Representation of Indigenous People
Through Documentary and Ethnographic Film
with Particular Reference to the Ju/’hoan Community of
the Kalahari, and the Effect Film has had on Their Lives
Adrian Strong
BSc. (Hons), MSc, MA
School of Humanities
Faculty of Humanities
Griffith University
Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
February 2012
ABSTRACT
While documentary films featuring indigenous people have a long history and include
ethnographic films made under educational or scientific auspices, many films about indigenous
people have been prone to projection by filmmakers, particularly those with little in depth
knowledge of their film subjects. People labeled ‘Bushmen’ have, more than any other
indigenous people, been portrayed in documentaries in ways which relate more to the fantasies of
the filmmaker and those of his or her culture than to the people at the other end of the camera.
In order to investigate this problem, this dissertation employs both an audio-visual component
and a written exegesis. The latter considers the problem by examining the evolution of the work
of iconic ethnographic filmmaker, John Marshall who, during fifty years of filming the Ju/’hoansi
(a.k.a. Kalahari Bushmen), tirelessly invented creative solutions to reduce his own projections
and present more truthful and accurate representations of the people in his films.
This exegesis introduces issues of projection and archetype in documentary and discusses
historical examples of the ‘Bushman myth’ in documentary before analyzing the evolution of
Marshall’s filmmaking career in the Kalahari and his efforts to counter the myth. Throughout
the exegesis reference is made to the impact of Marshall’s ideas and philosophy of filmmaking on
my own practice.
The audio-visual component consists of the film, Bitter Roots: the ends of a Kalahari Myth,
which provides an up-to-date insight into the situation of the Ju/’hoansi and attempts to
interrogate the Bushman myth through reference to its effect on people’s lives. The film
references the lifetime efforts of John Marshall to debunk the myth through his films, and bears
witness to the many problems faced by the Ju/’hoansi which in many cases are exacerbated by
development activities of large international donor organizations whose policies appear to be
more in tune with the Bushman myth than with the aspirations of communities on the ground.
Taken together, the two components (visual and written) of this dissertation, argue the case that
documentary filmmakers embarking on cross-cultural projects need to become more selfreflective. Particularly in view of inequitable power relations, it is argued that filmmakers
entering indigenous territory need to work far more consciously, with self-awareness, empathy
and a higher regard for truth as experienced by their film subjects.
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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
This work has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written
by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself.
Adrian Strong
2nd February 2012
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to gratefully acknowledge the advice and assistance provided by those who have helped
me delve deep into the films and philosophy of John Marshall particularly: Karma Foley at the
Human Studies Film Archives whose detailed knowledge of the John Marshall Film and Video
Collection made my task so much easier; Lexie Marshall, for her kind support and providing
access to additional notebooks and videos relating to John Marshall’s work; Claire Ritchie, for
constant advice by phone and email regarding Marshall’s filmmaking and details concerning the
creative process of making A Kalahari Family; and Lauren Van Vuuren, for kindly sending me
her PhD thesis which contains valuable information on a number of films about ‘Bushmen.’
I also acknowledge the generous input relating to the films and filmmaking of John Marshall
from members of the ethnographic filmmaking community who graciously agreed to my request
for video interviews, namely: Cynthia Close, John Bishop, Patsy Asch and David MacDougall.
I would like to express my gratitude for financial support provided in the form of the Len
Dingwall Bursary, which provided me with funds to visit the Human Studies Film Archives in
Washington D.C. to research the John Marshall Film and Video Collection.
I am grateful to both my academic supervisors at Griffith University, Professor Paul Taçon and
Dr. Debra Beattie for their support. Professor Taçon’s offer of filming work throughout my
candidature provided both welcome economic support and the opportunity to continue with the
practical side of my discipline. I am also grateful to Professor Taçon for his tireless proofreading
and detailed corrections at each stage of my writing.
With regard to making of my thesis film, Bitter Roots, I gratefully acknowledge the advice and
input from Claire Ritchie, Emiko Omori, Karma Foley, Patsy Asch, Tfer Newsome and Peter
Loizos. I thank my mother, Sonoko Strong, for financing my filming trip to Namibia and above
all I am grateful to all the Ju/’hoansi who appear in my film, particularly ≠Toma Tsamko who
proved an exemplary interpreter and guide.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my erstwhile wife, Glenda Strong for her patience during
the first half of my PhD process, and my fiancé, Kate MacGregor for her unwavering support and
patience during the long hours of editing and writing up my exegesis over the past two years.
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ETHICAL CLEARANCE
I hereby confirm that ethical clearance has been granted by Griffith University for all aspects of
research during the course of my PhD candidature.
Ethical conduct reports for Protocol Number: ART/02/08/HREC have been submitted and
processed by the Griffith University Office of Research in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011.
Adrian Strong
2nd February 2012
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iii
ETHICAL CLEARANCE
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
v
PREFACE
1
Autobiographical background
1
INTRODUCTION
10
Introductory Statement
10
John Marshall – Background
11
Ju’/hoansi and the Bushmen
14
Nomenclature
14
Bitter Roots: Thesis Film
15
Exegesis Structure
17
CHAPTER 1
19
MYTH, ARCHETYPE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
PROJECTION IN FILMMAKING
Popular Conceptions of the Archetypal in Film
21
The Jungian Conception of Archetype
22
The Experiential Nature of Filmic Images
23
Archetypal Resonance
25
Archetype and Stereotype
27
Symbolic Images and Open-Ended Meaning
28
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Truth and Symbol in Observed Events
32
Concretised Myth and the Closure of Meaning
34
CHAPTER 2
35
THE BUSHMAN MYTH IN DOCUMENTARY FILM
Genesis of the Myth in Documentary Film
35
The Bushman Myth in the 1920s
36
Symbols of Authenticity in Myth-Making
37
The Bushman Myth in the 1950s: Van der Post’s Paradise Lost
39
Making Images Fit the Myth
42
The Bushman Myth in the 1980s: The Worldwide Blockbuster
44
1980s Television Embraces the Myth
46
The Exclusion of History and Politics
47
Documentary Aesthetics Prevalent in the Bushman Myth
49
Mybergh’s Autoethnography versus Marshall’s Reality
50
The 1990s: The Song Remains the Same
52
Sandface Revisited: Val Kilmer & The Bushman Myth
53
The Great Dance: Recent Renderings of the Myth
54
A Permanent Vanishing Act
57
The Ongoing Authority and Effects of The Bushman Myth
59
Image versus People: A Filmmaker’s Choice
59
CHAPTER 3
61
THE AESTHETICS OF YOUTH:
FILMING JU/’HOANSI IN THE 1950S
Life By Myth
61
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Learning by Doing
62
Landscape and Silhouette
64
Structured Absences and Acculturation
67
Polarisation and Negative Projection: The Herero Problem
70
The Faceless Silhouette
72
Robert Gardner and the Old Lady
73
To Face or To Follow?
75
The Apollonian Aesthetic
75
Close Up and Personal
77
Direction and Drama
78
Filming The Hunters
79
Drama, What Drama?
84
The Next Kind of Film…
85
CHAPTER 4
87
FROM NARRATIVE TO SEQUENCE FILMS
The Split with Gardner
88
Narrative Scripts
92
Bitter Melons – A Hybrid Film
94
Genesis of the Sequence Films
96
Innovation in Marshall’s Sequence Films
99
Sense of Presence and Contextual Absence
100
The First Subtitles
101
Reflexivity
101
The Sound of Being There
102
The Paradox of Creative Direction in Sequence Films
104
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Intimacy versus Objective Distance
105
Sequence Films for Teaching
107
Study Guides: Supplementing the Visual
110
Documenting Complexity and the Seeds of Change
110
CHAPTER 5
112
THE AESTHETICS OF MATURITY
The Years of Absence
112
A Reluctant ‘Hero’ Returns – for National Geographic
112
Bitter Melons Revisited
114
Character is Destiny
115
Preparing to Return and Film
117
The Impulse to Return
118
Returning for People
119
N!ai, the Story of a !Kung Woman
121
Centering the Indigenous Voice
122
The Structure of N!ai
123
Marshall’s Theory of Slots
125
Filming with Larger Crews and Multiple Cameras
128
Cinema Verite versus Fly in the Lens
130
Thoughtful Shots and Angles
131
Perceptions of N!ai’s Ballad: “Don’t Look at my Face”
132
Reactions to N!ai
134
Putting Down the Camera, Picking up the Shovel
134
Filmmaker as Activist: The Blunt Instrument of Videotape
135
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The Dominance of Words
136
The Thomas Mann Effect
137
CHAPTER 6
139
A KALAHARI FAMILY:
THE ETHNOGRAPHIC EPIC
A Reluctant Return to Filmmaking
139
Evaluating the Broadcast Option
141
Perspectives and Planning
142
Dramatis Personae
143
Whose Stories?
147
Part 1 – A Far Country
149
Re-visioning the 1950s
150
A Tale of Two Fathers
152
Replacing Idealised Landscapes with Information
153
Portraying Contact
154
Ethnographic Corrections
156
The Aesthetics of Failure: the Reality of Hunting
156
Lost Rituals
158
The Outside World Impinges
158
The End of Innocence
160
Documenting Change: Parts 2,3 and 4
161
Descent and Ascent
162
The Role of Others Behind the Camera
164
The Director’s Presence
166
Power, Social Agency & the Ethics of Social Proprietary
167
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The Last Stretch – the 1990s
170
Shooting Ratios
170
Part 5: Death By Myth
171
The Myth Articulated
172
The Myth Made Policy
173
The Kitchen Debate: Food as Necessity or Media Spectacle
174
Implementing the Myth
175
A Plan Filled with Lies
176
Top-Down Power and Paternalism
177
Revolution and Repercussions
178
Triumph of the Myth
180
Regret
180
Trickle-Down
181
Tragedy
182
The Personal Cost
182
Post-Production
183
Music
184
Broadcast
185
Marshall’s Critics
187
Contesting Marshall’s Monolithic View
188
Cassandra’s Curse
189
CHAPTER 7
191
CONCLUSION: VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE JU/’HOANSI
POST-MARSHALL
Man Against Myth?
192
Why Make Bitter Roots?
195
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Addressing Consequences of Myth-Making
196
Film Against Myth
198
Filmmaking as Testimony and Therapy
198
The Future: Culture as Performance or a Shared Anthropology?
200
Shared Anthropology & Intertextual Cinema
202
The Marshall Archive – To Preserve or to Use?
203
Re-visioning a Golden Age in the Digital Present
204
Juxtaposing the Idyllic Past with a Preferable Present
205
The Last of the Totemic Ancestors
205
Myth, Ethnofiction and Imagination
206
Filming Truth in the Subject’s Mind
208
Footprints in the Sand
209
BIBLIOGRAPHY
213
APPENDIX
225
Transcript of interview with ≠Toma Tsamko, December 2009
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