PROGRAM LATIHAN KHIDMAT NEGARA (PLKN)
AS NATION-BUILDING: A STUDY OF
PARTICIPANTS’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE
OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION,
VOLUNTEERISM AND LOYALTY DURING 2011
BY
JAMES EDWARD BEAVEN
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement
for the degree of Master of Human Science (Political
Science)
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
International Islamic University
Malaysia
MARCH 2012
ABSTRACT
The Malaysian National Service Programme is a hybrid national service programme.
PLKN conscripts youths after their secondary education not to serve in the armed
forces or police but to facilitate in nation-building. Today, the main purpose of the
Malaysian National Service is to develop in the youths a patriotic love for their
country, enhance unity, volunteerism, positive characteristics, good values, and
obedience to the government. This study examines the Malaysian National Service
Programme to determine if the PLKN is meeting its stated aims of nation-building by
addressing issues of racial integration, volunteerism and increased loyalty towards
King and country. After six years, the programme needs to be evaluated to ensure its
efficiency. To date, there have been no in-depth studies to see if the Malaysian
National Service Programme is reaching both its stated and non-stated goals. The
concept of conscription, development and the military’s role in national development
is a very broad subject. This study does not intend to cover the whole spectrum of
theories regarding conscription, development or the military’s role in national
development, instead presenting only a basic framework for understanding
conscription and the military’s role in national development. This research
emphasizes on the Malaysian National Service Programme which is designed to assist
in nation building. In racial integration, Malaysia is most concerned with racial
harmony to find a common ground among Malaysia’s three major ethnic groups. This
study examines the Malaysian Nation Service Programme by using both qualitative
and quantitative research methods guided by statistical analysis. A random selection
of 420 Malaysian citizens of Form Five secondary students and ex-PLKN trainees
were chosen. Surveys were mailed out to this random sample with a representation of
Chinese, Indian, and Malay respondents. Through this sample we found that PLKN
has been the programme has made some modest improvements in the youths who
have participated in the programme.
ii
‫خالصة البحث‬
‫يعد برنامج اخلدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية وليد ختطيطات احلكومة للخدمات الوطنية ‪ ،‬حيث يقوم‬
‫بتجنيد الشباب والشابات بعد انتهائهم من الدراسة الثانوية وتدريبهم على خدمة اجملتمع‬
‫وتنميتو‪ ،‬واليهدف إىل جتنيد ىم للخدمة يف القوات ادلسلحة أو الشرطة ‪ .‬ويف الوقت الراىن‪،‬‬
‫يعد الغرض الرئيسي للخدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية ىو غرس حب الوطن يف قلوب الشباب‬
‫والشابات‪ ،‬وحتسني مفهوم الوحدة‪ ،‬وحب العمل التطوعي‪ ،‬وبناء الشخصية اإلجيابية‪ ،‬و غرس‬
‫القيم األخالقية‪ ،‬وتقوية الوالء للسلط ات والوطن ‪ .‬وهتدف ىذه الدراسة إىل دراسة كفاءة‬
‫برنامج اخلدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية‪ ،‬دلعرفة مدى حتقيقو لألىداف ادلنصوصة يف بناء اجملتمع من‬
‫خالل معاجلتو لقضايا التكامل العرقي‪ ،‬والعمل التطوعي‪ ،‬ورفع مستوى الوالء للملك والبالد ‪.‬‬
‫فت من الضروري تقييمو‪ ،‬وذلك لضمان‬
‫فقد مضت ست سنوات من انطالق الربنامج با‬
‫كفاءتو‪ .‬وحىت اآلن‪ ،‬ال توجد دراسات معمقة لرؤية ما إذا كان برنامج اخلدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية‬
‫قد حقق أىدافو ادلنصوصة وغري ادلنصوصة ‪ .‬إن مفهوم التجنيد‪ ،‬والتطوير‪ ،‬ودور اجليش‪ ،‬يف‬
‫التنمية الوطنية موضوع واسع جدا‪ ،‬لذلك‪ ،‬ال تعتزم ىذه ال دراسة على تغطية مجيع النظريات‬
‫ادلتنوعة يف التجنيد‪ ،‬أو التطوير‪ ،‬أو دور اجليش يف التنمية الوطنية ‪ .‬إمنا ترِّكز ىذه الدراسة فقط‬
‫إىل تقدمي إطار أساسي لفهم التجنيد اإللزامي ودور اجليش يف التنمية الوطنية ‪ .‬ويؤكد البحث‬
‫صمم ملساعدة بناء ادلجدتع ‪ .‬وهتتم ماليزيا اىتماماً بالغاً‬
‫على أن برنامج اخلدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية ُ‬
‫بالوحدة بني أعراق ادلختلفة ‪ ،‬والبحث ادلستمر عن أرضية مشًتكة بني األعراق ادلاليزية‬
‫األساسية الثالثة‪ .‬واستخدمت الدراسة منهجي البحث النوعي والكمي‪ ،‬باالستعانة إىل‬
‫ماليزي من السنة‬
‫اطن اً‬
‫التحليل اإلحصائي‪ .‬كما قامت باختيار عينة عشوائية تشمل ‪ 420‬مو اً‬
‫تدربوا سابقاً يف برنامج اخلدمة الوطنية ادلاليزية ‪ .‬وقامت‬
‫اخلامسة من الطلبة الثانوية‪ ،‬و قد َّ‬
‫الدراسة بإرسال استطالعات عرب الربيد إىل تلك العينة العشوائية واليت تمشل األعراق الثالثة‬
‫الصينية‪ ،‬واذلندية‪ ،‬وادلاليوية ‪ .‬ومن خالل ىذه العينة وجدت الدراسة بأن برنامج اخلدمة‬
‫الوطنية املاليزية كان من الربامج اليت أضفت لديها نسبة ال بأس هبا من التأثري اإلجيايب جتاه‬
‫حتسينات بسيطة يف الشباب والشابات الذين شاركوا يف ىذا الربنامج‪.‬‬
‫‪iii‬‬
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political
Science).
................................................
Danial Yusof
Supervisor
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
................................................
Muhamad Fuzi Omar
Examiner
This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Political Science and is accepted
as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences
(Political Science).
.................................................
Tunku Mohar Tunku Mokhtar
Head, Department of Political
Science
This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).
.................................................
Badri Najib Zubir
Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and
Human Sciences
iv
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
James Edward Beaven
Signature………………………….
Date….……………………..
v
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION
OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright © 2012 by James Edward Beaven. All rights reserved.
PROGRAM LATIHAN KHIDMAT NEGARA (PLKN) AS NATIONBUILDING: A STUDY OF PARTICIPANTS’ PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS
THE OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION, VOLUNTEERISM
AND LOYALTY DURING 2011
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder
except as provided below.
1.
Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2.
IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print
or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3.
The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
Affirmed by James Edward Beaven.
…………………………….
Signature
………………….
Date
vi
I dedicate this thesis to my beloved family:
Joyce Beaven (mother), William Leo Beaven (father),
To my loving wife Junita Jamaludin,and our children William Yusuf Beaven (Abang),
Daniel Ilyas Beaven (Abang Ngah), Michael Ayyub Beaven (Abang Lang), Alexander
Idris Beaven (Abang Teh) and Qazrina Elizabeth Beaven (Dikna)
For the utmost love, patience, support and understanding
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
All praise be to Allah (S.W.T.) for enabling me to complete this study. I am thankful
to Him for the health and energy that He has given me throughout my academic
endeavours. Peace and blessings be upon our beloved Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.),
his family and his companions. In undertaking this study I am indebted to many
distinguished people and institutions from whom I benefited directly or indirectly.
First of all I would like to express my sincere and deepest appreciation and thanks to
my Supervisor, Dr. Danial Yusof, for supervising this study. His guidance,
encouragement, kindheartedness, helpfulness were instrumental in completing this
thesis. I also would like to thank Assoc. Prof Dr Raees Wahabudin and Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Garoot S. Eissa. My thanks are also due to Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku Mokhtar,
Head of Department of Political Science. I also extend my appreciation to the
personnel of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) library for the services
they provided me in undertaking this research. I wish to extend my gratitude to my
parents, brother, my beloved wife, sons and daughter for their love, patience,
understanding and continuous support.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................... ii
Abstract in Arabic ................................................................................................ iii
Approval Page ..................................................................................................... iv
Declaration Page .................................................................................................. v
Copyright Page .................................................................................................... vi
Dedication ........................................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER ONE: MALAYSIA’S NATIONAL SERVICE PROGRAMME .. 1
1.1 National Service.................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................... 4
1.3 Justification of the Study ..................................................................... 4
1.4 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Scope and Limitations ............................................................... 6
1.5 Literature Review .............................................................................. 6
1.5.1 The Military and Nation Building ............................................. 7
1.5.2 Racial Integration, Volunteerism and Nationalism .................... 12
1.5.3 Malaysia’s National Service ..................................................... 20
1.6 Framework of Analysis for Nation Building and National Service ...... 24
1.6.1 Nation-building Programmes and the Construction of Identity .. 24
1.6.2 Malaysia’s Nation Building Policies and Programmes .............. 25
1.6.3 Imagined Communities ............................................................ 28
1.6.4 Framework of Analysis ............................................................. 29
1.7 Methodology....................................................................................... 31
1.7.1 Statistical Analysis .................................................................... 32
1.7.2 Benchmarks .............................................................................. 32
1.8 Chapterization ..................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER TWO: MALAYSIA’S DEMOGRAPHICS, ADMINISTRATION AND
ORGANIZATION OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE AND MALAYSIA
NATIONAL SERVICE (PLKN) ......................................................................... 34
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 34
2.2 Malaysia ............................................................................................. 34
2.2.1 Malaysian Demographics ......................................................... 34
2.3 Organization of Ministry of Defence .................................................. 36
2.3.1 Malaysian Army (MA) ............................................................. 38
2.3.2 Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) and Royal Malaysian Air Force
(RMAF) ........................................................................................... 39
2.3.3 National Service Training Department (JLKN) ........................ 41
2.4 Development of PLKN ....................................................................... 42
2.4.1 The Malaysian National Service Program (PLKN) ................... 42
2.4.2 National Service Camps ............................................................ 45
ix
2.4.3 Objectives and Concepts of PLKN ............................................ 46
2.4.4 Selection Process ...................................................................... 48
2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER THREE: MODULES CONTENT ANALYSIS ............................. 51
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 51
3.2 Physical Module ................................................................................. 51
3.3 Nationhood Module ............................................................................ 52
3.4 Character Building Module ................................................................. 56
3.5 Community Service Module................................................................ 59
3.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER FOUR: SURVEY RESULTS AND EVALUATION .................... 62
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 62
4.2 Survey Demographics ......................................................................... 63
4.3 Form Five Responses .......................................................................... 67
4.3.1 Racial Attitudes ........................................................................ 67
4.3.2 Loyalty towards King and Country ........................................... 70
4.3.3 Volunteerism ........................................................................... 72
4.3.4 Physical Activity ....................................................................... 73
4.4 Ex-Trainees Responses ........................................................................ 74
4.4.1 Racial Attitudes ........................................................................ 74
4.4.2 Loyalty towards King and Country ........................................... 77
4.4.3 Volunteerism ............................................................................ 79
4.4.4 Physical Activity ....................................................................... 79
4.5 Evaluation of Surveys ......................................................................... 80
4.5.1 Racial Attitudes ........................................................................ 80
4.5.2 Loyalty towards King ............................................................... 85
4.5.3 Loyalty towards Country........................................................... 87
4.5.4 Volunteerism ............................................................................ 89
4.5.5 Physical Activity ....................................................................... 91
4.6 Overall Evaluation .............................................................................. 92
CHAPTER FIVE: SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION ............................. 94
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 94
5.2 Module and Policy Suggestions .......................................................... 94
5.2.1 Physical Module ....................................................................... 95
5.2.2 Nationhood Module .................................................................. 95
5.2.3 Character Building Module ....................................................... 96
5.2.4 Community Service Module ..................................................... 96
5.2.5 Policy Suggestions .................................................................... 97
5.3 Benefits .............................................................................................. 102
5.3.1 Benefits to Parents and Communities ........................................ 102
5.3.2 Benefits to the Youth ................................................................ 102
5.3.3 Benefits to the Economy ........................................................... 102
5.3.4 Benefits to the Armed Forces .................................................... 104
5.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 105
x
5.4.1 Future Research ........................................................................ 106
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 107
APPENDIX A .................................................................................................... 114
APPENDIX B ..................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX C .................................................................................................... 123
xi
CHAPTER ONE
MALAYSIAN NATIONAL SERVICE PROGRAMME1
1.1 NATIONAL SERVICE
National Service is the term most commonly given to mandatory or voluntary
government service programmes with emphasis given to military service. National
service was common in the twentieth century. Compulsory military service typically
requires all citizens, or all male citizens, to participate for a period of time after their
secondary education at around eighteen years of age. 2
A number of nations such as Singapore, Israel and Switzerland use national
service to assist in giving them a large defensive armed force. With the majority of
their citizens having basic military training, they will be able to more effectively
respond to most military emergencies. Other nations use it to help deter a major
threat. During the Cold War period, France and West Germany used national service
conscriptions to help deter the Warsaw Pact.3 Currently, the Republic of Korea uses
conscription to keep itself militarily prepared in the event that war once again breaks
out with the People's Republic of Korea. Both Korean nations also use their military to
assist in national development.4
The Ideal National Service, i.e. the best possible national service programme,
is one that fulfils all the needs of the state, the people and the youth conscripted to the
1
Program Latihan Khidmat Negara (PLKN).
Conscription (2009). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/conscription (accessed November 30, 2010).
3
The Warsaw Pact is the name commonly given to the treaty between Albania, Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union, which was signed in
Poland in 1955 and was officially called 'The Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual
Assistance'. This agreement was actually a military treaty, which bound its signatories to come to the
aid of others, should any one of them be the victim of foreign aggression.
4
Eugene Kim, “Civil-Military relations in the two Koreas” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 11, no. 9
(1984): 8.
2
1
best of its ability. 5
The system builds upon the foundation that is laid by the
education system to strengthen racial harmony, patriotism and national development
through which the youths serve regardless of race, religion, or social class to assist in
national development and have a strong defence in case of any national emergencies.
In this context, Programme Latihan Khidmat Negara (PLKN) - known in
English as the Malaysian National Service Programme - is a hybrid national service
programme. PLKN conscripts youths after their secondary education not to serve in
the armed forces or police but to facilitate nation-building. Today, the main purpose
of the Malaysian National Service is to develop in the youth a patriotic love for their
country, enhance unity, volunteerism, positive characteristics, good values, and
obedience to the government. In April 2003, the then Defence Minister Datuk Seri
Najib Razak said that Malaysia‟s national service programme would be the “first of its
kind in the world”. 6 The aim was preparing the youths of Malaysia for national
service in accordance with the National Service Act of 1952 and creating a nation in
which the youths are patriotic, resilient and imbued with the spirit of volunteerism
reflective of the RUKUNEGARA.7
Our nation Malaysia, being dedicated to achieving a greater unity of all
her peoples; to maintaining a democratic way of life; to creating a just
society in which the wealth of the nation shall be equitably shared; to
ensuring a liberal approach to her rich and diverse cultural traditions; to
building a progressive society which shall be oriented to modern
science and technology: We, her people, pledge our united efforts to
attain these ends guided by these principles: 1. Belief in God 2. Loyalty
to King and Country 3. Upholding the Constitution 4. Rule of Law 5.
Good Behaviour and Morality. 8
In December 2003, Malaysia implemented its PLKN (the Malaysian National
Service Programme). Males and females who have reached 17 years of age are
5
In Malaysia youths are defined as 15 to 40 years of age.
Lim Kit Siang, “National service or national disservice” http://www.dapmalaysia.org/allarchive/English/2003/jun03/lks/lks2404.htm (accessed 5 January, 2011).
7
National Service Training Act, 2003 (Act No. 628 of 2003).
8
Ibid.
6
2
eligible to be selectively drafted into the programme. The PLKN was first proposed
in 2001 and brought to a committee the following year. The programme was initially
designed as a two year service, however, this was later reduced to one year because of
budget restraints. After a survey of parents of Malaysia‟s youths showed that they
were resistant towards a year‟s term of service, the programme was reduced to six
months and finally dropped to three months programme.9
The first group of trainees were 18 years of age and were picked from a
national database that included all citizens registered with the Malaysian ID card
system.10 Failure to show up for national service once called may result in a RM3000
fine, or up to six months in jail or both.11 The programme is split into four official
modules. The Physical Module (Fizikal) is comprised of Marching (Kawat), hand to
hand combat (Tempur Tanpa Senjata), obstacle courses, weapons usage, navigation,
survival training, first aid and camping. The Character building module
(PembinaanKarakter) is divided into two sections; Module A works on “bringing out
the best in me” while Module B works on “bringing out the best in others”. The main
objective is to build self-confidence, leadership, self-evaluation and instil good values
in the trainees. The final module is Community Service (Khidmat Komuniti) where the
trainees are sent in groups to areas near their base camp to provide community
services. 12 By 2007, the number of inductees had risen to roughly 100,000 youths
born in 1989. By 2008, the total number of youths that had been inducted into the
national service programme was 339,186 from its beginning in 2004. 13
9
The
The Committee conducted a study on parents and students about the concepts of the National Service
Programme. Their research findings showed the majority of the parents were opposed to three years of
service.
10
Anil Netto, “Malaysia's 3-month national service a flop?” Asian Times, via
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FE04Ae01.html (accessed 5 January, 2011)
11
National Service Training Act, 2003 (Act No. 628 of 2003), 17.
12
Akta Khidmat Negara, http://www.khidmatnegara.gov.my/aktapkn.htm (accessed 11 October, 2010).
13
The Star “RM2.37bil spent on NS” 19 May 2008 http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=
/2008/5/16/parliament/21270333&sec=parliament (accessed 5 January, 2011).
3
programme is run by Jabatan Latihan Khidmat Negara (JLKN) or National Service
Department which comes under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. 14
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study examines the Malaysian National Service Programme to determine if the
PLKN is meeting its stated aims of racial integration, increased volunteerism and
increased loyalty towards King and country. A policy evaluation is conducted to
check the effect of any given policy and to evaluate the policy in terms of necessity,
efficiency and validity; further to improve the planning or implementation of the
policy. 15 To ensure any government policy is achieving its stated and non-stated goals
and working efficiently, all policies should be evaluated periodically. The Malaysian
National Service Programme is a very new programme developed to assist in nation
building by addressing the issues of racial integration, volunteerism and loyalty
towards King and country. There have been no in-depth studies to see if the
Malaysian National Service Programme is reaching both its stated and non-stated
goals. After six years the programme needs to be evaluated to ensure the efficiency of
the programme. Therefore, this study answers the following questions, 1) What are
the perception of participants of the Malaysian National Service? 2) According to its
trainees, is the Malaysian National Service meeting its stated goals of increased racial
integration, volunteerism, and loyalty towards King and Country?
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The National Service has the aims of racial integration, increased volunteerism and
increased loyalty towards king and country. Is the National Service Policy of a three
14
Akta Khidmat Negara.
Weimer and Vining, “Policy analysis: concepts and practice” (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2004), 120.
15
4
month conscription of Malaysian youths to install in them racial acceptance, spirit of
volunteerism, nationalism and loyalty towards the King perceived to be successful?
Malaysia has spent RM2.37 Billions on the National Service Programme to date.
Seventy-nine camps have been established and roughly 339,186 youths have gone
through the programme.16
Throughout the implementation of the PLKN, there have been numerous
reports in the media pertaining to its content and management. They range from the
rape of trainees by instructors or fellow trainees and other cases of sexual misconduct,
to a number of trainees falling ill due to food poisoning on several different occasions.
Also, during training exercises there have been several incidents when training
platoons were lost in the jungle.17 Besides food poisoning there have been outbreaks
of illnesses and a number of fights have broken out between trainees of different races
in PLKN camps. With regard to these issues and in relation to the content and
management of the programme, it needs to be evaluated to ensure the youths finishing
the programme have attained the highest ethical and moral standards, are meeting the
stated aims and objectives of the programme and serving the needs of the nation.
16
The Star “RM 2.37 b. Spent on NS” The Star. 16 March 2008
http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/5/16/parliament/21270333&sec=nation (accessed 5
January, 2011).
17
The
Star
“NS
instructor
in
Malacca
sacked”
16
May
2007
http://www.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/5/16/nation/17743853&sec=nation (accessed 5
January, 2011).
5
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of this thesis are to:
1. Measure and examine participants‟ perception of PLKN in relation to
racial integration, volunteerism and loyalty towards King and Country.
2. Evaluate participants‟ perception of PLKN in obtaining its stated goals of
racial integration, volunteerism, loyalty towards King and Country.
3. Suggest improvements to the programme.
1.4.1 Scope and Limitations
The concept of conscription, development and the military‟s role in national
development is a very broad subject. This study does not intend to cover the whole
spectrum of theories regarding conscription, development or the military‟s role in
national development; instead presenting only a basic framework for understanding
conscription and the military‟s role in national development.
This research will
emphasize on the Malaysian National Service Programme which was designed to
assist the nation as a nation building instrument. Where racial integration is
concerned, Malaysia aims for racial harmony to find a common ground among
Malaysia‟s three major ethnic groups.
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
In this literature review we examine the concept of the military‟s role in nationbuilding, conscription, racial attitudes, volunteerism and the Malaysian National
Service Programme.
6
1.5.1 The Military and Nation building
Throughout history, civilizations have had the concept of compulsory military service
for male citizens to protect and serve their community in times of need either through
levies or militias. Most writers on military history trace the concept of modern
conscription to France when in August 1793 the French enacted the Conscription Law
to protect the nation in a time of great danger. The law called for all men between the
ages of twenty to twenty-five years of age to give five years of service:
In principle, citizen conscription is no more authentic or significant an
expression of „citizen service‟ than the compulsory militia. Both entail
that quality of obligatory service owed by citizens to their state which is
constitutive of service as a citizen. Whether performed willingly, or
reluctantly, or even resisted, such service is defined by the fact that the
state may legitimately compel persons to offer it precisely and only
because those persons are members of the community of citizens who
participate in their own self-government.18
Most nations have ended conscription; the United States stopped in 1973,
Great Britain preceded the USA.
With the fall of the Soviet Union and the
dismantling of the Warsaw Pact, a number of scholars have questioned the need for
mass conscription in Europe. Approximately two hundred years after introducing the
policy of mass conscription in 1793, France announced in 2002 the end of the policy.
They were followed by other western European nations like Belgium and the
Netherlands. Italy planned on moving towards an all professional army by 2006, Spain
by 2002, and Portugal by 2003. 19 These nations currently have professional militaries
without conscription.20
However, Germany and the Scandinavian countries are still
planning on using conscription for the near future but Greece and Austria are debating
18
Meyer Kestnbaun, “Citizenship and Compulsory Military Service: The Revolutionary Origins of
Conscriptions in the United States”, Armed Forces & Society, vol. 27 no 1 (2000), 7.
19
Catherine Miller “The Death of Conscription” BBC News, 29 June, 2001, via
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1414033.stm (accessed 11 November 2010).
20
CIA “Factbook” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html (accessed
11 January 2011).
7
the idea of going to an all volunteer army. 21
Countries whose conscription
programmes draft women for military service are China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, North
Korea, Peru, Taiwan, Egypt, and Tunisia. 22 Peru ended its conscription policy in
1999. These conditions have helped bring about the “Decline of the Mass Army
Theory” which has been growing for the last forty years. 23
Schaeffar, Shortwell, and Kestingbaur belong to one school of thought which
believes that national service is something needed for a country‟s full well being and
not just for a strong military. By having a large number of people in uniform, they
argue that a country can use national service as a way to educate its populace, solve
social problems and have all citizens share in the burden of protecting and assisting
the nation.
National development is the ability of a county to improve the social welfare
of the people by increasing the nation‟s infrastructure, by providing improved
transportation, clean drinking water and strong education system, among others.
Nation-building is the use of state power to construct or structure a national identity.
The major aim of nation-building is the unification of the people within the state.
Many different tools may be used to assist in nation-building such as propaganda to
infrastructure development to bring about economic growth and social harmony. 24
Conscript labour, just as conscript military service, has been around for most
of civilized history. The Pharaohs used a well paid, well organized system of tax
conscription to build their pyramids and other important buildings.25 The Roman
21
Miller.
CBC News Online, “Women in the military”
CBCnews,
30 May, 2006, via
http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/military-international/ (accessed 11 November 2010).
23
Karl W Haltiner, “The Definite End of the Mass Army in Western Europe?” Armed Forces &
Society, vol. 25, no.1 (1998), 7.
24
Fritz, Verena and Menocal, Alina Rocha. “Understanding State Building from a Political Economy
Perspective”. September 2007, http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/1340.pdf (accessed 11
November 2010).
25
Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997), p 36.
22
8
Legions built walls, roads and permanent forts that were not only beneficial to the
Republic of Rome and later the Roman Empire militarily but also assisted in the
economic development of the Empire. 26
In recent times, we have seen nations use conscripted/volunteered labour
battalions such as the Reichsarbeitsdienst (RAD) in Germany and the Civilian
Conservation Corp (CCC) in the United States to assist in national development and
unemployment reduction.
Before the outbreak of World War II, the RAD work battalions in Germany
were well organized and paid a standard wage as they assisted in the building of the
Autobahn and other projects that assisted in the nation‟s development. Early in the
war, the RAD units assisted the military on and near the front lines by doing
construction work needed for offensive and defensive military operations and assisted
in keeping war production high on the home front. Later in the war, Nazi Germany
developed work battalions from conscripted civilians from the occupied territories,
undesirable Germans, and prisoners of war. These work battalions were nothing more
than slave labourers, who worked under horrific conditions and often were worked to
death.27
Later in the 20th century and early 21st century, we see the same situation in
Myanmar (Burma) where the military junta conscripted civilians into construction
units. Most of the labour battalions were either directly controlled by the military or
had a close working relationship with each other.
26
Ray Laurence, The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change, (New York: Routledge,
1997), 58-9.
27
Hartmut Heyck, “Labour Services in the Weimar Republic and their Ideological Godparents” Journal
of Contemporary History, vol. 38 (2003), 221.
9
One of Malaysia‟s Armed Forces main objectives is to assist the civil
authorities in national development.28 The military has possession of certain attributes
that enable them to play a crucial role in national development. Usually, the military
has strong discipline, superior organization, and effective command systems, etc.
Many writers argue that the military exhibit these attributes only when they take an
active part in national affairs in many countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Mirsky describes the important role played by the military in the socio-political affairs
of underdeveloped nations. 29 Johnson argues the military is a driving force to teach
skills for economic development and provide an environment to strengthen democracy
and bring diverse ethnic groups together into a national community. 30 Pye sees the
military as an agent for modernization and development for some nations. He argues
that this may be observed in many underdeveloped nations and even in the
industrialized West where the military play a vital role in the development of
industries and providing technical training.
31
In India, Malaysia and the Philippines,
the military is vital in training people in the operation and maintenance of heavy
machinery. 32
Huntington proposed a theory in the late 1950s dealing with civil-military
relations in modern Africa. He based his theory on the history of the United States
Army and the militaries in Japan and Germany.
His model proceeded from a
definition of military ethics and conservative realism. 33
Auma-Osolo tested this
theory using Nigeria as a case study. Nigeria was a country where the military was
28
Ministry of Defence, Honour and Sacrifice, the MAF (Kuala Lumpur, MOD 1994), 52.
Fred R. Von der Mehaden, Politics of the Developing Nations (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc 1969),
107.
30
John Johnson, Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, (New Jersey: Princeton University
Press, 1962), 100.
31
Lucian Pye, Aspects of Political Development (Boston: Lucile, Brown and Co 1976), 115
32
Ibid.
33
Samuel Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Practice of Civil-Military Relations
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1957), 200.
29
10
highly trained before gaining its independence in 1960.
Auma-Osolo found that
Huntington‟s assumptions were wrong. He found that non-military intervention is a
function encouraged by professionalism. He also disagreed with the argument that a
military intervenes because of a combination of factors. He concluded that military
intervention in Africa was a normal aspect of African Warriorism. 34
Jonowitz gives a comparative analysis of the political sociology of military
institutions in developing nations. He presents various types of civil-military relations
and formulates hypotheses about the military‟s capacity to rule and lead the nation to
development.35
Fietcher examines the case of Brazil‟s military administration of the country
and its developmental programmes from 1964 to around 1972. He found that the
military accomplished a considerable feat toward enhancing the human and economic
welfare of the people in a short period of time, something that the civilian regime
would not have been able to achieve. 36 Others, like Keith and Hayes, argue that the
military coup is not the military assisting the civilian government in national
development but takes full control by forming a dictatorship and denying the citizens
their full rights.37 Stepan mainly examines the causes of the coup and concludes that
the military regime fails to meet the requirements of social development. This is
primarily due to the weakness of the military organization, especially in diversity of
leadership. 38
34
Agola Auma-Osolo “Objective African Military Control: A New Paradigm in Civil-Military
Relations” 2nd National Conference on the Third World at Omaha, Nebraska, 16-18 November 1978.
35
Morris Jonowitz, The Military in Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1964), 100.
36
George-Andre Fietcher, Brazil Since 1964: Modernization Under a Military Regime (Arizona: Center
for Latin American Studies, 1976), 55.
37
Henry Keith and Robert Hayes, Perspectives of Armed Politics in Brazil (Arizona: Center for Latin
American Studies, 1976), 112.
38
Alfred Stepan, The Military and Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1971), 28.
11
Kau believes that the military can play a strong role in national development.
He examines and shows through a number of articles the role of the China‟s People‟s
Liberation Army in nation building especially in the areas of manpower training,
social reforms, cultural change and economic development.39
MacFarling emphasizes that Indonesia‟s military has, from the outset, seen
itself as having a perfectly legitimate right and obligation to involve itself in the
political and economic life of the nation. This attitude has led to the doctrine of
dwifungsi (Dual Function). 40 Singh discuses the military economic role in Indonesia,
for each branch of the Armed Forces (army, navy, air force, and the police) has its
own yayasan (foundation). These foundations operate business operations through
various holding companies. These subsidiaries carry out an array of commercial
activities in Indonesia41. Crouch looks at the socio-political forces of the Indonesian
Armed Forces from 1945 to the 1970s and how the Indonesian Armed Forces never
view themselves as apolitical and that they must play socio-economic and political
roles.42
1.5.2 Racial Integration, Volunteerism and Nationalism
Many nations use a variety of social programmes and desegregation policies to help
reduce racism and instil racial harmony. Affirmative action programmes are one of
the major tools used to assist minorities in gaining opportunities in education and
employment that are previously denied to them. Malaysia is the only nation practicing
affirmative action programmes for the majority.
39
Ying Mau Kau,, The People’s Liberation Army and China’s Nation-Building (New York:
International Arts and Sciences Press Inc., 1973), 78.
40
Ian MacFarling,, The Dual Function of the Indonesian Armed Forces: Military Politics in Indonesia
(Canberra: Australian Defence Studies Center, 1996), 43.
41
Bilveer Singh, “The Indonesian Military Business Complex: Origins, Course and Future,”
WorkingPaper No 354 (Canberra, Australia: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National
University, 2001).
42
Harold Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia (London: Cornell University Press, 1978), 66.
12
Other nations have implemented desegregation policy at the national, state and
local levels. One of the few times the military was used to reduce racism was when
President Truman of the United States desegregated the Federal Government and
Armed Services when he signed executive orders 9980 and 9981 on July 26, 1948.
Executive Order 9980 ordered the desegregation of the federal work force and
Executive Order 9981 ordered the desegregation of the armed services. 43 During the
Korean War (1950-1953), the number of Black troops in the front line rose in
comparison to the Second World War.
It took many years for the military to
completely comply with Truman‟s executive orders; segregation only officially ended
in the military when the Secretary of Defence, Charles Wilson announced on 30
September 1954 that the last all-black unit had been abolished from the United States
Army. 44 One of the more effective ways to decrease racism in the United States in the
last thirty years was the desegregation of the public schools and busing policy to
ensure racial parity along with a strong education programme in the schools against
racism. 45
Malaysia is comprised of three major ethnic groups, the Malays, Chinese and
Indians. In May 1969, racial riots took place in Malaysia between the Malays and the
Chinese. These riots lasted until around the end of July leaving hundreds of people
dead and injured.46
Kua sees the riots as nothing more than the Malaysian ruling
43
Harry S Truman 1948 Executive Orders http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executiveorders/1948.html (accessed 26 August 2010).
44
Desegregation of the Armed Forces, Harry Truman Library and Museum
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/desegregation/large/index.php?action=chro
nology (accessed 26 August 2010).
45
Desegregation busing in the United States (also known as forced busing or simply busing) is the
practice of assigning and transporting students to school to redress prior racial segregation of schools,
or to overcome the effects of residential segregation on local school demographics.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desegregation_busing_in_the_United_States#cite_note-0.
46
Kua Kia Soong, “Racial Conflict in Malaysia: against the official history”, Race Class Vol 49 (2008):
33.
13