Linfield College
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Senior Theses
Student Scholarship & Creative Works
5-1-2012
Deaf Culture and Music: The Role of Sign
Language Interpreters within Live Music
Performances
Amanda Summers
Linfield College
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Summers, Amanda, "Deaf Culture and Music: The Role of Sign Language Interpreters within Live Music Performances" (2012). Senior
Theses. Paper 4.
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Linfield College “Deaf Culture and Music: The Role of Sign Language Interpreters within Live Music Performances” A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Arts degree in music by Amanda Summers _____________________________________________________________________________________ Dr. Jill Timmons, advisor May 2012 CONTENTS Chapter One: Overview of Deafness Defining Deafness Views on Deafness Chapter Two: Historical Overview of Deaf Culture Education for the Deaf Music in Deaf Education Technology: Hearing Aids Technology: Cochlear Implants Chapter Three: Review of the Literature Sign Language Interpreters American Sign Language Other Sign-­‐Based Communication Methods Chapter Four: Poetry and Music in Deaf Culture, Student Recital American Sign Language Poetry Music in Deaf Culture Student Recital Chapter Five: Conclusion Relevance and Future Implications CHAPTER ONE Overview of Deafness Although the notion of music being a part of a deaf individual’s life may seem contradictory, there is evidence that music is and has been a part of many deaf people’s lives. Music is and has been a part of the Deaf culture, including, but not limited to, Deaf musicians, utilizing pianos to teach speech, and sign language interpreters at events including music. The intent of this thesis is to explore the relation between Deaf culture and music, historically and presently, as well as how sign language interpreters function within live vocal music performances. For the purpose of this thesis, the focus will be on that of Western European Art Music. According to A History of Western Music, art music is, “Music that is (or is meant to be) listened to with rapt attention, for its own sake” (Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca A2). In this thesis, vocal works with text will be the primary focus. Furthermore, this thesis will focus on live performances of music with sign language interpretations, rather than interpretation of recorded music. However, some music mentioned, such as that of the Deaf rock band Beethoven’s Nightmare, does not necessarily fit into the category of Western European Art Music. Additionally, the focus will be that of Deaf history and culture within the United States, though notable events from outside of the United States will also be included. Defining Deafness The term “deaf” has both a clinical and a cultural definition. Medically speaking, there are varying degrees of deafness. There is a broad spectrum of 1 hearing and lack thereof, comprising hearing, hard of hearing, and deaf people. Deafness can be present at birth, or it can present itself later in life. Becoming deaf can be a gradual or sudden process. A cursory internet search for the definition of the term “deaf” will generally result in a very basic definition-­‐ that “deaf” means that one cannot hear. This definition does not provide an adequate explanation for true understanding of what deafness is. “The term ‘deaf’ is vague, or rather, is so general that it impedes consideration of the vastly differing degrees of deafness, degrees that are of qualitative, and even of ‘existential’ significance” (Sacks 4). Contrary to popular belief, deaf individuals often have some residual hearing. “The term deaf does not mean ‘without hearing,’ but rather, ‘a loss severe enough that hearing alone cannot be used for the purpose of processing speech’ (Darrow, “Sounds in the Silence”). Very few people are entirely without hearing, and most deaf people are able to listen to music with their residual hearing. In general, music is more accessible than speech for individuals with hearing loss due to its typical range of frequencies and intensity. Audiograms are helpful in providing a visual guide to varying degrees of hearing and deafness. 2 Audiogram with Speech Sounds, from Color of Language. This particular audiogram example shows the range of hearing on the right side, and the shaded area denotes “normal hearing.” Below “normal hearing” are many variants. Within the range outside of “normal hearing” fall those labeled as “hard of hearing” or “deaf”. The letters in the audiogram denote speech sounds. An audiogram records the softest sound one is able to hear at each pitch. The volume, or intensity, of each sound is measured in decibel hearing level, or dBHL. The pitch of each sound, or frequency, is measured in hertz. As the sounds get louder and higher pitched, the dBHL and hertz numbers rise correspondingly. 3 Audiogram Indicating Normal Hearing, from Color of Language. The above audiogram depicts an example of “normal hearing”. For a deaf or hard of hearing person, the horizontal lines showing the hearing in each ear would be lower on the graph. For example, a person who cannot hear speech sounds, but can hear loud noises such as a dog barking, would likely have an audiogram with lines falling within the 60-­‐80 dBHL range. The term “deaf” can also have a cultural connotation. There are distinct languages, history, and cultural values associated with deafness. However, not all deaf people identify with the culture associated with their medical condition of deafness. To remedy the confusion caused by the differences between deafness as a medical condition and the Deaf culture when using the term “deaf”, the term “deaf” 4 denotes hearing loss whereas the term “Deaf”, with a capital “D”, denotes one who is a part of the culture associated with deafness. The convention of using capitalization to indicate a cultural association was introduced by James Woodward in 1972. When referring to the Deaf community, the Deaf culture, and those within it, the capital “D” is used. The term “hard of hearing” does not have a clear definition, especially within a cultural context. The term “hard of hearing” denotes a deviation from the “normal” hearing range. However, the phrases “very hard of hearing” and “a little hard of hearing” mean different things to different people. For example, most hearing people would refer to someone who has some hearing loss as “a little hard of hearing”, and a person who has more hearing loss would be considered “very hard of hearing”. However, some Deaf people will use the terms in an opposite fashion, which is explained by Padden (1998). “The sign HEARING has an official English translation, “can hear,” but in ASL HEARING is aligned in interesting ways with respect to DEAF and HARD-­‐OF-­‐
HEARING. In ASL, as in English, HARD-­‐OF-­‐HEARING represents a deviation of some kind. Someone who is A-­‐LITTLE-­‐HARD-­‐OF-­‐HEARING has a smaller deviation than someone who is VERY-­‐HARD-­‐OF-­‐HEARING. In this way, ASL and English are similar – and yet the terms have opposite meanings in the two languages. The reason for this is clear: for Deaf people, the greatest deviation is hearing” (Padden 41). 5 Thus, a person who is “a little hard of hearing” would be a small deviation from Deaf, and is only slightly hearing. Contrastingly, a person who is “very hard of hearing” would be a large deviation from Deaf, and is thus a person who can hear fairly well. For the purpose of this thesis, the conventions put in place by Woodward will be followed. The focus will be on those who identify as Deaf, with a capital “D”. This thesis will focus on people who are medically defined as “deaf” and identify as being a part of the Deaf culture, thus making them “Deaf”. Views on Deafness Deafness has long been misunderstood, and the deaf have faced much discrimination and oppression. For example, philosophers Plato and Aristotle were not immune from common misconceptions about the deaf. Both Plato and Aristotle emphasized the importance of language for intelligence and learning and thus, asserted that the deaf were unintelligent. Aristotle stated that people born deaf “become senseless and incapable of reason” (Gannon xxv). In the book, “Histories of American Schools for the Deaf, 1817-­‐1893,” the then president of the St. John’s Institute for Deaf-­‐Mutes, Rev. M. M. Gerend, stated that the institute, “develops the moral, intellectual, and physical nature of the inmates, and prepares these poor unfortunate beings, who would otherwise be a burden to the community, for a useful life” (Fay 46). The terms “inmates” and “pupils” are interchanged throughout Gerend’s writing. The view that deaf people are inferior to hearing people has continued to the present day. Discrimination against deaf people is in no way new, but the term to describe the phenomenon was not coined until 1975 by Deaf scholar Tom Humphries. The term “audism” was defined by Humphries as, “the notion that 6 one is superior based on one’s ability to hear or behave in the manner of one who hears” (Bauman 240). Audism has undermined and denied the rights of the deaf population. “Whether being denied rights to own property, to have children, or to drive a car, Deaf people have rarely been treated with the dignity that should come with being human” (Bauman 239). Throughout history, the deaf have been viewed as incompetent, unintelligent, hopeless individuals. In reality, this is not the case. It is important to remember the popular phrase, “Deaf people can do anything except hear.” 7 CHAPTER TWO Historical Overview of Deaf Culture The Deaf culture has a history marked by oppression and discrimination. Not only have the deaf been marginalized, but their language has been as well. Sign language has been suppressed in education for the deaf through oralism, or the focus on speech and lipreading rather than signing. Many oral schools not only discouraged the use of sign language, but also actively punished students for signing. Because of the relatively small proportion of deaf individuals in a largely hearing population, Deaf culture is rooted within residential schools for the deaf, which are one of the few places where deaf individuals comprise the majority. Additionally, the majority of deaf individuals are born to hearing parents, meaning that exposure to the Deaf culture often occurs through residential schools for the deaf, not through the home. Although early literature on music education for the deaf notes the value of music for enjoyment, music within deaf schools has often been used to aid in speech training. Education for the Deaf There has long been a debate over whether or not the oral method should be the primary method for education of the deaf. Early deaf schools placed heavy emphasis on manual instruction and communication. Because of the focus on manual instruction, some educators and parents were concerned that little attention was given to teaching speech in these schools. As a result of these concerns, pure oral schools were established in the United States in the 1860s, which forced 8 manual schools to change. Twenty years later, at the second International Congress on Education of the Deaf in Milan, (Italy September 1880), a decision was made to focus entirely on oralism. The decision made in Milan outlawed the use of sign language in the education of deaf children. In 1755, two important schools for the deaf were established. In Germany, Samuel Heinicke established the first oral school for the deaf in the world. Later the same year, in Paris, France, Charles Michel Abbe de l’Epée established the first free school for the deaf in the world. The first person to gain the attention of the American press regarding the education of the deaf was Dr. William Thornton, with his 1793 essay, “On Teaching the Surd, or Deaf, and Consequently Dumb, to Speak,” which was published in the Transactions of American Philosophical Society magazine. The first permanent school for the deaf in America, the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons in Hartford, Connecticut, opened in April 15, 1817. During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed a charter authorizing the Columbia Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf, in Washington, D.C., to grant college degrees to deaf people. This charter led to the founding of National Deaf-­‐
Mute College, which was renamed as Gallaudet College in 1884. The summer of 1880 marked an important time in deaf history. The second International Convention, or the International Congress on Education of the Deaf, met in Milan, Italy in September 1880. There were 164 participants, comprising 87 Italians, 56 Frenchmen, eight Englishmen, five Americans, and eight others. The five Americans represented 51 schools for the deaf with a total enrollment of more than 9 6,000 students, which was more than the total number of students represented by the other participants combined. James Denison, principal of the Columbia Institution in Washington, D.C., was the only deaf participant. The group voted to outlaw the use of sign language in the education of deaf children. The American representatives and one representative from Great Britain voted in opposition of the outlaw, but were outvoted. The conditions of education for the deaf in Europe at the time had a significant influence on the decision made to outlaw sign language in education. “Mismanagement of schools for the deaf, the flagrant practice of nepotism, lack of training programs, and little to no accountability had resulted in a drastic decline in the quality of many educational programs. As usual, sign language was blamed as the cause” (Gannon 359). However, the decision made at the convention did not only affect Europe schools, it affected American schools as well. As a result, American education of the deaf became oral. Some American schools became purely oral schools, while others became a combination of oral and manual. These combination schools were created out of opposition of the pure oral philosophy. The schools opting for a combination of manual and oral methods added speech and speechreading for beginning students but continued to use signs and fingerspelling in advanced and vocational classes. As a result of the two differing educational approaches, oral and combined manual and oral, a heated debate was sparked in America. The debate over teaching methods became what was commonly called, “The War of Methods.” 10 Deaf teachers were in demand prior to the advent of the pure oral method, at which point hiring deaf teachers became unpopular and few administrators were willing to take the risk. In 1850, 36.6 percent of teachers of the deaf in American public schools for the deaf were deaf themselves. This number rose to 40.8 percent in 1858. However, by 1929, as pure oralism dominated the education of the deaf, only fourteen percent of teachers of the deaf were deaf. Prospects for deaf teachers became so dismal at the height of oralism that Gallaudet College openly discouraged its deaf students from considering becoming educators. When oralism became a significant part of deaf education in the early twentieth century, there was concern over losing the beauty of sign language. Because of this concern, the National Association of the Deaf (NAD) established the Motion Picture Committee for the purpose of recording prolific signers on film for preservation of the language. The films were rented to schools and clubs. Roy J. Stewart, chairman of the NAD Motion Picture Committee, looked after the films and made frequent requests for the NAD to restore the older films and increase the number of films in the collection. These requests, however, were generally not met with any financial support. Despite a lack of financial support, Stewart was vigilant in caring for the films and arranged for them to be preserved in the Library of Congress and the Edward Miner Gallaudet Memorial Library, reporting on the condition of the films at each NAD convention. In the early twentieth century, oralism was the leading method in education for the deaf, and as a result, clergymen who visited schools for the deaf to teach religion also used the method of oralism. However, the clergy found it to be, “an 11 ineffective tool for imparting religious training to deaf children and adults” (Gannon 193). Becoming increasingly frustrated with the ineffectiveness of oralism, religious groups began to go on record to support the use of sign language and recommended that its use be studied. It was also recommended that visual aids be used in the teaching of religion. Some oral schools prohibited the clergy from using sign language, but some schools compromised. For example, the New Jersey School, although oral at the time, allowed the clergy to use sign language but required that teachers use the oral method. “By the 1940s members of the different denominations realized that if they were to reach and serve the deaf community, a knowledge of sign language was necessary. An increasing number of seminaries began adding sign language to their curricula to better prepare those who chose to work with the deaf community” (Gannon 193). In the 1960s, federal title funds made funds available to schools for the deaf, provided teacher education programs for teachers of the deaf, and helped schools gain new equipment. In 1961, Congress passed Public Law 88-­‐276, which provided funding for training teachers of the deaf. In the mid-­‐1960s, a new term was introduced to educational methods for the deaf. The term “Cued Speech” was introduced in 1966 by Dr. R. Orin. Cornett, vice president for long range planning at Gallaudet College. Cued Speech was an attempt to combine the advantages of both the oral and manual teaching methods. “Cued Speech, as the name implies, consists of cues in which eight different handshapes are placed in four different locations around the lips on the face and throat” (Gannon 334). The cues are meant to provide a visual representation of syllables to 12 aid in a deaf person learning spoken language through conversations and to improve speaking and lip-­‐reading skills. Though Cued Speech gained much interest when first introduced, most schools that have adopted it have been small oral schools. “The system appeals to many hearing parents of young deaf children, but it has not been accepted with the same enthusiasm by members of the deaf community” (Gannon 335). While some opposed to Cued Speech see it as a threat to sign language, Cornett saw Cued Speech as a tool and did not intend for it to be used as a substitute for sign language. In the 1970s, terms such as “mainstreaming” and “hearing impaired” became popular. The term, “mainstreaming” replaced the term “integration”, and referred to placing a deaf child in a standard public school. The term, “hearing impaired” became a way of grouping deaf and hard of hearing individuals into one term. Presently, education for the deaf is varied. There are oral schools, manual schools, and those that use a combination. Some deaf students are placed in public schools with hearing students. There are numerous debates concerning whether deaf students should attend schools for the deaf or become mainstreamed, but such debates are beyond the scope of this thesis. Music in Deaf Education In America, education for the deaf began in 1817 with the American Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (now the American School for the Deaf). In 1847, the school began publishing the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb (now the American Annals of the Deaf). An article titled, “Music Among the Deaf and Dumb” appeared in Volume 2, Number 1 (October 1848), which advocated 13 for music instruction for the deaf. In the article, William Wolcott Turner and David Ely Bartlett wrote in support of music instruction for the deaf and made their case through an example of a deaf woman, Augusta Avery, who had learned to play the piano. Turner stated that, though the ear aids the hand in the creation of music by correcting mistakes and imperfections, the eye can serve the same function. “A practised eye may as readily detect any irregularity of fingering, or departure from the proper movement of the piece, as a cultivated ear” (Turner 1). Turner came to the conclusion that the eye could compensate for a lack of hearing after observing the performance of former student, Augusta Avery. Though prior to the performance Turner and others at the school assumed that Avery’s musical skills would be quite limited, they found that her skill was equivalent to “any young person we have met with who had practised no longer than she had” (Turner 2). Intrigued by Avery’s performance and musical abilities, Turner requested that Avery’s instructor, David Ely Bartlett, provide a report on the subject to be published in the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb. “Turner and Bartlett own a special place in the history of American music education for the handicapped because their work signaled the beginning of a trend that would ultimately lead to the present practices of teaching music to hearing-­‐impaired children in public schools and special institutions” (Darrow and Heller 270). In the case of Bartlett and Avery, the purpose of music education was intellectual gratification and cultivation. Bartlett noted that “the sensation or perception of sound is not the whole of the pleasure produced by music” (Turner 6). Rather, much of the enjoyment of music id derived from rhythm, which can be 14 perceived through sight and feeling. “It is meaningful that this early article was conceived and written not because of speculation by therapists and educators on the benefits for the deaf, but because of a young, profoundly hearing-­‐impaired girl’s desire to make music” (Darrow and Heller 275). Later articles on the subject of music education for the deaf often focus on the use of music to achieve non-­‐musical objectives, such as speech articulation. Fay’s History of American Schools for the Deaf, 1817-­‐1893 includes photographic and textual evidence of music within deaf education. A photograph from the McCowen Oral School for Young Deaf Children shows students around a piano, including one listening to a singer through an ear trumpet. The Kindergarten and Primary School for Hearing and Deaf Children listed music as a part of its curriculum, stating that it was among the subjects required for all pupils in the Primary or Advanced Class, regardless of whether they were hearing or deaf. 15 Students in the McCowen Oral School for Young Deaf Children, from History of American Schools for the Deaf, 1817-­‐1893. Many schools for the deaf, especially those with an oral emphasis, have included a subject referred to as “rhythm.” Rhythm classes may include speaking in unison while the teacher plays the piano, rhythmic exercises, folk dancing, and rhythmic games. These classes are intended to help students understand rhythm, accent, and fluency, in order to help “counterbalance his tendency as a deaf person to speak in a monotone and more slowly than a person who hears” (Burns 42). In a rhythm class, piano is often used. One activity with the piano involves the students placing their hands on the lid of a piano. The teacher plays the piano, and the students are expected to lift their hands from the lid when the teacher stops playing. 16 Thus, the students must learn how to identify when the teacher has stopped playing. With more practice, the students learn to identify different qualities of the piano playing through feeling the vibrations. “After a while, the children learn to tell from the piano’s vibrations whether the notes played are loud or soft, high or low, and to tell how many chords the teacher plays in succession. They even learn to recognize pieces being played by their rhythms” (Burns 42). Technology: Hearing Aids During the 1930s, the use of hearing aids began to increase, though it took some time for them to be accepted by the hard of hearing and the public. “At first people were reluctant to use them because they ‘advertised’ a defect” (Gannon 212). However, Dr. Edmund P. Fowler, the president of the American Society of the Hard of Hearing, stated that the deaf and hard of hearing population should be no more sensitive about wearing hearing aids than people who wear glasses. With time and technological advances leading to hearing aids becoming smaller and more efficient, hearing aids became more popular. In the 1950s, the National Association of the Deaf addressed the exaggerated advertising claims made about some hearing aids. One particular advertisement read, “If you act today you may stop being deaf . . . for only $69.50” (Gannon 263). Because of the exaggerated claims, there was confusion on the part of the public regarding the differences between a hard of hearing person and a deaf person. The exaggerated claims also gave false hope to deaf people and the parents of deaf children looking for a way to restore hearing. Hearing aids have continued to become more compact and more efficient, but the acceptance of 17 hearing aids within the deaf population continues to vary. Some individuals use the technology, while others opt not to. Technology: Cochlear Implants Cochlear implants are a highly controversial topic. The practice of surgically implanting cochlear implants in deaf children is becoming increasingly common. The first American implants were done in 1961 by Dr. William House, and the general reaction of the scientific community was negative. Basic scientific research had not been completed and the implant destroyed the inner ear of the patient. During the 1970s, the French began implanting children, but the French association of the parents of Deaf children protested these experiments, leading to a negative reaction by the French scientific community. Regardless of the negative reactions of scientific communities in America and France, Australian and Austrian implant programs began. These programs used improved technology-­‐ the original implant device was a single-­‐channel device, and the new Australian Nucleus-­‐22 contained twenty-­‐two bands on a wire. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the marketing of the Nucleus-­‐22 implant for adults in 1985. However, this approval only applied to adults who had become deaf only after learning to speak. The FDA also approved the experimental implanting of the Nucleus-­‐22 implant in children as young as two years of age. By the end of 1990, approximately 600 children had been implanted with the Nucleus-­‐22 worldwide. The process of implantation is invasive and is described in great detail in literature condemning the practice. The surgery requires that the patient (usually a 18 child) be placed under general anesthesia for three to four hours. A surgeon cuts the skin behind the ear and, after lifting the flap, drills a hole into the bone. A wire carrying electrodes is pushed approximately twenty-­‐five millimeters into the coil of the inner ear. Through this process, the small endings of the auditory nerve are destroyed and the wire directly stimulates the auditory nerve. A receiver coil connected to the wire is then sutured to the skull before the skin is sewn over it. Some literature graphically describes the damage done to the inner ear through the process of implantation. Organizations of Deaf people worldwide have strongly opposed the practice of implanting deaf children with cochlear implants. In 1991 the NAD published a paper stating its position regarding implanting children with cochlear implants. The paper stated that the implantation surgery remained highly experimental and had not evidence of significant benefit. The NAD also stated that there had been no evaluation of the long terms risks-­‐ socially, psychologically, linguistically, and medically. “It criticized the Food and Drug Administration for failing to involve Deaf people in decisions concerning Deaf children and the implant. And it questioned whether it is ethical to use surgery in an attempt to move a child out of a linguistic and cultural minority and into the majority culture” (Lane, et al. 391). It is also important to note that children with cochlear implants must still be regarded as hearing impaired. Implanted children will still require significant educational, audiological, and speech and language support services. 19 CHAPTER THREE Review of the Literature Although deaf individuals can communicate with hearing, non-­‐signing individuals through writing and basic gestures, interpreters can be used to lessen the language barrier. Despite hearing aids, cochlear implants, and speech training, all of which may be used in an effort to get deaf individuals to communicate in spoken English, interpreters are used in many different settings, including within schools, court, and hospitals. Sign Language Interpreters The role of sign language interpreters has changed throughout time. Before the founding of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, most interpreters were family or close friends of Deaf individuals. Often, they provided interpreting services for free. The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) was founded in 1964 by participants of the “Workshop on Interpreting for the Deaf” at Muncie, Indiana. Sign language interpreters from all over the United States had traveled to interpret for a national meeting being held at Ball State Teacher’s College in Muncie, Indiana, June 14-­‐17, 1964, marking one of the first times sign language interpreters from across the county met. The interpreters hired to work at the meeting at Ball State Teacher’s College agreed to remain in Muncie after the meeting to discuss the increasing demand for interpreters. At this gathering, Edgar Lowell and Ralph Hoag, two prominent educators, suggested that a national organization for sign language 20 interpreters be established. The RID was originally called the National Registry of Professional Interpreters and Translators for the Deaf (NRPITD) and was shortened to its current name, the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, one year after its founding. The establishment of RID changed ASL interpreting in America. Interpreting had previously been primarily a voluntary service, but with the RID, it was on its way to becoming a profession. However, the introduction of interpreters being a professional service rather than voluntary meant that interpreting services would be paid. Some deaf individuals did not support the idea of paying for a service that had previously been provided to them for free. Some interpreters who had been interpreting for relatives and friends for much of their lives could not bring themselves to charge for their services with a clear conscience. “The Registry established criteria and classifications for interpreters, set up evaluation procedures, printed a national directory, opened up a headquarters, offered workshops and training sessions, and gave interpreters a new respectability” (Gannon 328). The demand for skilled interpreters increased as deaf people became more involved in the community at large, leading to the advent of freelance interpreters. Interpreters are responsible for conveying information between two languages, the source language and the target language. The source language is the language in which the original message is conveyed and the target language is the language into which the original message is interpreted. “The process of interpreting includes taking a source language message, identifying meaning and 21 speaker intent by analyzing the linguistic and paralinguistic elements of the message, then making a cultural and linguistic transition and producing the message into the target language” (Humphrey 149). The term “processing time” refers to the time required to take in the source language make a mental search for the meaning, which results in a lag between the source language expression and the target language interpretation. “When an interpretation is successful, dynamic equivalence is maintained” (Humphrey 150). In order for dynamic equivalence to be maintained, the goals of the speaker and the level of audience involvement must be the same for the audience receiving the message in its original form and the audience receiving the message through an interpreter. The term “transliteration” is not used in the field of spoken language interpretation. However, the most common meaning of the term “transliteration” is derived from the field of music. In music, transliteration refers to the “transcription of words from one written language into a phonetic form of another language” (Humphrey 150). In sign language interpretation, transliteration is the process of taking a message and expressing it in a different form of the same language. For example, transliteration occurs when a message expressed in spoken English is then expressed by an interpreter in signed English. It is becoming increasingly common for sign language interpreter students to be taught translation skills before they are taught interpreting skills. Translation differs from interpretation in that translation is takes a message from a frozen form of one language and creates a frozen form translation in another language. Frozen forms are “fixed” information or texts, in that they are recorded in written, 22 videotaped, or audio taped formats. Translation is generally not done in the presence of the people who will read the translation, making translation different from interpreting. Interpreters will sometimes be asked to provide translations. Interpreters are frequently asked to perform sight translations, in which a message in a frozen form of one language is changed into a spoken or signed form of another language. Sight translations are done on first sight, meaning that they are done without the time usually necessary to prepare a formal translation. “It is a fairly common experience for a Deaf consumer to seek assistance with print English documents that are noted for complex terms and sentence structure (e.g. legal documents or government notices). While the Deaf consumer will typically ask for someone to “interpret” the letter, an interpreter actually does a sight translation of the written document to make the contents more accessible” (Humphrey 152). Interpreters work in numerous settings, including mental health, education, religious, medical, theater and performing arts, legal, employment, and social services. Within the myriad of settings in which an interpreter might work, the interpreter might be working one-­‐on-­‐one, in a small group, or in a large group. Interpreting in theatrical or performing arts settings are considered to be specialized forms of platform interpreting. Interpreting in performing arts settings is relatively new and an interpreter in such settings will often need to explain what working conditions are necessary. Generally, interpretation of musical performances requires numerous hours of rehearsal. “Music, after all, is an art form 23 of hearing cultures, and interpreting art forms across cultures is particularly challenging” (Humphrey 364). The interpreter will need copies of lyrics for all the songs to be performed and enough time to analyze each song in order to determine the message and provide an artistic and rhythmic rendition. While it is helpful for an interpreter working in a musical setting to have a background in music, there are not standard qualifications for this line of work. “A person with musical training will be more apt to identify the rhythm and type of music being performed; they may then be able to make more equivalent interpreting choices” (Humphrey 368). American Sign Language American Sign Language (ASL) is not simply signed English, though signed English does also exist. The existence of English-­‐based signing systems do reinforce the misconception that ASL and English are the same in grammatical structure and use signs and words in identical ways. “English and ASL represent not just two very different cultures and languages, but entirely different ways of thinking and seeing the world, manifesting epistemological and ontological (as well as ideological and audiological) distinctions that resound to their very cores” (Brueggemann 185). Historically, ASL has been mislabeled as being poor English and has also been devalued by the education system. ASL is a spatial and time-­‐oriented language which is based on visual perception and visual conveyance of ideas, information, and feeling concepts. ASL does not only use the hands, it also uses the wrists, arms, trunk, face, and head. Signs and non-­‐manual signals are used to convey meaning. Though there is no written form of ASL, ASL gloss may be used in academic settings. ASL gloss resembles 24 written English, but relies on the order in which things are signed in ASL, rather than the grammatical structure of English. However, the exact process and rules for writing ASL gloss are beyond the scope of this thesis. Many deaf individuals in America use English to communicate in written form, not ASL gloss. Movement is the medium of communication in ASL, using physical articulators which are larger than those used in vocal articulation. Because of the difference between the size of articulators in ASL and English, it takes approximately twice that amount of time to produce a sign than the amount of time it takes to utter one English word. It is important to note the implications of receiving information visually instead of auditorily, especially in that the eyes are operated by muscles that tire with use, unlike the ears. Although signs take longer to produce than English words, and rely on muscles that tire with use, ASL transmits information at approximately the same rate as English. ASL, like English uses prosody, which is the rhythm of a language including stress, inflection, intonation, pausing, and phrasing that help those receiving the information to determine meaning and to predict what will be said next. Prosody in ASL is visual, and uses pauses and phrases, and visual intonation patterns to information in ways that take advantage of the multi-­‐dimensional nature of visual language. ASL uses various techniques to allow articulation to flow in a way that upholds clarity, allows timely transmission of information and ideas, and avoids undue visual fatigue. One such technique is restricting the use of certain elements, such as articles, interjections, expletives, and conjunctions, except for when used to add emphasis. Another technique used in ASL is spatial referencing, which means 25 using the space around the signer to metaphorically establish a person or place as a referent. There are a variety of techniques used in ASL to convey information in ways that are visually clear and effective. A few of these techniques, also referred to as “expansions,” are contrasting, faceting, reiterating. The expansion technique of contrasting presents the negative and the positive of the idea. For example, the English sentence, “I have an old car,” could be signed as (ASL gloss), “CAR MINE, NEW NOT. CAR OLD!” Faceting refers to using two or more signed synonyms when conveying a particular concept. If the concept being conveyed is, “He drove like a maniac!”, using ASL faceting could be, “MAN DRIVE CRAZY – speed, 3-­‐cl (showing squealing around corners), 3-­‐cl (showing changing lanes erratically), b-­‐cl (indicating the bottom of the car hitting the pavement at points)”. Illustrating examples of the crazy driving are a way of using faceting. Reiterating is when a sign or sign phrase is repeated within the same short phrase for emphasis or clarity. If the message is, “I can’t go to the party,” the ASL using reiterating would be, “CAN’T GO PARTY, CAN’T.” ASL, despite the common misconception, is not merely English words turned into signs. It is an independent language with its own particular linguistic rules. ASL has its own grammar and syntax, which is not based on or derived from a spoken language, such as English. Other Sign-­‐Based Communication Methods Though ASL is a complete language and a cherished part of American Deaf culture, it is important to note that there are other sign-­‐based communication 26 methods. Some of these alternative communication methods follow the English Identity and Communication In the Deaf Community
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The Rochester Method is a markedly precise manual representation of English in which each word is fingerspelled (except for the word “and”, which is signed). The Rochester Method is rarely used in present-­‐day America, as it is “slow, cumbersome and visually tiring” (Humphrey 92). Seeing Essential English (SEE1) evolved out of an experiment led by David Anthony in 1966 to teach English to mentally retarded Deaf adults in Michigan. Several individuals in California then aimed to broaden its application to the education of Deaf adults and children. According to Anthony, SEE1 adds verb tenses and endings, noun, adjective, and adverb suffixes and prefixes, and signs for words which have previously not had signs. However, this system suffers from a lack of conceptual accuracy. The word “carpet” is signed by indicating an automobile (“car”) and the action of petting something (“pet”). Although SEE1 has lost popularity, there are regions in the United States in which SEE1 is commonly used. Signing Exact English (SEE2) was developed from SEE1 and suffers from the same issues of conceptual accuracy and lack thereof. “In this system, the word ‘consume’ would be signed TO EAT, therefore the term ‘consumer’ would be signed, in essence EATER. Thus, the sentence ‘I am a consumer of interpreter services’ would be signed ‘I am an eater of interpreter services.’ This, of course, presents a very inappropriate conceptual message” (Humphrey 94). Signed English was created in the early 1980s to use with preschool children. Signed English has fourteen “sign markers” that can be added to signs in an effort to represent English more accurately. All prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, and verb forms adhere to the structure of English, not ASL. 28 Conceptually Accurate Signed English (CASE) refers to using signs that are based on the meaning of the idea being conveyed. CASE gives conceptual accuracy priority, unlike SEE1 or SEE2. The signs are produced in the word order of grammatically correct English. Although there are a variety of sign-­‐based communication methods, American Sign Language is considered to be a large part of Deaf culture, and is thus highly valued within the Deaf culture. ASL has long been trivialized, but as the linguistics of ASL as its own language separate from English have been studied and documented, it has gained acceptance as a complete language. 29 CHAPTER FOUR Poetry and Music in Deaf Culture, Student Recital There are several types of signed language used in America, including American Sign Language and Signed English. American Sign language is a valued part of Deaf culture and can be showcased through the performing arts, such as ASL poetry and music. American Sign Language Poetry American Sign Language poetry, also referred to as “sign poetry”, is a popular art form within the Deaf culture. It is likely that there were some ASL poets prior to the 1970s, but due to the oppression of ASL and a lack of technology to document ASL poetry, these poets went unrecognized. When videotape equipment became commonly used beginning in the 1970s, it was possible to record and thus, preserve, ASL poetry. The first ASL poetry workshop took place in 1984 at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf and, “the poetics of space, the solidity of the image, and the image’s ability to ‘interface’ self and society, culture and culture, stood at the center of the event” (Brueggemann 219). ASL poetry is often intended to be for both hearing and deaf audiences. “Sign poetry has a remarkable capacity to be both universal and particular – largely because of its use of imagery represented by the human body, its derivation from bodily experience, and its incorporation of facial expressions. In simultaneously occupying particulars and universals it 30 rhetorically instructs and yet aesthetically pleases both deaf and hearing audiences, and everyone in between” (Brueggemann 220). Notable ASL poets Patrick Graybill, Ella Mae Lentz, and Clayton Valli published their poetry on videotapes during the 1990s. In ASL poetry, signs are chosen for their physical image to convey rhyme, rhythm, and meter. Within ASL poetry, there is more freedom in terms of invention of signs as compared to ASL in general. A sign invented by someone for general conversational purposes, for example, must be approved by the community through use. However, ASL poets may invent new signs without the Deaf community accepting them through use. Spoken language poetry and ASL poetry share some elements. ASL poetry, like spoken language poetry, contains rhyme, rhythm, and meter. Rhyme in ASL poetry is achieved by repetition of a visual element, while rhyme in spoken language poetry is achieved by repetition of a sound. Types of rhyme in ASL poetry include handshape rhyme, movement path rhyme, locations rhyme, and nonmanual signal rhyme. Clayton Valli’s poem, “Dandelions” contains the aforementioned types of rhyme. Handshape rhyme is present when the 5 handshape (hand open, all five fingers extended and slightly spread) is used to represent flowers, the S handshape (closed fist, thumb over other fingers) shows a man pulling dandelions and mowing, and the 5 handshape is repeated to show the rain and the sun. Movement path rhyme is shown when the signs used to indicate flowers closing overnight repeat a circular movement. Location rhyme is the repetition of a location. Nonmanual signal rhyme is achieved through the repetition of nonmanual signals, such as eye gaze and puffing of the cheeks. “Rhythm, as any good poet will tell you, comes from our 31 bodies (consider the heartbeat of the iamb); in sign poetry, it is returned to the body” (Brueggemann 216). Rhythm in ASL poetry is achieved through movement paths, assimilation, change of a sign, choice of a sign, handedness, alternating movement, movement duration, and movement size. Meter in ASL poetry is a count of visual elements, rather than a count of syllables in spoken language poetry. The syllables in ASL poetry focus on the contrast between light and heavy signs and where the emphasis is placed. Poetry has been compared to music in hearing and Deaf cultures. The rhythm and meter present in poetry are also present in music, though they are achieved through different means. Because of the similarities between poetry and music, it can be a helpful point of reference when considering how music relates to sign language, and how sign language can communicate certain elements found in music, such as rhythm and meter. Music in Deaf Culture Music can be a part of the Deaf culture, as is evident in home-­‐movie style films documenting different social activities of the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf. Signed performances were the focus of club festivities. One such example is from a 1940s recording of a young man signing a song. “[The song] seemed to be about a young woman, her hair, her ample bust, concluding with a twirl of the body. But this, we were told, was the famous version of “Yankee Doodle” performed by the local favorite, Elmer Priester. We could see the crowds dancing around Priester and sometimes signing along with him, but it seemed to matter less whether everyone was in unison 32 than that they were all joining in as a part of a loud, joyous group” (Padden and Humphries 73). Priester was focused on signing “Yankee Doodle” with excitement and patriotism, rather than focusing on the internal structure of the signing and the song. “He was not rigid in his sign selections; in fact he apparently took great liberties with his translation. His friends remembered his adult versions of the song, in which he used phallic substitutions for references to cannons. Unfortunately for us today, the filmmakers exercised their good judgment and we have only tasteful performances on record, but we know there was a lot of playfulness and creativity with the language” (Padden and Humphries 76). Contrastingly, contemporary Deaf performers are “much more self-­‐conscious, what we would call analytical, about their language,” focusing more on particular elements of signed language (Padden and Humphries 74). Another popular type of song, as evident in home movies created by the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf and Charles Krauel’s collection of home movies of the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf, involves a group of people repeating particular signs. In one such song, as recorded by Krauel, the leader stands in front of a group and is next to a board with a list of animals. The leader guides the group through the list as they sign the song together using a simple rhythm, the trick being to stay together for each beat. The lyrics are as follows: “The birds sing, sing, sing, but I hear them not at all, Darn, Darn, Darn 33 The cats meow, meow, meow but I hear them not at all, Darn, Darn, Darn The cows moo, moo, moo but I hear them not at all, Darn, Darn, Darn” (Padden and Humphries 77). The “Darn, Darn, Darn” refrain makes this particular song similar to others found in the film collections of the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf and Charles Krauel. In these other songs, the repetition is always done with a “one, two, one-­‐two-­‐three” rhythmic pattern. The songs are groups songs, intended to foster a sense of unity and happiness. The primary song of this type that is still frequently recited is the fight song for Gallaudet College. “Hail to our mighty bisons! Snort, Snort, SnortSnortSnort Spirit! And hail to our Gallaudet flag, the Buff and Blue! Clap, Clap, ClapClapClap Because our Gallaudet men give them . . . Damn, Damn! Hel, Hell, Hell! Clap, Clap, ClapClapClap” (Padden and Humphries 78). Another current manifestation of music within Deaf culture is Beethoven’s Nightmare, a band comprising Deaf individuals. The three primary members of the group are Bob Hiltermann, Ed Chevy, and Steve Longo, all of whom are Deaf. In 34 performance they collaborate with hearing and deaf individuals, such as other musicians and visual performing artists, in order to fuse music, American Sign Language, mime, and dance. Hiltermann, Chevy, and Longo met while attending Gallaudet University and formed a band called The Funk. The Funk performed at various Gallaudet University events and local clubs. The band was reunited after college in San Francisco, and was reborn as Beethoven’s Nightmare. The film, See What I’m Saying, shows Beethoven’s Nightmare preparing for a show. Hiltermann says, “This is a whole new concept of this kind of performance. It’s never been done before. With sign language. Not interpreting the song, no. Perform the song. There’s a difference. Interpreting, yeah, you get the story, but performing, you get the picture” (See What I’m Saying). Beethoven’s Nightmare has been more successful than The Funk. Their first album, “Turn it Up Louder,” was released in 2007. Hiltermann states, “People still can’t believe, they think it’s hearing that makes the music. I said, ‘No, it’s your heart. It’s your body. It’s your rhythm inside of you that makes the music not [your ears]” (See What I’m Saying). The Deaf individual responsible for performing the lyrics in sign language for the performance in See What I’m Saying describes the process of preparation as follows: “First I have to read the lyrics over and over until I get it right. I have to count. And then I have to memorize how many beats are in between each verse or chorus. Then I work on the translation. But it really takes a long time just to do one song” (See What I’m Saying). 35 Student Recital In preparing for an interpreted performance of a vocal work, one must consider the differences between interpreting the work in Signed English or ASL. Signed English will provide an interpretation in which each particular sign will be the same as the sung words. A Signed English interpretation of a song following English grammar conventions will thus result in a signed interpretation with English grammar. In the case of Signed English interpretations, the signer has far less freedom in terms of deciding the clearest way to convey a concept. The signer instead is required to match words to signs, focusing on a word-­‐by-­‐word interpretation. An ASL interpretation will not match signs to words exactly, but will instead follow ASL grammar and thus the order of signs will depend on the grammatical structure of ASL, not English. The differences between Signed English and ASL performances are similar within music and poetry. In Deaf poet Ella Mae Lentz’s DVD, The Treasure, the poem “Travels with Malz” is presented in Signed English and ASL. The poem itself was first created in Signed English, but Lentz created an ASL version later. In The Treasure, the Signed English version of “Travels with Malz” is presented first, followed by the ASL version. Brueggemann recounts showing the two versions of the poem to students in his creative writing classes, and hearing students are able to discern differences between the two versions and recognize the “political point being made with the performance of these two versions, side by side” (Brueggemann 211). Additionally, such hearing students much prefer the ASL version over the Signed English version of the poem. “Those hearing students far prefer the ASL version, in 36 which they find the poet far more “engaged, energized, expressive,” noting that the craft seems more careful there and that the “stiffness and solemnity” of the Signed English version have been worked out” (Brueggemann 211). This concept also applies to signed performances of music with lyrics. A Signed English version may appear more stiff and solemn than an ASL version. This difference can be apparent to those with or without experience with ASL. Cultural implications should also be considered while examining Signed English and ASL interpretations of music. Using ASL means placing an art form of the hearing culture in the language that is cherished by the Deaf culture. Though the process may be more difficult in terms of preparation for a performance, an ASL interpretation can show a certain acceptance and recognition of the cultural differences at hand. For the purpose of the March 11, 2012 student recital at Linfield College in McMinnville, Oregon, I decided to create an ASL interpretation. The program notes indicated to the audience that the signing would not be an exact English interpretation, and would instead focus on ASL. The process for preparing a signed performance of Ingrid Michaelson’s “Far Away” for a recital included individual work, as well as consulting with a professional sign language interpreter. In the performance, the song was presented through guitar, vocals, and ASL. Not only did the lyrics need to be examined, but the music itself also had to be taken into consideration. The lyrics were examined for literal and figurative meanings. Michaelson’s “Far Away” references a life on an island, with a lobsterman for a husband, three daughters, and a beautiful blue bay. Another scene within the song takes place in a 37 bar, and the lyrics mention a boy who does not notice the admiration of the singer. The song then once again references the life on the island. The song begins with a four measure instrumental introduction, then the lyrics introduce the concept of the life on an island. After setting up the concept of this island life, the chorus is introduced and the lyrics are as follows: Far away far away, I want to go far away To a new life on a new shore line Where the water is blue and the people are new To another island, in another life After the chorus is the bar scene, in which the lyrics describe a boy who is sitting next to the singer, but does not notice her despite her admiring him. The boy walks past and the fact that he does not take note of the singer lead her to feel unhappy. The chorus returns, once again referencing the island and the life it could provide. The remainder of the song re-­‐iterates the longing for the idealistic island life. For the ASL interpretation of “Far Away”, the idea of a dream world and reality was a focal point. The far away island represents a dream world, whereas the bar scene represents reality. To represent the differences between these two worlds, the signing space is used differently. Because the first idea introduced in the lyrics is that of the dream world, the signed performance began with the eye gaze in the upper left signing space. The upper left signing space was used to represent the dream world, and all references to the dream world return the gaze to the upper left hand space. Reality, such as the bar scene, was represented in the center signing space, directly in front of the body and the eye gaze centered. 38 One challenge of creating an ASL interpretation is in discerning the implication of particular words and phrases. For example, in the chorus, the phrase, “where the water is blue and the people are new” uses the word “new” to imply that the people are different, and new people to meet. Rather using the sign NEW, the signs for “different” and “meeting people” were used in the performance to convey the idea that the people are different from the people that the narrator encounters in her everyday life. In the bar scene, the word “see” also has underlying meaning. The lyrics are, “when he walks right past me then I finally see, on this bar stool I can’t stay,” and the word “see” does not mean the act of seeing through the eyeballs. Instead, “see” refers to understanding-­‐ the narrator finally understands and recognizes that she cannot continue in her routine. To indicate this, the performance used the sign UNDERSTAND rather than SEE. In terms of the music itself, the general mood of the sound needed to be taken into consideration, as well as the tempo and dynamics. The speed of the signing in the performance corresponded to the speed of the guitar and the singing. As the song retained a moderate tempo and dynamics, the signing reflected this. Had the music had a harsh, jagged quality, the signing would have been accented similarly. Dynamics and general intensity can be indicated through the size of the signs. Loudness can be indicated by larger signs. Preparing a piece of music for sign language interpretation requires the time to explore the intent of the lyrics and the music. The general mood of the music should be reflected in the signing. Likewise, dynamics and accents should also be represented in the signed performance. Though the lyrics themselves are an 39 important aspect of a signed performance, incorporating elements from the sound created by the music are important to effectively interpret the piece. 40 CHAPTER FIVE Conclusion In order to begin to understand the Deaf culture, one must first examine what deafness is. There is a range of deafness and, contrary to popular belief, few deaf individuals are entirely without hearing. Deafness is an audiological condition, and some individuals who are deaf identify mainly with the hearing culture. However, other individuals identify with the history, culture, and language associated with deafness, making them Deaf, with a capital “D”. Discrimination and oppression of the deaf have been present throughout history, and continue in the present time. The Deaf are a linguistic and cultural minority. Most deaf children are born to hearing parents, and thus are exposed to the Deaf culture though residential schools rather than within the home. Although early schools for the deaf placed heavy emphasis on manual instruction, or sign language, some educators and parents were concerned that little attention was given to speech training. The first permanent school for the deaf in America opened in 1817, and pure oral schools were established in the United States in the 1860s. However, the first oral school for the deaf in the world was established in Germany in 1755. The 1880 International Congress on Education of the Deaf was a key event in the debates over whether oral or manual instruction should be the preferred method in education for the deaf. The participants were largely hearing-­‐ there was only one deaf individual present out of 164 total participants. The majority of the 41 group voted to outlaw the use of sign language in the education of deaf children. The debate over whether oral or manual schools are ideal is ongoing, often referred to as “The War of Methods.” Music is and has been a part of Deaf culture for many years, some of the first evidence of such being the 1847 article, “Music Among the Deaf and Dumb,” which advocated music education for the deaf. Pianos have commonly been used as a tool for speech training. Sign language interpreters were generally not paid professionals until the founding of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) in 1964. Before the establishment of RID, interpreters were typically family or friends of deaf individuals and volunteered their interpreting services free of charge. Interpreters are responsible for conveying information between two languages, the source language and the target language. Presently, interpreters may work in a variety of settings, including mental health, education, religious, medical, theater and performing arts, legal, employment, and social services. It is important to note that American Sign Language (ASL) is a language independent from English. ASL has its own grammatical structure, which is different from English. However, English-­‐based signing systems do exist, such as Signed English. American Sign Language poetry is a popular art form within the Deaf culture, and can be related to music due to its use of rhythm and meter. Music is evident in old home movies from deaf clubs, and is also present today through Deaf musicians. 42 Beethoven’s Nightmare is one example of contemporary Deaf musical performance groups. Preparing an ASL interpretation of a vocal work with text provided a deeper understanding of the process for interpreting music. An analysis of both the lyrics and the music itself was necessary in order to convey aspects of both. Various expressive techniques may be used to convey musical traits, such as signing larger to indicate a higher volume or intensity. The topic of music and deafness is vast, and though this thesis has included an overview of the subject, there is significantly more literature on the subject than the author initially expected. The field has grown considerably since 1847, and will likely continue to do so. Relevance and Future Implications In a society where the idea of diversity is a common topic of conversation, deafness rarely enters the discussion. Although there are efforts being made to understand and respect different cultures, the Deaf culture often remains overlooked. However, American Sign Language is one of the fastest growing languages of instruction in America, exposing hearing individuals to a world they may have previously been unaware of. It can be expected that awareness and understanding of the Deaf will grow as ASL gains popularity. Audism still runs rampant, but there is hope that increased understanding of deafness and the Deaf culture will help dispel the myth that the ability to hear makes one superior. In an age of ever-­‐changing technology, the future of Deaf culture (and hearing culture) is unclear. Cochlear implants are a topic of great debate. Just because 43 someone can be implanted with something that can help them hear, should they? Some Deaf individuals hold firmly to the belief that deafness is not something that needs to be “fixed,” and technology such as cochlear implants imply that there is something wrong with being deaf. Looking at the Deaf as a linguistic and cultural minority just like any other minority changes things. Trying to make the Deaf more like the hearing implies that there is something wrong with the Deaf. Would it then also be appropriate to condemn other minorities, such as African-­‐Americans and homosexuals? Audism must be included in the lexicon of discrimination. Alongside racism, heterosexism, and the myriad of “-­‐isms” that are commonly discussed, it is time for audism to be addressed. In order to address audism, even on an individual level, there must be understanding of what deafness is, and the rich culture and history associated with it. Making music accessible to deaf individuals may help bring two worlds together. The hearing world values music, and some deaf individuals may want to see what the craze is all about. Bringing interpreters into musical performances may help bring the Deaf culture to the stage, literally and figuratively. Hearing audiences intrigued by the person waving their hands around on the side of the stage may decide to explore sign language and become exposed to the Deaf culture. Deaf individuals who desire to attend a live musical performance should have the opportunity to do so, which requires bringing interpreters into the equation. The field of interpreters for musical events is growing, and this author hopes that it will continue to do so, in essence bringing two cultures together to aid in recognition and understanding, paving the path for the fall of audism. 44 Works Cited “Audiogram PDF.” Color of Language. Color of Language, n.d. Web. Feb 2012. <http://www.coloroflanguage.com/Resources/Audiograms.pdf> Ackerman, Diane. A Natural History of the Senses. New York: Vintage Books, 1991. Bauman, H-­‐Dirksen L. “Audism: Exploring the Metaphysics of Oppression.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 9.2 (2004): 239-­‐246. Web. March 12, 2012. Benderly, Beryl L. Dancing Without Music: Deafness in America. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press, 1990. Biderman, Beverly. Wired for Sound: A Journey into Hearing. Toronto: Trifolium, 1998. Bosworth, Rain G., and Karen Emmorey. "Effects of Iconicity and Semantic Relatedness on Lexical Access in American Sign Language." 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