"
 There are twice as many trees in Alabama today as there were 50 years ago
 For every tree harvested in the state of Alabama, 5 are planted
 Alabama forest consist of 35% pine, 45% hardwood, and 20% mixed pine and
hardwood
 71% of Alabama forest are owned by private, non-industrial land owners
(http://www.alaforestry.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=169&mm=resources)
OBJECTIVE 1:Identify common trees without a key & identify
specific or unusual species of trees or shrubs through the use of a
key.
Dendrology
Dendrology stems from the Greek word for tree, 'Dendron', and 'ology' meaning
the study of. The study of dendrology includes: identification, silvical characteristics,
ranges, taxonomy, morphology and ecology.
A plant is considered to be a tree if it has the following characteristics: usually
has a single dominant woody stem (trunk or bole), is capable of diameter growth as a
result of the vascular cambium, is a perennial plant, will reach heights over 4.5 meters.
In comparison a plant is considered a shrub if: it is multi-stemmed, is capable of
diameter growth as a result of the vascular cambium, is a perennial plant, height is
usually less than 4.5 meters.
Classification of Trees and Shrubs
All trees and shrubs are separated in to two Divisions, based primarily on the
flower types and seed produced.
1) Pinophyta - (also known as
Gymnosperms) are the conifers. There are
over 700 species world wide and include
members of the Pine, Cedar, Yew, and
Ginkgo families.
Characteristics of Pinophyta
 leaves are often needle or scale-like,
 seeds are naked, often borne in a
cone,
 the wood is composed primarily of
tracheids,
 are also commonly known as
evergreens however, Larches, Ginkgo,
Bald-cypress and Dawn Red-wood lose
their foliage each year.
2) Magnoliophyta - (also known as
Angiosperms) are the broad-leaf trees and
shrubs. There are over 200,000 species
described in 385 families. Members of
Magnoliophyta are divided into two classes.
Liliopsida (monocots) include; Palms,
Yuccas and Bamboos. The second class
Magnoliopsida (dicots) such as: Maples,
Oaks, Ashes. All have woody stems.
Characteristics of Magnoliophyta
 leaves are simple or compound,
 fruit requires double-fertilzation,
 woody dicots have both trachea and tracheids in their wood.
Reference: http://gaia.flemingc.on.ca/~dhendry/trelec.htm
Websites:
100 Trees in Alabama
http://www.forestry.state.al.us/TreeIDIndex.aspx?bv=5&s=1
A Key to Common trees in Alabama
http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0509/ANR-0509.pdf
Tree Identification Links
http://gaia.flemingc.on.ca/~dhendry/tridlink.htm
Arbor Day Foundation Mobile Guide
http://www.arborday.org/trees/whattree/mobile/
Anatomy of a Tree
http://www.arborday.org/trees/treeGuide/anatomy.cfm
Objective 2: Understand forest ecology concepts & factors
affecting them, including the relationship between soil & forest
types, tree communities, regeneration, competition, & succession.
Trees are extremely important in soil building. Their roots grow down and break
up the bedrock into smaller soil particles and their fallen leaves contribute to the nutrient
richness of the soil. Tree branches soften heavy rainfalls, and their roots provide a
support structure within the soil, two factors that help prevent erosion.
Roots are the best water absorbing structures of plants, and soil meets nearly all their
water and nutrient needs. Trees depend on soil to supply four needs: stability, nutrients,
water, and oxygen. Anchorage of roots is particularly important in forests to support tall,
healthy trees.
Soil types are a major factor in determining what types of plants will grow in a
certain area. Plants use inorganic elements from the soil, such as nitrogen, potassium
and phosphorus, but the community of fungi, bacteria, and other microscopic creatures
living within the soil are also vital. These living organisms help with the decomposition of
dead plants and animals, breaking them down into soil.
Rich Loamy Soils
Some of the most magnificent of our deciduous forests are found on rich loamy
soils. Rich loamy soils are usually found in flat or low lying areas. The soil is a blackish
or black-brown color and is rich in organic matter (humus). The soil is usually relatively
nutrient rich because every fall, the trees drop the leaves that they grew the previous
spring. This vast amount of organic material contributes to the "litter layer" on forest
soils. The fallen leaves are a great food source for the fungi and bacteria in the soil.
These creatures slowly help the leaves to decompose, and they are eventually turned
back into soil which the trees can use to grow new leaves in future seasons. The
aeration of the soil also promotes the retention of water. The material at the top of the
litter layer is newly fallen and recognizable. Towards the bottom, the older leaves are
torn and usually covered with a slimy coating of microorganisms which feels gross, but
it's vital to returning nutrients to the soil.
Sandy Soils
Sandy soils are relatively "newly" formed compared to other soil types. It is easy
for both air and water to move between the large grains of sand, so this soil type stores
water very poorly and is susceptible to drought. Sandy soils are also very nutrient
deficient. The opposite problem occurs with clay soils. They are often waterlogged
because the tiny clay particles are packed tightly together, making it hard for air and
water to move through. Clay soils can be dense enough to make it difficult for plant
roots to spread through them. Sandy soils are often associated with pines.
In coniferous forests, the litter layer is made up of tough, dry needles and fallen
twigs. This layer doesn't decompose easily, and remains on the ground for many years.
Usually small fires burn off the fallen needles before they can decompose.
http://library.thinkquest.org/17456/soilall.html
http://www.nearctica.com/biomes/edf/edfintro.htm
Rocky Soils
A variety of rocky soils are found on hillsides and other regions of exposed rock.
The dominance of the rocks leads to a thin layer of soil deficient in organic nutrients. If
the rock is limestone the soil may be alkaline as well. Water drains rapidly in such areas
because of the rocks and because these soils are usually found on slopes. The arid
nature of the soils and the lack of nutrients lead to forests dominated by small trees
dominated by pines, oaks, hickories, and junipers.
Red Clay (Ultisols)
Red clay soils (technically known as ultisols) are found in parts of the
southeastern United States. These soils are heavy in clay and often stained rusty red or
yellow because of iron or aluminum oxides. Ultisols are acidic and dominated by clay.
They are deficient in nutrients and poorly aerated. Red clay soils are often covered with
thick stands of various species of southern pines.
http://www.nearctica.com/biomes/edf/soils.htm
Tropical Rainforests
Although tropical rainforests are some of the richest biomes in biodiversity, they contain
some of the poorest soils of all. This is because of the torrential rains that fall regularly
on these regions. The heavy rains dissolve nutrients in the soil, which then wash into
streams and rivers and are carried away.
Soil Temperatures
Soil temperatures and moisture levels are important properties affecting
production capacity. While the amount of precipitation determines the moisture level
of a site, an important factor affecting soil moisture is the amount of organic matter in
the soil. Temperature and humidity directly affect moisture level through evaporation.
Ground and plant canopy cover minimize evaporation by absorbing the sun's radiation,
and in the process use the energy to power photosynthesis.
Soil temperatures trigger biological controls of seeds and influence rates of
decomposition. For instance, Douglas fir requires a cold period to "scarify" or weaken its
seed's protective coating before they can break dormancy and germinate. Many
commercial tree nurseries simulate this through refrigeration.
Temperature affects the metabolic growth rate of plants, insects and
decomposers. In cold soils decomposition of organic residues is slower than in warm
soils. Such differences can often be observed on north versus south-facing slopes.
Soils are susceptible to leaching. Leaching is the process by which water
dissolves chemical components in the upper layers of the soil and carries them to lower
layers of the soil or into ground water. This can put valuable nutrients out of reach of
even the largest plants and trees.
Fertilizing is a common practice on industrial forest land. Various application
methods are used including aerial broadcasting. One interesting "organic" fertilizer used
on forested lands is sludge, or human waste. This may provide an answer to some
waste management dilemmas that
Illustration of (1) a climax forest (2) destroyed
accompany population growth near
by wildfire and (3 and 4) its eventual recovery.
forested areas.
Secondary succession occurs in an area where life once
http://www.envirothon.org/ForestSoil.pdf
existed but has then been destroyed.
(Reproduced by permission of The Gale
Group.)
Succession
Succession is a process of
ecological change in which a series of
natural communities are established and
then replaced over time. Ecologists
(scientists who study the relationships of
organisms with their living and nonliving
environment) generally recognize two
kinds of succession, primary succession
and secondary succession.
Primary succession takes place
on an area that is originally completely
empty of life. As an example, an area
that has been covered by a flow of lava
has, for a time, no life at all on it. Over a
period of time, however, various kinds of
organisms begin to grow in the area.
Over time, the variety of life-forms
changes as succession continues.
Secondary succession is far
more common. It occurs in an area
where life once existed but has then
been destroyed. For example, imagine a
forest that has been destroyed by a
wildfire. Again, for a period of time, no living organisms may exist in the area. Before
long, however, certain types of plants begin to reappear. And, as with primary
succession, the nature of the plant communities gradually changes over time.
The stages in ecological succession
The changes that take place during any form of succession depend on a variety
of environmental factors, such as the amount of moisture, temperature, and wind. One
possible scenario for primary succession might begin with the appearance of simple
plants, such as lichens and mosses. Such plants are able to spring up in tiny cracks in
the rocks in which water and dissolved minerals collect.
When these pioneer plants die, they decompose and begin to form soil in which
other, more complex plants can begin to grow. The second stage of plants might consist
of grasses, herbs, and small shrubs. A characteristic of these plants is that they devote
a great deal of energy producing huge numbers of seeds. They may live only one year,
and spend the greatest part of their energy to ensuring that offspring will arise the
following year. Species of this kind are known as opportunist species. Grasses are a
common example of opportunist species.
Plants that make up the early stages of succession also die, decompose, and
contribute to the growing layer of soil. This process takes place over hundreds or
thousands of years, however. Eventually, the soil is able to support more complex
plants, such as larger shrubs and small trees including aspen, black spruce, and jack
pine. These plants gradually take over from earlier communities since they are taller,
have more leaves, and can capture more sunlight that was originally captured by
simpler plants.
In the final stages of succession, taller trees begin to grow. They, in turn, block
out the sunlight needed by smaller trees and replace them. The final stage of ecological
succession is known as a climax community. A climax community in the scenario
outlined here might consist of birch, white spruce, and balsam fir.
Climax community
Ecologists refer to the final, highest stage of ecological development in an area
as the area's climax community. That term refers to a relatively stable community that
is environmentally balanced. Climax communities are more a theoretical than a real
concept. Certainly it is possible to recognize in old-growth communities areas that
change relatively slowly compared to the earlier, more dynamic stages of succession.
However, change in ecological communities is a universal phenomenon. Thus,
even the climax state cannot be regarded as static. For example, even in old-growth
communities succession on a small scale is always occurring. That succession may
involve the death of individual trees and the growth of new ones. As environmental
conditions change, even climax communities themselves continue to evolve.
Competition
In ecological succession, competition occurs when:
 Two species occupy similar niches
 Begin to compete for space, light and nutrients
Characteristics (growth habits, genetics/variety, etc) and environment (season,
temp, moisture) determine which species will prevail
Trees that do not have to compete with other plants and weeds show a
significant growth rate increase and are healthier overall. The trees establish a
better root system since they would not be competing for nutrients with other
vegetation. This healthy start serves as a foundation for the tree to develop on a
strong growing course. Also, there would be more room for growth with limited
interruption or competition from other plants. Therefore, weed control serves as a
beneficial means in forestry for aiding in the healthy development of trees.

Allelopathy is when certain plants secrete a chemical that is suppressive to other
plants. Examples include oak tannins and walnut trees. This can give the species an
advantage and affect the biodiversity of an area.
Plant Density can also affect competition in forestry. It is very important to know the
optimum plant spacing for optimum yield. Too far apart and you may a low yield due to
a small plant population. To close and competition from crowding can reduce yields.
http://www.in.gov/dnr/files/forestmanagementconcepts.pdf
Regeneration
After disturbances, whether they are natural (wind storm, insect attack, disease)
or human-caused (clearcutting or group selection cutting), tree species will begin to
regenerate through seed colonization and subsequent sapling growth. As these
saplings grow to maturity, they produce organic litter which covers and eventually
fertilizes the ground (microorganisms will break down the organic matter and release
the nutrients into soil). The initial colonizing species, known as early-successional
trees, create a shaded understory where eventually very few of their own seedlings can
establish themselves, because they need full sunlight for growth. Shade intolerant
saplings have a hard time growing in the shady understory, so other species which can
tolerate shade and respond well to the organic soil, will begin to flourish. These species,
known as later-successional trees, will form a secondary canopy beneath the
overstory. This secondary canopy will continue to rise as the trees grow, until it
overwhelms the overstory. When overstory species die, they are unable to replace
themselves and are succeeded by the species from the secondary canopy, which will
eventually dominate the stand. Later-successional species also have another
advantage over early-successional species; they are able to sprout from already
established root systems or even stumps. Oak seedlings may be as young as two
years, but have a root system older than ten. Oak species will continue to sprout
seedlings from roots and stumps, until a gap opens in the canopy (due to a fallen or
dead tree), into which the sapling will grow. Pines are early-successional species, while
oaks, maples and other hardwoods are later successional species.
Objective 3: Understand the cause & effect relationship of factors
affecting tree growth and forest development.
Site Quality
Site quality is the sum of the climatic, geologic, and soil-related factors that
influence tree growth at a specific location. These factors determine the availability of
water and nutrients. Good quality sites tend to be moist and nutrient rich whereas poor
quality sites are dry and infertile. Silvicultural treatments can be used to manipulate the
availability of light, water, and nutrients in a forest. When silvicultural treatments
increase the availability of a limiting resource in a stand, growth is likely to increase.
Growth of various species may be affected differently, based on the individual silvical
characteristics of a particular species.
Pathogens
Disease agents (pathogens) and insects affect forests in various ways. They are
essential to the function of dynamic ecosystems: they serve to thin out some of the
trees, recycle nutrients, create habitat and provide food to many wildlife species. They
can also negatively affect resource values and ecosystem functions. From the resource
perspective, tree mortality and growth loss can be highly significant. The two affect
timber growth and reduce desirable forest cover in recreation areas. They can present
hazards to visitors, reduce the ability of forest canopies to intercept snow and prevent
excessive runoff, change wildlife habitat and influence various other commodities and
amenities.
Climate
Climate is one of the most important growth factors for a tree, and while species
vary in their ability to tolerate different temperatures and weather extremes, the optimal
temperature for all species is between 8-18° C. Other influential climatic factors which
affect the tree growth include wind storms, droughts, frosts and the duration of winter
snow cover. Wind storms can cause extensive damage to a stand, felling trees and
ripping branches from trunks. Drought can halt growth during an entire growing season
and result in lasting damage while frost and lasting snow cover will cause freezing injury
to trees. In general, tree growth is controlled by a mix of interacting climatic factors,
which vary from year to year and include the temperature of both the soil and air, soil
moisture, sunshine, rainfall, and wind.
Light
Trees depend on sunlight for growth, but as their numbers increase, they
overshadow each other in the struggle to reach it. Young trees in the forest’s
understory struggle for light beneath the shady canopy of the mature trees. A tree’s
compensation point is the lowest light intensity at which a leaf can sustain itself. This
is generally between .3 to 1.5% of full sunlight. The shade tolerance of a tree, which
differs significantly between species, is the ability of the tree to survive (even when its
growth is approximately zero), under low light conditions.
Wildlife
There is a symbiotic relationship between forests and wildlife that assists in the
regeneration of specific species. For example, the animals such as birds or squirrels
may gather seeds and hide them for the winter in small caches. They often lose some of
these caches and the seeds will germinate in the spring. Without the nuthatch to break
open the cones, pull out the seeds, and plant them, some pine species would have
limited regeneration. On the other hand, shade tolerant trees can be hindered in its
regeneration by deer that eat the saplings down to the ground. In riparian ecosystems,
beavers kill trees and shrubs for their dams and houses. Some landowners despise the
presence of beavers because they alter the water delivery systems.
http://www.wetpartnership.org/pdf/deer-browsing.pdf
Microorganisms
Microorganisms in the soil assist in breaking down the leaf and pine needle litter
and dead and downed woody material. They decompose and release the nutrients
contained in the dead materials back into the soil. This is a crucial part of the nutrient
cycle. They are the best recyclers on the planet. Without them, the forest would be
littered with fuel on the ground, and the soil would eventually be depleted of all nutrients
needed for future growth.
http://urbanforestry.blogspot.com/2005/11/abiotic-factors-affecting-tree-growth.html
Objective 4: Understand basic forest management concepts &
tools such as how various silvicultural practices are utilized, the
use of tree measuring devices, & the best use of management
practices.
Tree Measuring Devices
Tree Diameter:
Tree diameter is an important measure of tree growth, especially when combined
with additional measurements such as the height and age of a tree (such as
determining the volume or site index of a tree). Diameter is always measured on the
uphill side of a tree at 4.5 feet (1.3 meters) up the trunk or Diameter Breast Height (or
DBH for short) using a diameter tape (or d-tape for short).
Diameter Tape (D-Tape) - when wrapped around the trunk of a tree, provides readings
of tree’s diameter (D=circumference/pi). The first thing you’ll notice about the d-tape is
that the inches look a lot longer than usual (3.14 inches or 7.97cm to be exact). This is
because the d-tape is calibrated in “diameter equivalents of circumference by inches
and tenths of inches” saving you the trouble of converting circumference into diameter.
Remember that diameter measurements should be expressed to the nearest tenth of an
inch (for example 11.7” or 29.7 cm). The reverse side of the tape shows feet calibrated
in inches and tenths of inches
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/envirothon/forestry/measurements.html#treediam
eter
Logger’s Tape - used to measure tree diameter as well as ground distance.
Stand next to the trunk of the tree and measure at 4.5 ft. above ground. Wrap the
measuring tape around trunk and make sure tape is level. Record the circumference in
inches.
Diameter is the relationship between the circumference of a circle (in this case the
trunk) and the number π (3.14). It can be expressed as:
Diameter = Circumference/π
Ex:
The circumference of the tree is 46.5 inches, So…
Diameter = 46.5/3.14
Diameter = ~14.8
*Record the DBH
Tree Height
Measuring tree height with a Clinometer:
A clinometer measures angles to determine the heights of objects without directly
measuring them.
How to Determine Tree Height Using a Clinomemeter
Determining the number of logs or sticks in a tree:
A Merritt Hypsometer is a simple tool that uses geometry to measure the number of 16
foot logs in standing trees. While not as accurate as special tools specifically designed
for height measurement (clinometer), the Merritt Hypsometer is convenient to carry and
use and accurate enough for many purposes.
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/envirothon/forestry/measurements.html#number
Determining Basal Area
Basal Area is level of tree stocking on a particular site. Basal area is
a measurement of the cross-sectional area of a given tree stem (or
trunk) expressed in square feet at DBH (4.5 feet or 1.3 m). The basal
area of a forest stand is the sum of the basal areas of individual
trees, and is expressed in square feet per acre.
Wedge Prism (Basal Area Prism) (Rectangular Prism shown) - In
forestry, the wedge prism is used to record and calculate basal area
of a stand via a timber cruise known as tree inventory. Because the
wedge prism refracts light to offset the object of interest (ex. A tree),
it can be used to determine whether or not the tree is inside the plot
radius based on the diameter at breast height of the tree and its
distance from the plot center. If the tree is inside the plot radius, then
the offset section of the tree will overlap the original bole making it an "IN" tree; if the
tree is on the border of your plot radius the offset section of the trunk will be aligned with
the original bole which is referred to as a borderline tree; if the tree is outside your plot
radius then the offset section of the tree will not overlap the original bole which is
referred to as an "OUT" tree.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedge_prism
Determining Basal Area Using a Prism
Determining Tree Age
Foresters use tree ring counts on large tracks of forests to determine the age of a stand
of trees, how fast they are growing and to calculate site index. If the tree's health is in
doubt, a forester or arborist can use tree rings to tell if there is internal damage.
http://forestry.about.com/od/dendrochronology/ss/tree_age_2.htm
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/envirothon/forestry/measurements.html#age
How Old is My Tree?
Why Do Foresters and Arborists Use Tree Rings?
http://forestry.about.com/od/dendrochronology/ss/tree_age.htm
GPS Receiver - utilizes orbiting satellites to determine exact
latitude/longitude position. This information is used to draw
maps and measure acreage as well as aiding in navigation.
Drip Torch - used to widen fuelbreaks by burning out fuels
between the break and the oncoming fire. It is widely used in
mop-up operations to burn out pockets of fuel remaining
adjacent to control lines after a wildfire is contained. It is also
used to ignite fuels as part of a prescribed burn.
Forestry BMPs
Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining
trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural and forestry
technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable
land-use systems.
In alley cropping is a strategy used by farmers where several crops are planted
together in strips or alleys between trees and shrubs. This design provides shade
(reducing water loss from evaporation), ensures retention of soil moisture, and can also
produce fruit, fuelwood, fodder, or trimmings to be made into mulch.
Riparian Forest Buffers are a very diverse community of trees, shrubs and native
perennial grasses planted next to streams. They are great for providing habitat for
wildlife on land and in the water. Taller trees next to the streams help to lower water
temperatures with shade which improves aquatic communities. The shrubs and grasses
help to slow flooding and the larger trees can sometimes intercept nitrates before they
reach the water with their deep roots (USDA, 2000). Farmers and ranchers establish or
protect forest buffer strips next to streams and rivers to control sediment and nutrient
losses from farmland.
Silvopastures combine livestock grazing on forage crops or pastures within actively
managed tree or shrub crops. Cattle, sheep and goats are the most common livestock
incorporated into silvopasture systems and they may be deployed entirely within a
private farm/woodlot silvopasture or through collaborative arrangements between forest
licensees and livestock producers on public lands.
Harvesting BMPs
It's possible to harvest wood products from the forest while maintaining a healthy vibrant
ecosystem. This requires proper planning and regular maintenance of the transportation
network used to access harvest sites. Proper planning takes into account the slope and
stability of an area, ensuring that roads will stay intact while minimizing erosion.
Planning also ensures the most efficient routes to access harvest areas, minimizing the
total number of roads. Water-courses are fully considered in long range planning to
minimize sedimentation of streams. Proper maintenance of drainage systems is critical
to maintaining road and water quality. Best management practices to reduce erosion
while harvesting include:
 Spreading organic material (slash) across the site. This speeds the cycling of
nutrients, most of which are contained in the foliage and bark, and reduces soil
compaction. Heavy compaction of the soil can reduce infiltration of water along
with the penetration of plant roots, burrowing insects, and animals.
 Proper timing of equipment use in the forest or the field can minimize soil
disturbance. Planning to minimize harvesting in the wet seasons can help
maintain soil integrity and minimize costly road repairs.
 Appropriate harvesting systems nearly eliminate soil disturbance. Helicopters
can be relatively costly and dangerous, but in unusually sensitive and extremely
steep areas they're effective tools to maintain the productivity of the site and
minimize soil erosion. In many cases, a well-designed cable system can achieve
comparable environmental results, with much lower cost. There are many
harvesting methods available; the appropriate system needs to be economically
feasible and environmentally compatible with the harvest site.
Additional Resources:
Teaching Materials (How to Build a Clinometer, How to Conduct a Tree Survey, Tree
Inventory Worksheet, Tree Measuring Tools)
http://www.americanforests.org/envir_edu/materials.php
http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/ftts/downloads/measuringforests.pdf
http://www.state.sc.us/forest/edutools.htm
Video overview of "Alabama's Best Management Practices for Forestry":
http://www.forestry.state.al.us/Publications/BMPs/2007_BMP_Manual.pdf
Objective 5: Apply silvicultural concepts & methods to develop
general management recommendations & goals for a particular
situation.
Silviculture is the art and science of managing and tending a forest. When a
series of cultural practices are planned into the long-term management of a forest
stand, the total program is a silvicultural system. This system has implications
throughout the life of the stand. The system usually takes its name from the final harvest
method such as clearcut, seed tree or shelterwood. Planning a system depends on the
objectives, the tree species and the land itself. For example, high subalpine mountain
land would not be suitable for growing oak and lower elevation draws would not support
Engelmann spruce. One objective might be to grow only pine pulpwood, another to
grow high quality sawlogs. Management objectives should also include non-timber
purposes such as wildlife, watershed, scenery, etc.
Determining the length of time between establishing the stand and the final
harvest is called the rotation or rotation age. Pulpwood would have a rotation of 20-30
years, small saw-timber 30-50 years and large sawtimber 50-80 years or even up to 120
years on some slow-growing sites. Prescribed burning, a system of burning the
underbrush and forest litter buildup, as well as regular thinning are appropriate
silvicultural tools in pine stands, and are used regularly in the Southeast, though less in
the West.
There are basically two silviculture management systems, even-age and uneven
age management. Both of these systems mimic disturbances that occur in natural
succession. For instance, sometimes wind, fire, ice storms or disease and insect
infestation can kill a forest in a short time. When the forest regrows, the new trees are
all about the same age, even though size may vary with growth rates. This type of forest
is called “even-aged”. Other times, a forest may grow for many years with only small
groups or individual trees dying. This provides open spaces that soon will be filled by
young trees. These forests are called “uneven-aged”.
Over time, each type of forest will take on a different appearance. Certain trees,
such as aspen and pine in the West, and black cherry, oak, hickory, and pine in the
East, grow best if they are managed as even-aged forests because they have needs for
direct sunlight. Other trees, such as spruce and true firs in the West, and hemlock,
maple, dogwood, and beech in the east, can thrive in the shaded environment of an
uneven-aged forest. As with the different stages of natural succession, each type of
forest supports different wildlife habitats. To imitate nature's methods of regenerating
forests, different cutting practices are used for each.
Even-aged management favors species, like pines, which require full-sunlight for
growth. However, even-aged management has its drawbacks. It reduces intra-stand
structural diversity (differences in height variation) by limiting stands to one or two
species, and promoting same-age growth. Structural and age diversity are two factors
that significantly enhance the biological diversity (a diversity of species) in forest
communities. Therefore, forest managers must be very careful when deciding to use
this technique.
Cutting methods for even-aged management
http://www.ncforestry.org/docs/Mgmt/harvesting.htm
Cutting methods for uneven-aged management
Group selection cuts small groups of trees in one-quarter to two acre plots. This
creates larger openings for regeneration of trees which require partial sunlight.
Individual tree selection or selection harvesting cuts trees of various sizes,
dispersed throughout the forest and individually selected for cutting. This creates small
openings for establishment of shade tolerant species.
http://www.hardwoodinfo.com/display_article.asp?ID=393
Diameter-Based Cutting
Diameter-based cutting, or diameter limit cutting, is a commonly used
harvesting strategy that involves selecting trees for harvest based solely on their size
(dbh). All merchantable trees above the designated dbh are cut, while those below the
limit are left as the remaining or residual stand. In most cases, this strategy is the
equivalent of high-grading, removing all of the biggest and best quality trees. While this
strategy may appear to be advantageous in terms of immediate financial gain, it has
serious implications for future stand productivity and the long-term value of the forest.
Diameter-based cutting often results in a residual stand of poor genetic quality and
commercial value. Only the smaller, less desirable, and malformed trees are left to
perpetuate the forest stand. This strategy lengthens the period between harvests as
natural regeneration may be limited by the composition and poor quality of the residual
stand and the smaller residual trees must develop to merchantable size.
Alternatively, a long-term harvest strategy involving a series of thinnings of
malformed trees and trees of less desirable species allows the biggest and best trees to
grow faster. This strategy allows for an increase in the overall volume and commercial
value of the forest stand. Thinnings provide some financial benefit for the short-term
while preparing the forest stand for a future harvest of premium, large, high-quality
timber. The long-term financial gain from a forest managed in this way is substantially
greater than that from a forest harvested using a diameter-based cutting system.
Coppice System
The coppice system involves the regeneration of a forest mainly from sprouts or
root suckers rather than seed. This is viable for hardwoods, and can be used for both
the even and uneven age management of forest stands. When a hardwood tree is cut,
dormant buds beneath the bark of the stump are stimulated. New sprouts grow from
these buds, frequently resulting in a clump of new trees all coming from one stump.
These new sprouts grow rapidly because they are still served by the large root system
of the parent tree. There are many variations of the coppice system. The most basic
method is to harvest a hardwood stand and allow nature to take its course. Another
method is to harvest, wait for sprouts to appear, and then remove all but one healthy
sprout from each stump.
Objective 6: Understand the value of trees in urban/suburban
settings & the factors affecting their health and survival.
Although natural disasters such as wildfire and hurricanes have always had an
impact on our forests, the real threat to our timberland assets has been created through
man’s exploitation. Such was the case in the early 1900s when the practice of “Cut OutGet Out” clearly indicated that current thinking believed our timber resources were
inexhaustible. Thousands of acres of
timberland were cutover and wildfire was
rampant. And there was no effort to replant
trees on the acreage cut or burned.
Fortunately, conservation-minded
citizens and government officials saw the
fallacy with such thinking and began the
first national efforts to protect timberland. A
variety of federal and state agencies were
created to help meet these challenges,
such as the Alabama Forestry Commission,
the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Natural
Resources Conservation Service, and the
Alabama Department of Environmental
Management. Forest landowners began receiving technical help from professional
foresters and eventually, the forests were reestablished. Those efforts have since
provided the citizens of Alabama an enormous opportunity in the form of job creation,
clean water and air, and abundant recreational prospects.
However, Alabama’s forests are
once again facing the real and genuine
threat from unabated and unplanned
growth. The continued demand for growth
from the city to more urban settings is
consuming thousands of acres of forestland
annually. A recent study calculated that
between 1970 and 1990, urban sprawl
consumed almost 40,000 acres of
forestland in the Mobile Bay area alone.
As our cities and towns grow, the impacts
on forest lands are beginning to take a toll.
Ownership of forested tracts is being
fragmented into smaller units. Forest
vegetation and ecosystems are being broken apart into isolated pieces, often replaced
by exotic or invasive species. Forested tracts that once provided valuable functions,
such as water quality, air quality, wildlife, scenery, recreation, and timber products, are
being lost or replaced by other land uses.
Any solution to a challenge requires public awareness and involvement. That’s
especially true in the case of urbanization and its impact on Alabama’s forests. It is the
only way we can address this issue and make sure that our state’s forests remain
prosperous and productive for all citizens.
Economic pressures from expanding urban areas, speculative development, and
changing demographics threaten to convert working forests to non-forest uses. Forest
Legacy is a Federally sponsored program used to identify and protect unique and
environmentally sensitive timberland. The program is designed to maintain properties in
"working forests" such that timber production, water quality, fish and wildlife habitat, and
other ecosystem services are all considered in the current and future management of
the property.
Zoning ordinances can impact the rate of urban growth. Where no ordinances
exist, development can occur without consideration for the potential impact on forests
and forest resources.
Importance of Alabama’s Urban Forest
Urban forests are a way of life in Alabama. Our state’s 47.8 percent urban forest canopy
is the nation’s highest. Alabama’s urban forest also provides valuable benefits to our
communities.
· Trees make people healthier. Moderate physical activity such as planting and caring
for a tree can reduce chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure,
and cancer.
· Trees make people money. Landscaped homes generally sell faster and for more
money than comparable "unlandscaped" homes. Increased property values make
money for homeowners, builders, and local governments.
· Trees help clear the air. Healthy urban trees "scrub" the air by removing harmful
elements. Trees also cool urban areas, thereby reducing pollution worsened by urban
"heat islands."
· Trees are good for the environment. Trees help control surface water runoff during
intense rain. They also reduce soil erosion and the amount of sediment that can build
up in our streams.
· Trees enrich the human experience. Accessible and well maintained urban green
spaces foster positive interaction among people. A community’s urban forestry program
will lower people's fear level, help reduce aggressive behavior, stimulate volunteerism,
and build good citizenship.
Suburban forest settings
Many tree-care issues affect the use, management, and protection of the urban
and community forest. These include loss of tree cover, proper care of trees to increase
longevity and decrease hazards, alleviation and prevention of soil compaction, providing
for better wildlife habitat, the effect of air pollution on tree health, and public mandates
for storm-water retention and flood prevention.
The loss of tree cover is becoming a critical issue in many areas. In a natural or
commercial forest situation, the canopy will approach 100 percent cover as trees
attempt to capture all available sunlight. In a residential area, the canopy cover will
typically range from 30 percent to 60 percent. Highly developed areas often have less
than 10 percent canopy cover. One way to calculate the loss of forest cover in a
community is to compare aerial photographs taken over time. Soil surveys are one
source of these photographs. If you have two photographs at the same scale, lay a dot
grid over each photo and count the percentage of dots that fall on forest cover.
Planting the right tree in the right place is essential to the proper care of trees.
Trees can only provide benefits if they are healthy and live for a long time. Trees should
not be planted where they cannot live or will interfere with power lines or buildings. They
should not be planted where they cannot survive cold winters or hot summers because
they will die and have to be removed.
Pruning is sometimes required for the proper care of trees. In young trees, you
prune primarily to promote good tree structure. Older trees may require periodic pruning
to clean out dead and dying branches or for other clearly defined reasons. However, a
good rule of thumb is never to remove a branch from a tree unless you have a clearly
defined reason for doing so. When you prune, properly placed, clean cuts will help the
tree recover quickly. A common mistake is to remove a tree limb by cutting it flush with
the tree trunk. Take care to cut the branch at its natural removal point, the branch collar.
Perhaps the worst mistake you can make is to top a tree. This is the practice of severely
cutting back branches and the main stem so that only stubs remain. Topping destroys
a tree's natural beauty and makes it dangerous by allowing decay fungi to invade the
branches and make them hollow. Although strong limb growth may occur after topping,
these branches are only weakly attached to the outer layers of wood and are likely to
fail in storms.
Soil compaction is a problem in every community. It occurs when vehicles,
particularly those involved with construction and maintenance, drive across moist soil,
but it can even occur where there is heavy foot traffic. Natural, undisturbed soils have
many pore spaces that are important reservoirs of gasses, such as oxygen, and
moisture that roots need to live. Pore spaces also serve as passageways for water to
percolate through the soil profile. When compaction occurs, these pore spaces collapse.
Existing roots find it difficult to obtain oxygen, nutrients, and moisture, and the resultant
dense soil is difficult for new roots to penetrate. Consequently the tree makes very slow
growth and can die back from the branch tips. These trees can die during drought
because of their limited root systems. On older trees, severe soil compaction can
precipitate decline and eventually lead to tree death.
Flooding and storm-water retention are growing issues in urban areas. Tree
canopies intercept rainfall, reducing and postponing the amount and time that water is
received into a stream or river. Tree roots help to create pore spaces that provide
reservoirs for still more water, and provide pathways for rainwater to be absorbed into
the soil profile. Loss of tree-canopy cover and soil compaction are two conditions that
contribute to flooding in urban and community areas.
The effect of air pollution on tree health is very difficult to quantify. Like many
environmental conditions, it is almost impossible to directly link tree death to air
pollution. Usually environmental conditions contribute to overall poor health, and may
contribute to tree death in the face of other disturbances, such as insect or disease
attack or drought.
Human activities — trade, travel, gardening, recreation, etc. — have resulted in
many species not native to Alabama being introduced to the state. Exotic species often
have few if any competitors or predators, making it easy for them to dominate the
landscape. Cogongrass, Chinese privet, kudzu, tallowtree, fire ants, and a host of other
non-native plants and animals have invaded, are invading, or pose a future threat to
Alabama's forests and forest
The illegal dumping of garbage, household appliances, construction waste,
and other materials represents a costly and potentially hazardous liablity for timberland
owners. Such dumping can adversely affect timber production, water quality, and other
forest resources.
Websites:
Tree City Program: http://www.arborday.org/programs/treeCityUSA/index.cfm
Urban Forests Ecosystems Institute: http://www.ufei.org/
Urban Forestry in AL: http://www.aces.edu/ucf/
Objective 7: Identify the complex factors that influence forest
management decisions.
Forest Management Plans
What Should Be In A Forest Management Plan?
Approaches to Ecologically Based Forest Management
Assessing Economic Tradeoffs in Forest Management
AL Forest Product Facilities –
Building Products Facilities in AL
 Ranked #7 in the U.S. in lumber production: Over 2.7 billion board feet of lumber
was produced in Alabama during the most recent reporting period, 90% of which
was Southern Pine.
 Ranked #8 in wood panel production: Approximately 2 billion square feet of wood
panels are produced a year.
Despite this high production, Alabama’s forests are growing timber much faster than it is
being harvested. The most recent data shows that timber growth exceeds removals by
23.8%. Pine growth exceeds removals by 20.3% and hardwood growth exceeds
removals by 31.3%. (2)
AL Recent Pulp & Paper Production Stats:
 Ranked #8 in the world in pulp production and #12 in paper production.
 Ranked #2 in the U.S. in pulp production and #3 in paper production.
Biomass Facilities
Alabama leads the nation in the use of renewable sources from industry. In fact,
many of Alabama’s pulp and paper mills, sawmills, and other types of forestry
manufacturing operations have been burning wood and wood biomass since the 1960’s
and 70’s for energy. The quest for other types of renewable fuels, such cellulosic
ethanol, is ongoing at several locations around the country. In addition, Alabama Power
Company is conducting a pilot program at its Plant Gadsden facility that involves cofiring wood chips with coal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Sustainable Forestry
Sustainable Forestry Initiative in AL
Principles of Sustainable Forestry
Social Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management
Forest Landowner’s Associations in Alabama
http://www.forestry.state.al.us/PDFs/ResourceSheets/Resources/Landowner_Associations.pdf
Objective 8: Understand how the following issues are affected by
forest health and management: biological diversity, forest
fragmentation, air quality, aesthetics, fire, global warming, and
recreation.
Biological Diversity
The concept of biological diversity encompasses the variety of existing life forms,
the ecological roles they perform, and the genetic diversity they contain. In forests, this
diversity allows species to adapt continuously to changing environmental conditions and
to contribute to the functioning of the ecosystem. From a human perspective, forest
biodiversity also maintains the potential for tree breeding and improvement, in view of
meeting human needs for goods and services. While timber production often dominated
the way in which forests were managed during the past century, new pressures have
now given rise to a more balanced approach of sustainable forest management. This
approach involves the conservation of biodiversity in view of obtaining multiple goods
and services.
https://fp.auburn.edu/sfws/tour/biodiversity/Default.htm
https://fp.auburn.edu/sfws/tour/introduction/Default.htm
http://www.aces.edu/forestry/stewardship/biologicaldiversity.php
http://www.georgewright.org/224christensen3.pdf
http://www.greenfacts.org/en/forests/#4
Forest Fragmentation
Fragmentation occurs when a large region of habitat has been broken down, or
fragmented, into a collection of smaller patches of habitat. Fragmentation typically
occurs when land is converted from one type of habitat to another. For example, a
forest habitat may become fragmented when a highway is built across the forest. The
highway would split a single, large, continuous patch of forest into two smaller patches.
Large forest ecosystems are being broken up into smaller and smaller pieces, 150
million acres of private forest will be in tracts of less than 100 acres each by the year
2010 if present trends continue. This affects the biodiversity of the forest by
discriminating against species that need large areas of undivided habitat or less human
effects. Small intermixed ownerships also reduce the options people have for managing
forests (reducing the feasibility of treatments such as prescribed fire and timber harvest,
for example).
http://chesapeake.towson.edu/landscape/forestfrag/all_habitatfrag.asp
https://fp.auburn.edu/sfws/tour/biodiversity/indicator5.htm
http://www.idahoforests.org/health2a.htm
Trees and Pollution Control
Trees influence air quality, especially in urban regions. They sequester various
gases including nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3) and carbon
monoxide (CO), as well as particulate matter which is 10 microns or less (PM10). Thus,
trees strategically planted and managed in urban areas can significantly make the air
cleaner. In Washington, D.C, urban trees are responsible for the removal of 878,000lbs
of pollutants annually, saving the city about $2.1 million in air pollution control. Atlanta,
GA, one of the most sprawling cities in the nation, saves $47 million dollars per year in
pollution control, thanks to the 19 million pounds of pollutants which its urban trees
sequester (www.americanforests.org). Mature or older trees store less carbon dioxide
and in general remove less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Upon death, these
trees release a large portion of their carbon dioxide store back into the atmosphere. All
trees respire at night, releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide but during the day
trees photosynthesize, uptaking a net amount of carbon dioxide. Forests are thus both
sources and sinks for carbon dioxide meaning that (depending on how stands are
conserved) they may either enhance the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere or
reduce its increase. Strategic forest management may help control the increase of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus mitigate the severity of global climate change.
Forest fragmentation and loss combined, due to urban sprawl, agriculture and
stand overharvesting, contributes the second largest amount of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere (the first largest source being the burning of fossil fuels including vehicle
emissions). As forest fragmentation increases, edge trees, especially in tropical regions
(rainforests), experience a greater rate of die-off. They release their store of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere and significantly contribute to the increasing atmospheric
carbon dioxide load. However, forests which are responsibly managed in ways which
prevent forest fragmentation, actively replant cutover areas, and maintain a diversity of
age, become efficient and effective long-term sinks, sequestering and utilizing
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Recreation
The goal of recreation management is to select, develop, operate and maintain
forest recreation areas to provide quality outdoor experiences to recreational users.
Most federal and state forests incorporate such management to provide visitors with
optimal experiences. Managers of forest recreation areas must insure that the
construction and operation of these areas within sensitive forest ecosystems does not
adversely affect or damage them through extensive soil disturbance and alteration,
compaction or erosion. More and more demands are being placed on forests, especially
as sites of recreation.
Alabama's national forests are among the state's most extensive natural
treasures, encompassing 666,780 acres of publicly owned lands that include parts of 17
counties. The Bankhead, Conecuh, Talladega, and Tuskegee National Forests reflect
the diverse geography of the state, ranging from the Cumberland Plateau physiographic
section in the north and the East Gulf Coastal Plain physiographic section in the south.
As Alabama increases its profile as a tourist and outdoor-activity destination, its forest
resources will surely play an important role.
Many new and potentially profitable markets for timber and forests are closer to
becoming a reality. Woody biomass, carbon credits, non-consumptive recreation (bird
watching and hiking, etc), and other ecosytem service-related markets are nontraditional uses of forest resources. Today, forested parcels are more likely to be
purchased by people who have different values than the forest owner of the past.
Rather than the farmer who owned forest land and used it primarily to supplement his
income, many of today’s new forest owners are from urban areas who own forest land
for primarily recreational use or aesthetic values.
http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/cc/state/al.htm
http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1354
Aesthetics
Many landowners do not realize that they can simultaneously manage their forest
for profit, wildlife habitat, investment, recreation and beauty. In fact, properly planned
forestry activities can enhance visual appearance, improve recreational opportunities
and sustain and increase wildlife populations. Integrating forest management for scenic
beauty and diversity can be viewed as landscaping on a grand scale. It is the
arrangement of sizes, colors, textures and form across your forest.
Forestry Aesthetics Guide
http://www.forestasyst.org/recreation.html
Fire Control
As development continues to expand into forested areas of the state, there is an
increasing fire risk, particularly in those parts of the state which have high fire
potential. The increased human presence in the wildland urban interface presents a
major challenge in protecting life, property, and the forest resource from destructive
forest fires.
Fire control is an important management technique. Often forest managers set
fire to an area to burn off slash left from logging. This prescribed burn is a fire control
technique. Prescribed burns remove fuel from an area, rather than leaving it on the
ground until weather conditions threaten with bigger fires. Prescribed burns also help
prepare sites for planting. Forest managers stage prescribed burns with the correct
weather and fuel conditions to control the range and temperature of the fire. In
Alabama, prescribed burning is often used to manage pine forests. Prescribed
burning is recognized as a major tool to mitigate potential loss from catastrophic fire,
enhance wildlife habitat, and allow for better visiblity and access. However, the use of
prescribed burning continues to decline due to increased liablity from damage as a
result of fire escaping and more so, smoke.
Periodic fire removes the buildup of fuel on the forest floor, reducing the chance
of a large-scale, catastrophic fire. Years of fire suppression can lead to wildfire disaster.
Occasional fires, if left to burn, can, in fact, reduce the amount of fuel on the forest floor,
create excellent seed beds for new trees, and increase the vigor of the forest. As more
houses are built in forests, more intensive fire suppression and management tactics are
needed. Even with the best management plans in place, fires can burn out of control.
The unpredictability of weather makes it hard to determine when and how intensely fires
will burn. Every year in this country, forest fires burn millions of forested acres and
destroy millions of dollars of property.
http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0331/ANR-0331.pdf
http://efotg.nrcs.usda.gov/references/public/AL/338.pdf
http://www.forestthreats.org/
Firewise Communities/USA
Firewise is a national initiative designed to reach beyond the fire service by
involving homeowners, community leaders, planners, developers, and others to protect
people and property from the ravages of wildfire – before a fire starts.
The Alabama Forestry Commission (AFC) began efforts to address fire
prevention in the WUI (Wildland/Urban Interface) in 1988 by encouraging formation of
WUI councils and requesting the larger municipal and regional planners to consider fire
protection in their land use planning and development ordinances.
Firewise Landscaping
Firewise landscaping is the practice of designing, installing, and maintaining a
landscape to minimize fire hazard to structures, residents, and neighbors, while
maintaining components of the native ecosystems that attracted people to live in such
areas in the first place. Such landscaping uses appropriate plants, then places and
maintains them so that fuel loads decrease in zones between an area to be protected
(like your home) and the surrounding wildland.
Use of firewise plants alone does not guarantee fire safety for you or your home.
But firewise plants coupled with good design and maintenance help establish a
defensible space around your home or neighborhood that assists firefighters in their
protection efforts. Native vegetation around homes and neighborhoods also can be
managed in a firewise manner through pruning, thinning, and occasional clearing.
Firewise Plant Characteristics
Firewise plants have a number of characteristics in common, but also can vary
considerably. Following are some important points about these plants and their
management.
 • No plant is fireproof. All will burn in a very intense fire.
 • Firewise plants all have one or more of these firewise characteristics:
 Tissues contain more moisture, especially during the fire season.
 Tissues contain low amounts of volatile oils and other readily flammable
chemicals.
 Plants provide less fuel, either by producing less litter or by staying small.
 Plants are compact or low to the ground, allowing them to be used in the
landscape to interrupt fire pathways.
 All trees provide large amounts of fuel to a fire, so they should be carefully
placed and maintained. Broadleaved trees generally are less flammable than
conifers (pines, firs, spruces, junipers).

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Most firewise plants do well in open, sunny areas typical of most fire-prone sites.
Some firewise plants need minimal or no irrigation to remain green and healthy;
over-irrigation may harm such plants or may cause them to grow too fast and
become hazardous. Other plants will need supplemental water to survive. Know
your plants’ needs and habits so you can use and manage them appropriately.
When choosing a particular plant species or cultivar for a firewise planting, favor
those that are low to the ground, compact, and that stay green and healthy with
low maintenance and minimal water.
All firewise plants should receive periodic maintenance, including:
 removal of dead leaf and stem material within the crown and on the
ground,
 pruning to keep crowns thinner and to keep tree crowns high, and
 removal of individual plants to break up fuel continuity.
• Make sure that the plants you are considering are well-suited for your locale
and the specific planting site.
• Some plants are weedy and may even be illegal to plant or cultivate
Firewise – Alabama Community Stories http://www.firewise.org/usa/english_trace.htm
Global Warming
A good portion of trees and other living things are made of carbon. As trees and forests
grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen, using the carbon to
maintain themselves and grow. Forests provide significant carbon storage that may
mitigate global warming
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/11/011127004952.htm
http://www.climatehotmap.org/impacts/forests.html
Objective 9: Describe specific adaptations of wildlife to their
environment & their role in the ecosystem.
Forest Communities and Wildlife Habitat
The type of forest community that a stand exhibits affects the type of wildlife
which will live there. Forest age is an important factor in determining resident wildlife.
Old growth forests are forest communities composed of very large, old living
trees, many of which may have dead branches, hollow trunks or large cavities. These
communities contain snags (free-standing dead or dying trees), den trees (living or
partially living trees with large cavities suitable for use as nesting or hibernation sites),
large ground logs and trees or shrubs of differing heights and maturity. Old growth
forests usually take up to 100 years to develop but offer many different habitat
possibilities for wildlife. Raptors, like the peregrine falcon and the red-tailed hawk, nest
in the large limbs of the very old trees, while many species of other northeast birds
utilize the cavities in snags for nesting shelter or feeding sites (snags are excellent
places for insectivorous birds, including woodpeckers, to find food). Fallen trees or logs
on the forest floor offer reptiles, amphibians, and small mammals and birds areas to
forage for food, as well as cover for escape and hibernation sites.
Young forests, in contrast, offer a significantly different habitat full of crowded
young trees. These forests are suitable for wildlife like deer, bobcats or songbirds.
Historically, the deciduous forests of the Northeast were composed of variant forest
communities housing predominantly maple, aspen and oak trees, ranging in age from
young to old. Regions of new forest were naturally established as a result of small fires,
windstorms, insects, disease or other disturbances. Regions of old forest intact
remained thanks to a lack of disturbance over long periods, allowing trees to mature, die
and to be replaced by saplings growing beneath the canopy.
Threatened and endangered species are recognized indicators of the general health of
the ecosystem. Declines and/or the total loss of individual threatened and
endangered species could indicate that the natural habitat for these species has been
compromised. Because forests provide habitat for numerous species of wildlife,
including some that are threatened and endangered, management practices must
preserve appropriate habitat on the landscape. Forest management practices are often
modified to improve wildlife habitat. Examples include leaving den trees and wildlife
habitat trees during harvest. The size of harvest areas is often limited and stands of
various ages are maintained on the landscape to provide a variety of wildlife habitats.
Travel corridors are used to connect areas with different habitats on the landscape.
Harvesting, site preparation and other forest management practices may be restricted
or prohibited entirely in forests containing certain threatened and endangered species.
Forestry Fact: •
forests
There are approximately 200 species of bird living in Alabama
Websites:
http://www.outdooralabama.com/research-mgmt/cwcs/Chapter2.pdf
http://www.aces.edu/forestry/wildlife/index.php