LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
JELENA NIKITKOVA
SEMANTICS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN NUMBER
IDIOMS: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
MA paper
Academic adviser: Assoc. Prof. Dr. L. Selmistraitis
Vilnius, 2013
LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
SEMANTICS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN NUMBER
IDIOMS: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
This MA paper is submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
degree of the MA in English Philology
By Jelena Nikitkova
I declare that this study is my own and does not contain any unacknowledged work from any
source
Academic adviser: Assoc. Prof. Dr. L. Selmistraitis
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
4
INTRODUCTION
5
1. THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF IDIOMS
8
1.1. The problem of defining an idiom
8
1.2. The criteria used to distinguish between idioms and free word-groups
9
1.2.1. The semantic criterion
9
1.2.2. The structural criterion
10
1.2.3. Institutionalization
11
1.2.4. The criterion of the affect
12
1.2.5. Minor criteria
13
1.3. Semantic classification of idioms
14
1.4. The cultural aspect of idioms
17
1.4.1. Three direction of the study of idioms with respect to culture
17
1.4.2. Five channels through which language is penetrated by culture
19
2. NUMBER SYMBOLISM IN THE ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN CULTURES
21
2.1 The Bible as a common source of number symbolism for Christians
21
2.2. Number symbolism in the English culture
24
2.3. Number symbolism in the Lithuanian culture
26
3. SEMANTICS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN IDIOMS
30
3.1. Semantics of English number idioms
30
3.2. Semantics of Lithuanian number idioms
40
3.3. English and Lithuanian number idioms from a contrastive perspective
52
CONCLUSIONS
59
SUMMARY
62
REFERENCES
63
SOURCES
65
APPENDICES
66
3
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to explore the characteristic features and meaning of
number idioms in the English and Lithuanian languages and determine similarities and
differences in symbolic meaning conveyed by numbers in the two cultures.
The research has been conducted adopting both quantitative and qualitative approaches,
focusing on the main theoretical issues related to idioms and such universal and abstract
phenomenon as "number" in the English and Lithuanian idioms, and searching for the
relationships between number idioms in the two languages. In order to illustrate the main
similarities and differences between two languages, 156 English and 212 Lithuanian idioms
containing the cardinal and ordinal numbers from one to ten were subjected to the analysis.
The contrastive, descriptive and statistic analysis methods were employed in the research. The
results of the analysis showed that the numbers one (70 instances) and two (47 instances) are
the most productive numbers in the English idioms; whereas, in the Lithuanian idioms besides
the same numbers, one (99 instances) and two (35 instances), the number nine (39 instances)
is common. The research demonstrated that numbers in the idioms of both languages
communicate non-quantitative meaning more often than quantitative meaning. It was
discovered that the choice of numbers in the idioms might be determined by logic and reality
or reflect some cultural point of view. The analysis showed that the numbers one, three, six,
nine and ten are used in different senses in the idioms of both languages. The use of numbers
two, four and five can be based on similar associations. The numbers seven and eight are
unproductive in the two languages. Moreover, the findings revealed that number idioms of
both languages may belong to similar semantic groups. However, the results of data analysis
demonstrated that there are two different semantic groups which are common only to one of
the languages (e.g. semantic group of drinking alcohol – English idioms; semantic group of
relatives – Lithuanian idioms).
4
INTRODUCTION
Numbers are in the things. Numbers are objective properties of the things and it means
that they are the secret essence of all things. Only the names of numbers (or the forms) and
their symbols (or hidden meanings) are created. Numbers besides their primary role of
counting things have additional meaning, which might be symbolic and ritual or might reveal
a particular tradition. Thus, numbers are inseparable from language and culture.
Similarly, idioms represent the relationship between language and culture. An idiom is
an expression whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meanings of its parts. Idioms exist
in all languages. They help the language user to convey a particular message in a figurative
way, making the language more vivid and powerful.
The focus of the research is on the semantic variation of English and Lithuanian
idioms containing the cardinal and ordinal numbers from one to ten.
This research is significant because no study which would concentrate on semantics
and symbolism of such universal and abstract phenomenon as "number" in the English and
Lithuanian idioms has been done before. Besides, there is no contrastive study conducted
concerning number idioms in the English and Lithuanian languages which would take into
account cultural point of view. Thus, this study is intended to deepen the understanding of
English and Lithuanian number idioms.
The research question is: are numbers within idioms interpreted similarly by English
and Lithuanian cultures and do number idioms have similar meanings in the two languages?
The aim of the paper is to analyse the characteristic features and meaning of number
idioms in the two languages and determine similarities and differences in symbolic meaning
conveyed by numbers in particular cultures.
To achieve the aim the following objectives are set:
to overview the theoretical material on idioms, i.e. the definition of an idiom, the criteria
used to distinguish between idioms and free word-groups, semantic classification of
idioms, and the cultural aspect of idioms;
to present the information about number symbolism in the English and Lithuanian
cultures;
to compile a corpus of idioms from dictionaries including English and Lithuanian number
idioms which are going to be analysed and contrasted;
to investigate the meaning of number idioms in the two languages;
to discover the relationship between symbolic meanings of numbers and lexical meanings
of idioms containing those numbers;
5
to establish similarities and/or differences between number idioms in the English and
Lithuanian languages which represent similarities and/or differences of the two cultures;
to investigate the most frequently and the least frequently used numbers in English and
Lithuanian idioms which reflect cultural similarities or differences.
In the research qualitative and quantitative approaches are used. The qualitative
approach is adopted in order to investigate the meanings of particular idioms in the two
languages. The qualitative approach embraces descriptive and contrastive methods. The
descriptive method is used as the idioms containing particular numbers are analysed and
described. The contrastive method is employed, while English and Lithuanian number idioms
are contrasted in terms of the meaning and associations they convey. Besides, the quantitative
approach, namely, statistic analysis is used in order to calculate the relative frequency of
occurrence of numbers in English and Lithuanian idioms.
The data for the practical part was collected from the English dictionaries of idioms:
Dictionary of Idioms/ Anglų kalbos frazeologijos žodynas (2010), The Oxford Dictionary of
Idioms (2004), Longman Idioms Dictionary (2000), and Idioms Organiser: Organised by
metaphor, topic and key word (1992). The data on the Lithuanian idioms was obtained from
Lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos žodynas (2003), Frazeologijos žodynas (2001), and Sisteminis
lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos žodynas (1995).
Practical significance of the research
The results of the research can be used in teaching and learning, in compiling
dictionaries, and translation studies.
Idioms are not only multi-word phrases which have to be memorized in order to be
understood, but they also contribute to the formation and reinforcement of a cultural identity.
Thus, it is essential for learners of English to know the meaning of idioms. The conducted
research can be useful for practical purposes of compiling a contrastive dictionary of idioms
because in such dictionaries a number of theoretical points must be explained concerning the
general problem of cultural markedness of idioms. Besides, the meaning of idioms is
especially important in translation studies. In order not to face problems during translation
process, a person should know not only the meaning of an idiom, but also the cultural
differences and similarities which represent idioms.
The research paper consists of three chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the theoretical issues
related to idioms, such as the problem of defining an idiom (Section 1.1), the criteria used to
distinguish between idioms and free word-groups (Section 1.2), semantic classification of
idioms, and the cultural aspect of idioms (Section 1.3). In Chapter 2 the topic of number
6
symbolism in the English and Lithuanian cultures is discussed (Sections 2.2 and 2.3). This
chapter also speaks about the Bible as a common source of number symbolism for Christians,
therefore, for the English and Lithuanian cultures as well (Sections 2.1). The largest part of
the thesis, Chapters 3, is devoted to the contrastive analysis of English and Lithuanian number
idioms. Chapters 3 presents English and Lithuanian number idioms from the semantic point of
view, focusing on the meanings and associations the idioms evoke (Sections 3.1 and 3.2).
Conclusions summarize the analysis and present differences and similarities between idioms
of the English and Lithuanian languages. The research paper includes two figures which are
included in the text; the figures show the frequency of occurrence of numbers in the English
and Lithuanian idioms. Besides, the two appendices include ten tables each: Appendix 1
presents the examples and definitions of English idioms containing numbers, and Appendix 2
shows the examples and definitions of Lithuanian number idioms.
7
1. THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF IDIOMS
1.1. The problem of defining an idiom
The notion of an idiom is ambiguous. Two meanings of the word idiom are usually
presented in the dictionaries. The following definitions are taken from Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English (2003):
1 [countable] a group of words that has a special meaning that is different from the
ordinary meaning of each separate word. For example, 'under the weather' is an idiom
meaning 'ill'.
2 [uncountable and countable] formal or technical a style of expression in writing,
speech, or music that is typical of a particular group of people: the new musical idiom.
The first definition is more related to the field of linguistics. Thus, in this work it can
serve as a starting point which can facilitate understanding of the notion of idiom. A number
of linguists agree with this definition of an idiom. Cruse (1986, 37) claims that “a traditional
definition of an idiom (…) [is the following]: an idiom is an expression whose meaning
cannot be inferred from the meanings of its parts.”
Although, there is no problem in defining an idiom, the main confusion, as Moon (1998,
2) states, concerns the terminology in this field. Similar or the same units may be described by
different terms, while a single term can refer to different phenomena (Moon, 1998, 2). The
following terms are sometimes used to denote the linguistic phenomenon of idiom: setexpressions, set-phrases, phrases, fixed word-groups, collocations (Antrushina et al, 1985,
176).
Two linguistic traditions can be distinguished while speaking about the terminology of
these word groups. “The term ‘idiom’ is widely used by western scholars (…)” (Antrushina et
al, 1985, 176). Mochalina (2011, 681) states that in practice in the Anglo-American tradition
idiom has been understood as any figure of speech which has a national peculiarity (phrases,
proverbs, sayings, exclamations, some clichés and even onomatopoeic words). The theoretical
definition of idioms in textbooks on lexical semantics is reduced to the following: idiom − an
expression whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituent parts. On
these bases, as Mochalina (2011, 681) claims, we can conclude that the Anglo-American
tradition of a broad interpretation of the term “idiom” in lexicography and in practice of
teaching is opposed to a narrow interpretation of the theory (Мочалина, 2011, 681).
The Russian and Germanic linguistic traditions use the term ‘phraseological unit’ (PU)
(Moon, 1998, 2). This term was first introduced by Russian scholar Vinogradov (Antrushina
et al, 1985, 176). While the Anglo-American tradition calls phraseological units “idioms”, in
8
Russian phraseology this term is often used to denote a particular type of phraseological units
“with completely transferred meanings, that is, to the ones in which the meaning of the whole
unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the components” (Antrushina et al, 1985,
176).
As we can notice from the above presented information the terminology concerning
idioms is controversial. In this paper, the Anglo-American tradition is going to be followed
and the term idiom is going to be used. Sometimes when it will be referred to discussions of
idioms in the literature and where phraseological unit is an author’s term of choice and could
not be changed (as in the section of classification), phraseological unit will be retained as a
term in the context.
The confusion in the terminology reflects insufficiency of positive or wholly reliable
criteria by which phraseological units can be distinguished from "free" word-groups. (…)
Free word-groups are so called not because of any absolute freedom in using them but simply
because they are each time built up anew in the speech process where as idioms are used as
ready-made units with fixed and constant structures (Antrushina, 1985, 176).
The problem is that there is no agreement about the main features of idioms (Ginzburg
et al, 1979, 74). Thus, first, we need to lay down a reliable criterion to distinguish between
"free" word-groups and idioms.
1.2. The criteria used to distinguish between idioms and free word-groups
1.2.1. The semantic criterion
English, Russian and Lithuanian authors refer to semantic criterion of idioms using such
terms as:
non-compositionality;
semantic unity;
conventionality;
idiomaticity.
The term non-compositionality is mainly used by western linguists, for instance, Wulff
(2008, 11), Grant and Bauer (2004, 44). Antrushina et al (1985, 178) and other Russian
linguists use the term semantic unity to refer to the same notion. The term conventionality is
used by Nunberg et al (1994, 492), while the other authors mention the term idiomaticity.
Zukov (1986, 5) explains that idiomaticity is semantic indivisibility, and fixidness is a degree
of semantic unity and indivisibility of components. In this case fixidness is linked to
idiomaticity (Жуков, 1986, 5). However, according to Wulff (2008, 11) “idiomaticity is no
longer a property of core idioms alone: both non-compositionality and formal fixidness can be
9
present to different degrees in a given multi-word expression.” So, Wulff (2008, 11) presents
idiomaticity as the notion which embraces both non-compositionality and fixidness. Due to
ambiguity of the notion of idiomaticity, this term will not be included in the description of
idioms.
“The meaning of an idiom is not the sum of the meanings of its constituents” (Grant
and Bauer, 2004, 46). The semantic unity means that an idiom conveys “a single notion”
(Antrushina et al, 1985, 178). Nunberg et al (1992, 492) points out that conventionality is
related to predictability of meaning. He states that the meaning of an idiom cannot be
predicted from the meanings of the words it consists of. However, depending on the degree of
semantic change, the degree of compasionality of an idiom may vary. “(...) the semantic
change may affect either the whole word group or only one of its components” (Antrushina et
al, 1985, 178).
Thus, according to the semantic criterion we can distinguish non-compositional and
partly-compositional idioms (Grant and Bauer, 2004, 44). In non-compositional idioms the
semantic change affects the whole word group and it is difficult to predict their meaning: “to
skate on thin ice (~ to put oneself in a dangerous position; to take risks); to wear one’s heart
on one’s sleeve (~ to expose, so that everyone knows, one’s most intimate feelings); to have
one’s heart in one’s boots (~ to be deeply depressed, anxious about something). According to
Grant and Bauer’s (2004, 40) definition of non-compositionality, it is easier to predict the
meaning of partly-compositional idioms than the meaning of non-compositional idioms.
Partly-compositional idioms are those which contain one component with its current meaning
and the other with a transferred meaning, for example: to lose (keep) one’s temper, to fall in
love (out of love), to stick to one’s word (promise), small talk.
1.2.2. The structural criterion
This feature of idioms is also described by different terminologies. Such terms as
inflexibility, structural invariability, frozenness, and fixedness are used by different linguists
to describe the structural criterion of idioms.
Inflexibility and other terms mean that “idioms [...] appear only in a limited number of
syntactic frames or constructions” (Nunberg et al, 1992, 492). Idioms always consist of the
same components, which are connected with each other and go in a strict order (Шанский et
al, 1988, 4). No change in idiom structure, i.e. replacement, substitution, addition, deletion of
elements, is allowed (Grant and Bauer, 2004, 44; Nunberg et al, 1992, 492).
10
According to Antrushina et al (1985, 178) there are three restrictions in structural
invariability of idioms: restriction in substitution, restriction in introducing any additional
components, and grammatical invariability.
1) Restriction in substitution.
Idioms do not allow replacement of words within its structure because it would destroy
the meaning of idiom. For example, the idiom to give somebody the cold shoulder means “to
treat somebody coldly, to ignore or cut him”, but a warm shoulder or a cold elbow make no
sense at all.
2) Restriction in introducing any additional components.
Idioms do not allow any additions. For example, in the idiom to carry coals to
Newcastle no additional components can be introduced. As Antrushina et al (1985, 178) state,
in fiction idioms can have variations, while in colloquial speech idioms usually stay
unchanged.
3) Grammatical invariability.
Idioms do not allow changes in grammatical structure, for instance to use plural form
instead of singular. But, there are many exceptions to this rule. For example, the plural form
castles can be used in the idiom build a castle in the air, and the plural form of the word
skeleton (i.e. skeletons) can be used in the idiom a skeleton in the cupboard.
However, Koonin states that idioms may have variations (Кунин, 1986, 62). Thus, the
restrictions presented by Antrushina et al (1985, 178) can be regarded as possible variants of
idioms. This criterion is controversial because from one point there is a fixed structure of
idioms, from another point there could be changes in structure.
Moon’s research (1998, 120) supports this controversial point. Corpus studies of idioms
illustrate that the structure of idioms is often unstable. Around 40% of database idioms “have
lexical variations or strongly institutionalized transformations,” and around 14% have two or
more changes in the structure. “ (...) some (...) idioms are more fixed than others, and some
(...) do not vary at all; however, variation is very widespread” (Moon, 1998, 120).
1.2.3. Institutionalization
Grant and Bauer (2004, 44) describe institutionalization as a process by which a phrase
becomes recognized and familiar to a particular speech community. Institutionalization is
connected with our memory. According to Jakaitienė (2009, 283), Barauskaitė et al (1995,
59), and Шанский et al. (1988, 4) idioms are not created every time anew in the
11
communication process, but they are held in memory and restored from our memory as readymade holistic units.
In particular, institutionalization, fixedness, and non-compositionality distinguish (...)
[idioms] from other strings, but they are not present to an equal extent in all items. There are
degrees of institutionalization (...), of fixedness (...), and of non-compositionality (...). This
means that it is difficult to identify cleanly discrete categories of (...) [idioms] (Moon, 1998,
9).
1.2.4. The criterion of the affect
As Nunberg et al (1992, 493) state, idioms usually “imply a certain evaluation or
affective stance towards the things they denote.” It is not typical of a language to describe
neutral situations with the help of idioms. Thus, under the title word affect such features of
idioms as expressiveness, figuration, emotiveness, evaluation, and connotation are going to be
discussed.
1) Expressiveness.
Expressiveness might be defined as “a kind of intensification of an utterance or of a part
of it (...)” (Galperin, 1981, 26). It should be noted that it is not always possible to make a clear
distinction between logical and emotional emphasis because the logical and the emotional
frequently overlap. “A too strong logical emphasis may colour the utterance with emotional
elements, thus causing a kind of expressiveness which is both logical and emotive” (1981,
27).
According to Zukov (1986, 10) idioms are usually expressive. But this feature is not
typical of all idioms. There are also stylistically neutral idioms (Жуков, 1986, 5). Koonin
(1986, 154) points out that this feature is dependent on figurativeness, intensity and
emotiveness of the idioms. Either all figurativeness, intensity and emotiveness together can
create expressiveness, or they can create it being in different combinations.
2) Figuration (or figurativeness).
Vakurov points out that an idiom is created while we transfer the meaning of the freeword combination (Вакуров, 1979, 53). According to Wright (2002, 7), one of the features of
an idiom is that it “uses language in a non-literal - metaphorical - way.” However, idioms do
not involve only metaphors. They can be also expressed as “(...) metonymies (e.g. lend a
hand), hyperboles (e.g. not worth the paper it’s printed on) or other kind of figuration”
(Nunberg et al, 1992, 492).
3) Emotiveness.
Koonin (1986, 153) states that emotiveness is a sensory evaluation of the object, the
expression of the peoples’ feelings, mood and emotions by means of language and speech.
12
But, emotiveness does not directly manifest the emotions; it just echoes the real emotions
(Galperin, 1981, 26). Emotiveness is the echo which has undergone some intellectual
recasting. It awakens co-experience in the mind of the reader [or listener] (1981, 26).
Emotiveness is always expressive and evaluative, but not visa versa. Emotiveness, the
same as our emotions, can be positive or negative. The example of idioms with the positive
emotion is: a sight for sore eyes. A number of idioms express negative emotions, for instance,
damn your eyes! (Кунин, 1986, 153).
4) Evaluation.
Koonin (1986, 155) points out that evaluation is a person’s subjective attitude towards
an object, expressed implicitly or explicitly by language means. Evaluation labels an object as
good or bad (Antrushina, 1985, 150). Thus, the evaluation can be positive or negative. For
instance, an idiom with the positive evaluation is an old hand - person with long experience,
and with negative connotation - an awkward customer - a person or animal difficult or
dangerous to deal with. The idioms with negative evaluation usually prevail in a language.
One explanation of this can be that people tend to treat positive situations as a normal thing,
and pay more attention to mistakes, deficiencies and bad things in their life (Кунин, 1986,
155).
5) Connotation.
“Connotation is a stylistic aspect of meaning (...)” (Кунин, 1986, 161). Some scholars
do not consider a stylistic characteristic of the word as a connotative element of its semantic
structure; because stylistic connotations can be further classified into: colloquial, slang,
dialect, learned, poetic, terminological, and archaic (Antrushina, 1985, 152).
Sometimes evaluation can be a part of connotation. For example, the words mummy and
sonny have the same definition as the words mother and son (but with positive connotation,
they express the feelings of affection), but the evaluation of the words bad, good, nasty etc. is
not an element of connotation (Кунин 1986, 160).
1.2.5. Minor criteria
Other criteria are not so commonly mentioned by linguists. Among the criteria which
are not frequently distinguished by scholars are the orthographic criterion, the criterion of
syntactic integrity, and the phonological criterion.
Moon (1998, 8) distinguishes orthography as one of the criteria of idioms. This criterion
implies that an idiom “should consist of (…) two or more words.” Moon (1998, 8) mentions
that not all linguists consider this as a criterion. This is because when some idioms have
13
single-word (often hyphenated) it is sometimes difficult to make a clear distinction between a
word and an idiom, for example: break the ice, ice-breaker, ice-breaking.
Moon (1998, 8) also mentions a criterion of syntactic integrity. Idioms typically form
syntactic or grammatical units in their own right:
adjuncts (through thick and thin),
complements (long in the tooth),
nominal groups (a flash in the pan),
sentence adverbials (by and large), and so on.
In addition, idioms might serve as whole clauses or utterances (sparks fly, don’t count
your chickens before they’re hatched), or verbs and their complementation (bury the hatchet,
stick to one’s guns) Moon (1998, 8).
The phonological criterion implies that an idiom consists of two or more stressed units
(Шанский and Иванов, 1987, 66; Шанский, 1985, 27). When there is no clear distinction
between compositional and non-compositional interpretation of an idiom, intonation may help
to distinguish (Moon, 1998, 9).
Lancker-Sidtis (2003, 53) describes an experiment and the results which suggest:
(...) differences between two kinds of language, idiomatic and literal, are signaled by
quantifiable prosodic cues in English and that native listeners of the same dialect can reliably
discriminate between them whereas nonnative speakers have significantly more difficulty.
From a grammatical standpoint, prosodic cues specifying pausing, length, pitch height, and
pitch contour are capable of indicating whether an utterance is to be processed either as a
whole, by passing ordinary lexical meanings and grammatical structure (as in an idiom), or as
a sequence of lexical items with syntactic relations (a literal sentence) (Lancker-Sidtis, 2003,
53).
1.3. Semantic classification of idioms
There are a number of classifications of idioms which are distinguished by different
linguists and which are developed using different principles. The classification depends on a
feature of an idiom the linguist chooses as a criterion for the classification. Idioms can be
classified according to structure, semantics, origin, etc (Antrushina et al, 1985, 186).
Vinogradov’s classification is the most influential in Russian linguistics in the field of
semantics (Antrushina et al., 1985, 189). His classification is referred to by such Russian
scholars as Koonin (1986, 21), Antrushina et al (1985, 189), Arnold (1986, 170). Arnold
mentions that “(...) Vinogradov’s classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e.
the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts” (Arnold, 1986, 170). “The
more distant the meaning of (...) [an idiom] from the current meaning of its constituent parts,
14
the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion [and the lesser its degree of motivation]”
(Antrushina et al, 1985, 189).
Antrushina (1985, 189) refers to Vinogradov (1977, 124) pointing out three types of
phraseological units (PUs):
1) Phraseological combinations − “are word-groups with partially changed meaning”
(Antrushina et al, 1985, 189). They are motivated, i.e. the meaning of PU can be understood
from the meanings of the words it contain e.g. to take something for granted, stick to one’s
word, bosom friends (1985, 189).
2) Phraseological unities − “are word-groups with a completely changed meaning”
(Antrushina et al, 1985, 189). Phraseological unities are motivated i.e. they can not be
understood in terms of the definitions of the separate words they consist of. However, the
metaphors which are used to form phraseological unities are obvious. For instance, to stick to
one’s guns means to be true to one’s views or conventions. The image is that of the gunner or
guncrew who do not desert their guns even if a battle seems lost) (1985, 190).
3) Phraseological fusions (or idioms) − “are word-groups with a completely changed
meaning but, in contrast to the unities, they are demotivated (...)” (Antrushina et al, 1985,
190). The meaning of phraseological fusions cannot be understood from the meanings of the
words it contain. The metaphors which are used to form phraseological fusions are obscure
(e.g. at sixes and sevens (in confusion or in disagreement)) (1985, 190).
Similarly to the above Vinogradov’s classification, Lithuanian linguist Jakaitienė (2009,
283) divides PUs into motivated and non-motivated.
1) Motivated phraseological units are such word combinations which have a link
between the meaning of the whole unit and the meanings of its constituents. Such wordgroups can be subdivided into:
a) tropes: fixed metaphorical and metonymical idioms, e.g. priremtas prie sienos (with one's
back to the wall);
b) comparatives: phraseological units that contain comparison, e.g. sedėjo lyg ant adatų (be
on pins and needles);
c) phraseological combinations: word groups which are between idioms and free word groups,
e.g. vienas į vieną (to be similar).
2) Non-motivated phraseological units (or idioms) are absolutely fixed units, their
meaning is completely distant from the meanings of their constituents, for instance beržinė
košė (literary: porridge from a birch; it means: the spanking of children).
Jakaitienė’s classification of PUs bears an obvious similarity to Vinogradov’s
classification. Jakaitienė’s motivated PUs: tropes and comparatives correspond to
15
Vinogradov’s phraseological unities. Phraseological combinations have the same name and
meaning in both classifications. Finally, Jakaitienė’s non-motivated phraseological units (or
idioms) refer to Vinogradov’s phraseological fusions (or idioms).
Another Lithuanian scholar Drotvinas (1987, 63) refers to Kalinauskas’ classification
(1962, 5; 1997, 4, 20) of phraseological units. According to Drotvinas (1987, 63),
Kalinauskas’ classification includes:
1) Idiomatic phraseological units (or idioms) are those whose meaning cannot be
inferred from the meanings of their parts, e.g. užkalb(in)ėti dantis (put smb off with fair
words). These PUs came from different extralinguistic sources, such as myths, customs, and
historical events etc. In order to understand the original meaning of such PUs, we have to
know the origin, the causes and circumstances of their emergence.
2) Metaphorical phraseological units are those whose meaning can be understood from
the figurative meanings of their parts. These PUs are subdivided into:
a) somatic: PUs which contain the names of parts of the body, e.g. pirštais badyti (this
Lithuanian PU includes the word “fingers” (“pirštais”) and it means to laugh, to mock;);
b) natural: PUs which contain as a headword the names of living or non-living objects of
nature, e.g. gyvas kelmas (literally: a living stump; it means “much or many”)
c) domestic: PUs which contain as a headword the names of people’s household items, e.g.
ligų maišas (literally: a bag of diseases; it means a person who is constantly ill).
3) Phraseoloids (Lith. “frazeoloidai”) are semi-phraseological units, e.g. juokus krėsti
(to clown); they are vivid, stable expressions standing between the free collocations and
metaphorical idioms. They are formed from the words which are used in the literal meaning.
The examples and definitions above show that idioms are treated similarly both by
Jakaitienė (idioms or non-motivated phraseological units) and Kalinauskas (idioms or
idiomatic phraseological units). Jakaitienė treats tropes as expressions which are commonly
used in a figurative meaning. Besides, Jakaitienė divides tropes into metaphorical and
metonymical. Comparative phraseological units are considered to be motivated, having forms
of comparison. The freest phraseological units are phraseological combinations (cf.
Kalinauskas’ phraseoloids) (Drotvinas, 1987, 63).
Moon (1998, 23) under the title metaphors includes such types of idioms as:
1) Transparent metaphors: the meaning of an idiom can be easily understood by the
speech community, they are instutionalized. The examples of this type of metaphors are:
alarm bells ring, behind someone’s back, and breathe life into something.
2) Semi-transparent metaphors: are not so easily decoded by hearer or reader, they
“require some special knowledge in order to be decoded successfully” (Moon, 1998, 22). The
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examples presented by Moon (1998, 23) are: grasp the nettle, on an even keel, and under
one’s belt.
3) Opaque metaphors (or pure idioms) are those where the meaning cannot be
understood “without the knowledge of the historical origins of the expression” (Moon, 1998,
23). Examples include bite the bullet, kick the bucket, and over the moon.
Amosova (1963, 9) points out that Vinogradov’s classification is focused mainly on the
Russian language and more research is needed in order to make this theory applicable to other
languages. Amosova’a (1963) view on PUs is contextological. She regards PUs as “units of
fixed context” (Amosova, 1963, 58). Amosova (1963, 58) as referred to by Arnold (1986,
171) describes fixed context “as a context characterised by a specific and unchanging
sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them.”
Amosova (1963, 59) distinguishes two types of units of fixed context: phrasemes and
idioms. Phrasemes, as pointed out by Amosova (1963, 59), include one component with
phraseologically bound meaning, while the other component is the determining context.
Arnold (1986, 171) presents such examples of phrasemes as: small talk, small hours, small
change. In idioms there is one indivisible meaning of the whole unit (Amosova, 1963, 72).
But, the original meaning of the components may be weakened or completely lost e.g. in the
nick of time (at the exact moment) (Arnold, 1986, 171). “Idioms can be motivated and
demotivated. A motivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used
figuratively: take the bull by the horns (to face dangers without fear). In the nick of time is
demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete” (Arnold, 1986, 171). Idioms, the same as
phrasemes, can be changed or stay unchanged (1986, 171).
1.4. The cultural aspect of idioms
1.4.1. Three directions of the study of idioms with respect to culture
According to Teliya et al (Teliya et al, 1998, 55) idioms represent the relationship
between language and culture. Taking this view into account, Teliya (1999, 14) describes
three direction for idiom analysis, namely, etnolinguistic, contrastive and linguo-cultural.
1) Ethnolinguistic research focuses mainly on identification of the historical change in
culture and how it affects the formation of idioms (Teliya, 1999, 14). This approach is
diachronic in nature (1999, 16).
2) The main aim of contrastive direction is identification of specificity of idioms of a
language in terms of ethnic or cultural identity that can be extracted on the background of a
17
naive picture of the world, in the creation of the characteristic features of which they
participate (1999, 15).
3) Linguo-cultural analysis studies the ability of idioms to reflect contemporary cultural
identity of the people, which is seen as the basis of people’s mentality, and to express it in the
use of idioms in the various discourse types (1999, 14).
Etnolinguistic and linguo-cultural analyses identify cultural aspects of formation and
functioning of idioms, highlighting the problem of interaction between idioms and culture.
While, contrastive direction is concerned with the broader context, i.e. with people’s
selectivity of figurative worldview, which is also evident in the selection of figurative bases
for idioms, which is treated as an indirect confirmation of their relationship with cultured
worldview (1999, 15).
Thus, the study of idioms in the context of a culture deals with the description of hidden
(in naive worldview) traces of interaction of language and culture. While, etnolinguistic and
linguo-cultural directions seek to reveal the means and methods of penetration of the
“language” of culture into idioms of natural language and into their forms of presentation of
culturally significant information (1999, 15).
Teliya (1999, 16) states that etnolinguistic and contrastive analyses have established and
widely known traditions, while linguo-cultural studies present a new direction for idiom
analysis. It is an analysis of idioms “for cultural data as represented in linguistic meanings”
(Teliya et al, 1998, 55). Linguo-cultural analysis is the most suitable for the study of idioms
because they are rich in cultural information and can hardly be described separately from their
cultural meanings (1998, 55). This analysis of idioms is based on the anthropomorphic
paradigm which states that “linguistic world-picture is commensurable with the mental
attitudes and culture of a speech community” (1998, 55).
Language, as the most important means of human communication and an instrument of
transmission of thought, acts simultaneously as a mirror of the national culture, its custodian.
Linguistic units, especially words and idioms, make the content (which in some way goes
back to the living conditions of the people) fixed. These language units reflect immediately
and directly the extralinguistic reality. Words and idioms name the objects and phenomena of
the surrounding world, pass the culture of a country from generation to generation, pass
traditions of the economy and social structure of the country, its folklore, literature, art,
science, mode of life, customs and history of people (Инфантова, 2010, 198). “(…) cultural
norms are not only reproduced in language but are made mandatory for speakers of that
language through the linguistic structures they use” (Teliya et al, 1998, 57).
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1.4.2. Five channels through which language is penetrated by culture
Teliya and her colleagues (Teliya et al, 1998, 58) present five channels through which
language is penetrated by culture. These channels include: cultural semes, cultural concepts,
cultural connotations, cultural background, and discourse stereotypes.
1) Cultural 'semes' (or 'semantic component') are “words and word combinations that
denote idioethnic realia.” Cultural 'seme' is the part of the lexical meaning of the word or
word-combination. Encyclopaedic knowledge about the realia is reflected by the cultural
'semes'. For example, chernaya izba, literally (lit.) 'a black cottage', i.e. a traditional peasant
timber cottage heated by a stove with no chimney (1998, 58).
2) Cultural concepts are abstract notions which “construct the world-picture in a
culturally specific way.” Cultural concepts are used at the cognitive level. In this group, there
are distinguished concepts proper and subconcepts (1998, 58).
a) Concepts proper are usually similar in all European languages. But, some words and
idioms have a high degree of cultural specificity. For instance, “Russian word pravda (…)
denotes truth as an ethical phenomenon with no direct equivalent in English. This is a case of
linguistic/cultural lacuna” (Teliya et al, 1998, 58).
b) Subconcepts are fragments of concepts proper, when abstract notions are verbalized
in concrete nouns. (…) [For example,] baba, 'a human (lower-class) female' (colloq. or
derog.), is a concrete noun, originally the name for a peasant woman. Later, the word came to
designate a complex of properties assumed to pertain to women in general. Thus, baba is a
subconcept of the the concept of 'femininity' which has no translation equivalent in English
(Teliya et al, 1998, 59).
3) Cultural connotations are based on both semes and concepts. They deal with
interpretation of the ways in which linguistic items and symbols of non-verbal codes (such as
stereotypes or myths) are connected and affected by each other. Connotations are especially
important in restricted collocations and idioms. For instance, “arhitektorui/kapitanui
perestroyki ('architects/captains of perestroika'), where cultural connotation is linked to the
metaphorical interpretation of political reform as construction or seafaring” (Teliya et al,
1998, 59).
Cultural connotations of some collocations and idioms are invoked by cultural semes.
For example, “treskuchiy (moroz), lit. 'snapping (frost)', i.e. very hard frost when trees give
out a snapping sound; lezt na rozhon, lit. 'to thrust oneself against the Y-shaped spear', i.e. to
provoke a dangerous situation; or zavarivat kashu”(Teliya et al, 1998, 60).
Cultural connotations can also arise from the concepts or subconcepts. Teliya (Teliya et
al, 1998, 59) presents the following example of cultural connotations invoked by cultural
19
concepts: “Sovest zazrila, lit. 'one’s conscience began to see' or 'woke up'; bolnaya sovest, lit.
'a sore conscience', i.e. an uneasy conscience.”
In this example metaphorical
conceptualization of conscience as if “a living being that can see and feel pain” is connected
with “the religious notion of the living soul” (1998, 60).
4) Cultural background is indirectly related to semantics. 'Cultural background' means
that a word or a word-combination has ideological associations which are formed by historical
situation, a political movement, fashionable trend, etc. “Such entities could be compared to
visual symbols and emblems” (Teliya et al, 1998, 61). For instance, “russkaya berezka, lit. 'a
Russian birch tree' is unmistakably identified by native speakers as a symbol of the
motherland” (1998, 61).
5) Discourse stereotypes. “The development of culture involves the repetition,
reinterpretation, and multiplication of texts, as well as the creation of new ones” (1998,
62).The texts, which refer to the various discourse types, affect culture, while cultural change
invoke the “reproduction and reinterpretation of discourse stereotypes in speech practices”
(1998, 62). This exchange affects vocabulary of a language which can be described as the
storage of forms. The vocabulary arranges and makes expressions, which regularly appear in
various discourse types, fixed. Thus, sometimes cultural information of a language unit can be
understood from knowledge of a text, in which the concept was first mentioned. “For
instance, the notion of pervaya lyubov', lit. 'first love', is clearly associated in the minds of
native speakers of Russian with the story by Ivan Turgenev” (Teliya et al, 1998, 62).
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2. NUMBER SYMBOLISM IN THE ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN CULTURES
2.1. The Bible as a common source of number symbolism for Christians
Numbers are in the things. Numbers are objective properties of the things, what means
that they are the secret essence of all things. Only the names of numbers and their symbols are
created (Bischoff, 2002, 11). According to Mossison (2003, 169), the most popular numbers
in the world are two, three, and five. The reasons for the choice of one or another number lie
in the deepest cultural layers of the nation. Besides, a favourite number influences and
people’s daily lives (Morrison, 2003, 169). “To the ancients, as well to many moderns of a
mystical bent, numbers had meanings beyond their mathematical characteristics” (Ferber,
2007, 142).
In Europe the number symbolisms flourished in the Middle Ages. Medieval number
symbolism emerged from two sources. First source is antiquity, especially an ancient Greek
culture, where the exploration of the meaning of numbers was especially significant and
number mysticism was associated with the development of mathematics (Lempiainen, 2001,
26). A whole cosmology was developed by the Pythagoreans. It is based on the connection
between small numbers, in particular the ratios of string lengths which underlie the musical
intervals. “Both the Hebrews and the Greeks used their alphabet as their written numeral
system, with the result that words acquired numerical values” (Ferber, 2007, 142). The second
important source of the concept of symbolic meaning for Europe was the Middle East and
especially the Bible, which was the base for the views of Christianity teachers while adapting
them to the ancient interpretations (Lempiainen, 2001, 26). Thus, in many cultures numbers
are associated with the Bible and can be regarded as common universal symbols for
Christians, so for the English people and Lithuanians as well. In the following paragraphs of
this section numbers from one to ten are going to be described in connection with the Bible.
Number one. One expresses something what happens only once. It can also represent
diminishing of something or lack of something (Lempiainen, 2001, 38).
According to the Bible, God created the world on the first day. Therefore, one is the
number of creation. Its most important features are creativeness and care for the world (2001,
39).
In the Indo-European languages the numeral characterizing the number one also
describes the features of the object to be as an integrated whole. For Indo-Europeans unum is
both the smallest unit and the largest unit - universum (universe) which they perceive as the
largest unit. Indo-European concept of God is Pantheistic, there is one and only deity that
21
embraces everything and it is the explanation of its ability to represent abundance of Gods,
the worlds and living beings, its reflections. For this reason, the unit can manifest itself as a
trinity as well (Bischoff, 2002, 30).
Number two. Two embodies antipode of the first (Bischoff, 2002, 32). Indo-European
concept of one splits into two. Uniformity blends with the opposition as “I” and “not-I”
(inside and outside) are opposed. This is reflected in the Indo-European numeral two: root dv
(or tv), which is the basis of all of its forms and means the separation and the confrontation.
Besides, the root which sounds the same is used to form second person pronouns: du, tu etc
(2002, 31).
This number may have positive and negative meaning. It can be considered as evil
number because it destroys the unity and goodness which is based on this unity. In the
Biblical story of the Fall opposites are shown which arise from the destruction of the unity.
Opposite of good is evil, man and woman relationship becomes a quarrel, death becomes
opposite to life (Lempiainen, 2001, 45).
The symbol of evil, the number two, was considered not only as an expression of the
Fall. This number also symbolises the possibility of improvement. From the Old Testament
you can go to the New, from earthly life to the heavenly, from the carnal and material - to the
spiritual. Also, Christ unites with his Church as a man bounds to a wife in a marriage, "the
two become one flesh" (2001, 48).
Number three. Human life has three stages: birth, life, and death. A family consists of
father, mother and a child. The popular example is the Christian triad of Joseph, Mary and
Jesus. In the Christian countries three is known as the number of perfection. God is expressed
in trinity: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Christ resurrected on the third day, and
three women came to his grave. In Christian worship some phrases are repeated three times. A
person is immersed in water or water is poured three times. These replications can be
regarded as the symbol of the Holy Trinity (Lempiainen, 2001, 71).
Number four. Four is the smallest number that can be divided into pairs. It is also the
first to raise the number of degrees (2x2) (Lempiainen, 2001, 91).
A square and a cross and the cube associated with it symbolise not only perfection, but
also peace, strength and stability. In a number of cultures a square and rectangular cross
represented four parts of the world as well as the world and the universe. In the Bible “four
heavenly fires” and “four parts of the world” represent all four directions.
An ancient English game, which is similar to checkers, is also based on this. This game
is base on a shape consisting of three quadrangle where Greek and St. Andrew’s Cross axes
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(which represent the main and intermediate parts of the worlds) and lunar phases indicating
the trinity meet.
Number five. It is the symbol of a human being. The line connecting the head with a
human figure with outstretched arms and legs form the icon (Bruce-Mitford, 1999, 102). The
numeral system starts from five: there are five fingers on the one hand, and when we count
the fingers of both hands, we obtain the sacred number ten (Lempiainen, 2001, 114).
The number five is considered the number of marriage. Jesus’ saying about the ten girls,
five of which have been wise, and five silly, represents the wedding symbol as well. In the
New Testament, number five is mentioned in the parable about servants who were entrusted
money, one of which received five talents and he is the one who performs the task best of all.
Also, in most languages the name of Jesus consists of five letters. Besides, during the Good
Friday a church altar is decorated with five red roses. These roses symbolize Christ’s wounds.
Therefore, five is often considered to be the number of suffering (2001, 130).
Number six. In the Old Testament the number six is connected with creation. Man was
created on the sixth day, but the number six also meant the power of God which is greater
than human’s power. When God looked at his created world God saw that all is well. Thus,
six is considered the number of perfection and harmony. At the wedding Jesus while turning
water into wine used six stone vessels, which were intended for washing. Jesus also mentions
six works of mercy, as foundation for life assessment. The six works include: to feed a
hungry, to give water to a thirsty, to shelter a homeless, to dress a naked and to visit patients
and prisoners (2001, 139).
Number seven. The seven most frequently used number of both Christian and nonChristian cultures. It is possible to write a thick book only about this number. The number
seven expresses perfection. In the Old Testament we can find this number 255 times. For
example, the God completes the work of creation on the seventh day of the week. Also, the
number seven in the Old Testament relates to humility and apology. When Jacob met his
brother Esau, he knelt in front of him and bowed to the ground seven times. The medieval
church associated the number seven with: seven Archangels, the seven sacraments, the seven
virtues, seven deadly sins, etc (2001, 154).
Number eight. Eight in Christianity is considered as the number of fulfilment,
resurrection and the coming. The eighth "day of the week" as Christ’s Resurrection Day
became the symbol of Eternal Life or the beginning of peacefulness, but it also was identified
with the Last Judgment. Therefore, eight, as the number of eternity, covered the opposite
meaning: those who committed serious crimes suffer in the flames of eighth circle of Hell
(2001, 197).
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Eight, as the number of rebirth and new life, was established in the Old Testament’s
story about the flood. Eight people survived with the help of Noah’s Ark (Lempiainen, 2001,
207).
Number nine. Nine symbolises the end, fulfilment and becoming perfect. In Christianity
this number is best known as cosmic number of angels. There are mentioned nine angels’
choirs, and in the church art angels are usually divided into groups of three (2001, 217). The
number nine is an image of the three worlds (earth, heaven and hell). For Christians, it is a
sacred figure obtained by three repeated three times.
In proverbs, comparison is often strengthened by comparing the numbers one and nine.
We can compare using these numbers visa versa. For example, ugliness is evident when nine
bad things are opposed to one. Also, the number nine names abundance of something
(Lempiainen, 2001, 225).
Number ten. According to the decimal system the number ten symbolises a return to the
unit, the new beginning of number sequence (Adomonis, 2008).
Ten is the number of perfection. This interpretation was established because of the fact
that ten is the sum of world’s (four) and human being’s (six) numbers. It is also the sum of
number three (representing divine and Holy Trinity) and number seven (a human’s number),
and it is formed using the first and last characters of the counting system (1 and 0). Besides,
the number ten is associated with the Ten Commandments (Lempiainen, 2001, 229).
In the proverbs, the number ten helps to express the uniqueness and difference of one
thing from others (Lempiainen, 2001, 229).
2.2 Number symbolism in the English culture
Osipova states that preconditions of the formation of symbolic meanings of numbers in
modern cultures, and as a result, languages are most clearly shown in Celtic civilization
(Осипова, 2007, 275). Studying the most important works of Celtic literature and taking into
account the data of contemporaries and description of preserved religious sites Osipova found
that the numbers two, three, four, five, six, seven, and nine in the outlook of the Celts were
endowed with one or more non-quantitative meanings. For example, the number six had a
positive magical symbolism in Celtic culture. This conclusion was based on the description of
the sacred rite of gathering mistletoe. The rite was happening on the sixth day of the lunar
cycle (Осипова, 2007, 275).
Although Morrison (2003, 169) mentions that the number three is the most popular
among English people, there is an evidence that the English prefer the number seven more.
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According to Ferber (2007, 142) seven is extremely important in western number sense. As
seven is the number of days in the Hebrew week, it structures the beginning (the first chapter
of Genesis) and the end (the Book of Revelation) of the Christian Bible. Also, there are seven
visible planets: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn which “give
their names to the days of the week in the Romance languages and, converting five
corresponding gods or goddesses, in the Germanic languages (for instance, Wodan was
identified with Mercury, so Wodan’s Day (Wednesday) is French mercredi) (Ferber, 2007,
142). Thus, being at the heart of cosmological ideas (the seven planets, seven days of a
week), the number seven is associated with perfection and versatility. That is why, in the
Celtic mythological texts the number seven most frequently found in the description of space
and time calculations. “As for time, seventy is also the traditional biblical lifespan, though it
is sometimes stated in a way that disguises its ‘‘sevenness’’: ‘‘the days of our years are
threescoreand ten’’ (Ferber, 2007, 142). Besides, in the Celtic legends there are usually seven
heroes. It also should be noted that the number seven in these situations usually has magic
sense. An important proof of magical power of the number seven among the Celts is the
presence of this number in the descriptions of Ireland. Ireland is considered the center of
culture and science of the Druids - the most powerful and revered class of Celtic society. We
know from the legends that the most significant, the divine wave of conquerors of Ireland
created seven lakes in the country. The magic power of the number seven is confirmed by the
repeated use of the number in the timing of a significant or a magical event. According to the
laws of Celtic mythology, a king, even if there were other legitimate candidates, could remain
on the throne for seven years (Осипова, 2007, 275).
Moreover, English writers like to use the symbolic number seven in their works. For
example, Malcolm Lowry’s Under the Volcano begins and ends at seven o’clock and rings
changes on threes and fours, triangles and quadrangles, as well as on fateful sevens (Ferber,
2007, 142). In addition, in 1986 English writer, a Nobel Prize laureate, R. Kipling published a
collection of poetry with the title “The Seven Seas”. He highlighted the seven seas of the
world, not referring to the Mediterranean, the North and Baltic seas. In this case the cosmic
number seven is made up artificially, and it shows the writer’s, as an Englishman’s, desire for
power (Lempiainen, 2001, 153).
Lempiainen (2001, 221) also presents information about the number nine in the English
culture. Lempiainen (2001, 221) points out that in the British mythology, nine is the number
of dark and cold winter months, thus, later this number was associated with dark images of
the world of gods.
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There is not much information about other numbers’ symbolism in the English culture;
many numbers share the symbolic meaning associated with the Bible.
Taking everything into account, it can be stated that in the English culture the number
seven is the most symbolic and frequent number.
2.3 Number symbolism in the Lithuanian culture
We should start to examine the Balts’ numbers from the number three because it is the
most favourite and the most prevalent number in the different cultural spheres (Vėlius, 1983,
46). Plenty of examples, which demonstrate the popularity of this number among Baltic
people, can be found, for instance: three stones in the ancient Baltic grave monuments, three
pendants in a piece of jewellery, triangular pinheads, three most important gods, arbiter fairies
in the mythological legends, three brothers in the magic fairytales, three repeated actions,
three times are repeated formulas for enchantment and incantation, etc (1983, 47).
The number three is frequently used in the Bible and fairy tales (Adomonis, 2008). This
number decomposes into two identical and one different image, for instance, in the tale of the
three brothers, two of those are clever and the third − a fool (Pasaka apie tris brolius: “Kitąsyk
turėjo tėvas tris sūnus, iš jų vieną kvailiu vadino...”), or in the Bible two of the Three Kings
bring gold and frankincense to Bethlehem, and the third − myrrh (Adomonis, 2008).
It should be noted that the number three (multiplied by nine becomes twenty seven) in
the archaic mythopoetic systems is seen as having a positive meaning, or harmonizing, sacral
function (Laurinkienė, 2009, 11). It marks the absolute perfection expressed in a numerical
code. This is one of the most sustainable numerological semantic structures used from ancient
civilizations to the present days. Trinity is one of the fundamental constants in the world of
gods (pantheon tripartite organization). We could say that three is associated not only with
perfection, but also with the fullness and the balance because in the tripartite structure lies the
ideas of the beginning (1) middle or medium (2), and the end of the shutter (3). Besides, the
number three as well as nine and twenty seven are mentioned in the incantations against snake
bites, and against some diseases (Laurinkienė 2009, 11-12).
Tripartite structure is a characteristic feature of mythopoetic macrocosm, for instance,
tripartite model of the world (Laurinkienė, 2009, 11). If people were located by the water,
then every time they saw one and the same view: sky, water and earth (Banionis, 2001, 6).
Gradually a vertical division of the world into three elements (sky, water and earth) was able
to evolve in their mind. This division into three elements developed the idea of “three’s
rythm” (2001, 6). More common among Asian nations it also spread among the Balts. They
26
were characterized by "three’s rythm" (Baltrūnas, 2001). This is evidenced by Lithuanian
folklore, and it is found in the following verses and sayings: “O ir atlėkė trys raibos gegės
vidur tamsios nakties“ ("Oh, and came three speckled cuckoos in the middle of a dark night”),
„Tris dienas, tris naktis keleliu ėjau” (three days, three nights, I walked), „Marti gedėjo tris
nedėlaites, sesuo trejus metelius” (Daughter in law mourned for three weeks, sisters for three
years) etc (Baltrūnas, 2001). Baltrūnas refers to the astronomer and historian Gusevas (18261866) who described the ancient Lithuanian calendar. It is not difficult to notice that numbers
which are used in this calendar are also associated with “three’s rhythm”. In addition, the
Russian chronicles mention that in the thirteenth century Lithuanian combat formation
consisted of three lines, covered with shields.
There are other numbers which are popular among the Lithuanians and which can be
associated with the “three’s rhythm”. Maybe that is the reason why Vėlius points out that 9,
12, 30, 60 are the traditional Balts’ measurements which are noticed in a wide range of
cultural fields, and the starting point of the formation of all of them was the magic number
three (Vėlius, 1983, 47).
Three multiplied by three gives the magic number nine. It is often used in the
incantations, in the customs of Tomb Sweeping and in other traditions (Vėlius, 1983, 47). The
number nine is frequent in the Lithuanian folklore and folk medicine. In the Lithuanian
folklore the number nine has the sense of “much or many” or “abundance of something”
(Baltrūnas, 2001; Adomonis, 2008). The examples with the number nine in the Lithuanian
folklore are: devyni vilkai, devyni amatai, devyngalvis slibinas, trejos devynerios ir kt. (nine
wolves, nine crafts, ninehead dragon, three nines and others) (Adomonis, 2008), the sayings:
devynis kartus pamatuok, dešimtą pjauk (measure nine times, cut the tenth), devyni vilkai
vieną bitę pjauna (nine wolves cut one bee), už devynių girių, už devynių marių (beyond nine
woods, beyond nine seas) and so on (Baltrūnas, 2001). Also, there are known “trejos
devynerios“ (the three ninths) - a mixture of medicinal herbs. Besides, as Banionis (2001, 7)
mentions, on Neolithic pottery paintings which were found in Nida the popular numbers are 3,
6, 9 which are expressed by one or other decorative elements. It is possible, that there lies the
origins of the folklore recorded phrases and sayings that mention the number nine,
representing the boundary between knowledge and ignorance (Banionis, 2001, 7).
The number nine is distinguished from other ancient favourite Lithuanian numbers.
Primarily due to the fact that this number once was the “last” number, i.e. it served as a kind
of boundary separating the known from the unknown, the mysterious. It is not surprising that
this number adjacent to the unknown could have a variety of properties, even
27
nonmathematical ones. Even later, when numeral limits have expanded, nine has left as
quantitative equivalent of “many or much” (Baltrūnas, 2001).
It is not surprising that nine being a kind of boundary could serve as a time interval.
There is evidence that the ancient Lithuanian week had nine days (Baltrūnas, 2001). This
week is mentioned in the ancient Lithuanian pagan calendar which is described by Gusevas.
Such week is also described by Otas Glagau (Otas Glagau (1834-1892) was an explorer of the
mode of life of the Lithuanian Minor). He claims that the number nine serves as the time
interval in the songs; on the contrary, the time is not divided into seven days or weeks.
Besides, a happy coincidence happened: three times nine equals twenty-seven, i.e. it equals to
the number of days in the month (Baltrūnas, 2001). Such a month is described in the
following Lithuanian folk song taken from Lithuanian Literature and Folklore Institute
manuscript:
Ant aukšto kalno
Trys ąžuolėliai
Po devynias šakeles.
Ant kožnos šakos
Po gegužėlę
Kas rytelį kukavo (Baltrūnas, 2001).
(Translation: On the high mountain there were three little oak trees with nine branches
each. On the each branch cuckoos every morning cuckoo – translated by Jelena Nikitkova)
In addition, Laurinkienė (2009, 11) mentions “Sambariai” (Getting Together) or “Three
Ninths” ritual performed at the beginning of threshing. Pretorijus, as referred by Laurinkienė
(2009, 11), describes that number combination ant tryu dewinu (three ninths) is one of this
holiday sense codes. The historian notes that this is the principle of putting the grains for
sacrifice, in other words, the part of "Sambariai" ceremony (Laurinkienė, 2009, 11).
Other numbers which have symbolic meaning in the Lithuanian culture include numbers
one and two. Vėlius identifies three geographical areas where lived Baltic people. The number
one is preferred in the east area, the number two − in the middle area, and the number three –
in the west. This domination of one number in a particular area is very significant, as in the
Lithuanian folk tradition the east area is associated with celestial sphere, and the middle area
– with earth (Vėlius, 1983, 51). Thus, it could be claimed that the sky (or heaven, heavenly
mythical creatures) was associated with the number one by the ancient Balts, and the earth (or
chthonic mythical creatures) – with the number two (1983, 51). What is more, in the
Lithuanian folk fairy tales, the number two shows the difference between the character traits
(opposites) of the two heroes, for example, in the fairy tales two sons are often mentioned:
28
“He had two sons. The first son was hard-working, and the second, younger, was lazy...“
(Lithuanian folk tale: “Apie vieną sūnų, kuris baimės ieškojo“(About a son who was looking
for fear)).
There is no evidence for other numbers to be significant to the Lithuanian culture.
In conclusion, as it can be deduced from the above information, the most common and
symbolic numbers (from one to ten) in the Lithuanian culture are numbers three and nine.
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3. SEMANTICS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN IDIOMS
The main function of numbers is to count things. Besides, they can also express some
additional meaning which may reflect cultural point of view, including number symbolism. In
this section the attempt was made to classify and describe idioms containing numbers from
the semantic perspective. It means that the analysis presented below shows different meanings
of idioms containing numbers. The numbers from one to ten were analysed and contrasted
across the two cultures, namely, English and Lithuanian.
6. 1. Semantics of English number idioms
The data on English idioms was collected from the following sources: Dictionary of
Idioms/ Anglų kalbos frazeologijos žodynas (2010), The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms (2004),
Longman Idioms Dictionary (2000), and Idioms Organiser: Organised by metaphor, topic
and key word (1992). 156 randomly chosen English idioms were analysed. There were
distinguished 12 idioms which include 2 numbers at once. Such idioms are called mixed type
number idioms in the analysis. According to Figure 1, the most frequent numbers used in the
English idioms are the numbers one (70 instances) and two (47 instances). These numbers do
not bear any symbolic meaning in the English culture. However, the most symbolic number
seven is one of the least common numbers in the idioms (3 instances). Other numbers which
can be distinguished as not productive in the English idioms are the numbers six (6 instances),
eight (1 instance), and ten (6 instances).
The attempt was made to choose only British idioms. An idiom was not included into
research, if it was indicated in the dictionary that an idiom is mainly used in American or
Australian English.
30
Figure1. The frequency of occurrence of numbers in English idioms
ten
nine
eight
Numbers
seven
six
five
four
three
two
one
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequency of occurrence
The number one is going to be presented first. Most of the English idioms containing
the number one (or first) may be used in the general sense of something or somebody superior
to all the others. The above mentioned meaning can embrace other meanings, such as: the
most important, notorious, excellent, and of the highest quality. These meanings might be
distinguished in the idioms: public enemy number one, one-horse race, go one better than, put
one over on somebody, be/get one up on somebody (get one over on somebody), first among
equals, first past the post, of the first order (or magnitude), of the first water.
Moreover, the majority of the English idioms which include the number one tend to be
used to speak about drinking alcohol or drunk people, for example, down in one, have had
one too many, one for the road, one over the eight. As was mentioned before, sometimes
idioms might include two numbers at once, as in the case of one over the eight. The idiom one
over the eight is used to describe a slightly drunk person. The idea behind this idiom is that a
drinker can reasonably be expected to consume eight glasses of beer without becoming drunk.
The expression was originally UK armed forces’ slang from the early 20 th century.
Also, one can be used in the sense of being the same, for instance, one and the same.
In addition, the number one (or first) in the English idioms might refer to first of all or
before anything else, as in the examples: first thing early in the morning and first things first.
Finally, idioms containing the number one can be used to describe personal qualities,
for instance, (all) rolled into one (speaking about characteristics drawn from different people
or things combined in one person or thing), take care of (or look after) number one (having
31
the sense of being selfishly absorbed in protecting your own person and interests), and there is
one born every minute (something that you say about someone who you think has been very
stupid).
One of the meanings of the number two, the destruction of unity, can be related to the
fact that two may symbolise any contradiction. The analysed idioms show that the number
two might be used in the sense of two (usually opposite) ways of action (situation) or two
effects of the action (situation). For example, the idiom a two-edged sword communicates the
meaning of a course of action or situation having both positive and negative effects; the idiom
two-way street describes a situation or relationship between two people or groups in which
action is required from both parties; something that works both ways; the expression two sides
of the same coin is used in order to say that two problems or situations are so closely related
that they are really just two parts of the same thing; and the idiom − two sides of a shield
means two ways of looking at something, two sides to a question.
The number two in the English idioms may communicate the similar to the previous
meaning, namely, the meaning of two alternatives or two conflicting and opposing principles.
For example, ride two horses (at the same time), have a second string to your bow, serve two
masters, the lesser of two evils, fall between two stools.
As it can be seen from Table 2 (see Appendix 1), the number two (or second) in the
English idioms is frequently associated with thinking or hesitating. This number can be found
in the idioms denoting the mental process of considering a course of action carefully,
changing the mind, or hesitating and inability to decide between alternatives. These meanings
can be seen in the following examples: on second thoughts, have second thoughts (about), be
in (or of) two minds.
Moreover, the number two may convey the meaning of drawing an obvious or incorrect
conclusion from what is known or evident. The examples of idioms having this meaning are:
put two and two together and put two and two together and make five. In the second mixed
idiom the number five represents incorrect conclusion because as all the people know if we
put two and two together, it will make four, but not five.
Furthermore, the number two used together with the word ‘penny’ (a coin) or ‘pennies’
can be used to mean small or insignificant amount of something. For instance, the idiom
containing a compound word with the number two: add (or put in) your twopenn'orth is used
in the sense of contribution of the opinion often when it is not wanted, thus, the opinion is not
important. ‘Twopenn'orth’ means amount of something that is worth or costs two pence. In
the expression two (or ten) a penny, the number two also means something of little value;
32
similarly, the idiom not have two pennies to rub together communicates the meaning of lack
of money and to be very poor. Also, the expression not have two — to rub together, meaning
to have none or hardly any of the specified items, especially coins, has an implied meaning of
‘two pennies’. Besides, the expressions not care two straws and not care (or give) hoots (or
two hoots) also, have the sense of something being not important to somebody, meaning a
person does not care at all about something.
Table 2 illustrates that the number two is used in the idioms to refer to a stupid or crazy
person, for example, thick as two (short) planks and two sandwiches short of a picnic.
The number two may also express the meaning of similarity between two things, people
or people’s opinions, for instance, the idiom that makes two of us has the sense of being in the
same position or hold the same opinion as the previous speaker, and the idiom like two peas in
a pod (also as alike as two peas) used about two people or things that are exactly like each
other.
In addition, the same as the number one, the number two is used in the idiom referring
to drinking alcohol. The old-fashioned idiom two (or three) sheets to (or in) the wind means
to be drunk. The origins of this expression are nautical. Sheets here are the ropes attached to
the corners of a ship’s sail, used for controlling the extent and direction of the sail; if they are
hanging loose in the wind, the vessel is likely to be out of control or taking an erratic course;
likewise a drunk person cannot control his actions and movements.
It should be noted that three mixed type idioms (idioms containing the numbers one and
two at once and the numbers two and three at once) were discovered. Such mixed type idioms
kill two birds with one stone, two heads are better than one generally refer to more than one
(i.e. two or more) time, action, opinion, or aim. For instance, the idiom kill two birds with one
stone conveys the meaning of achieving two aims at once. The idiom two's company, three’s
a crowd means that two is enough; it said when two people are relaxed and enjoying each
other’s company but another person would make them feel less comfortable.
There is not any tendency for the number three to reveal a particular meaning in the
English idioms. Although, it can be pointed out that the number three holds positive
associations more frequently than negative ones. 10 idioms containing the number three were
analysed; three of these idioms are of mixed type. The mixed type idiom two’s company,
three’s a crowd is used to present the idea that two people, especially lovers, should be left
alone together. Thus, it carries the negative connotation when this idiom refers to anyone,
except for lovers. Also, as it was mentioned while analyzing the number two, the mixed type
idiom two (or three) sheets to (or in) the wind is used, to describe a drunken person.
33
The positive connotation can be attached to the number three in the idiom three
musketeers, where it means three close associates or inseparable friends. This number can also
communicate the positive meaning of the third attempt which should be successful, as in the
idiom: third time lucky. One more idiom expressing the positive meaning is three cheers for;
it implies three successive hurrahs expressing appreciation or congratulation of someone or
something. In this idiom the number three is used in its original meaning of counting things.
Similarly, the number three is connected with counting in the idiom the big Three; it conveys
the meaning of the dominant group of three.
In addition, the number three in the compound word ‘threescore’ (being three times
twenty; sixty) can have the meaning of age, namely it refers to the age of seventy, as in the
mixed type idiom: threescore and ten. In the Bible, threescore and ten amounts to the allotted
span of a person’s life: 'The days of our age are threescore years and ten' (Oxford Dictionary
of Idioms, 2004)
This number may be connected with education, for instance, the expression the three Rs
means reading, (w)riting, and (a)rithmetic, regarded as the fundamentals of elementary
education. The idiom give somebody the third degree is partially associated with education.
This idiom has the sense of asking someone a lot of questions in a serious or threatening way,
in order to get information from them. The modern meaning originates from the process for
getting into the third level (degree) in the Masonic Lodge which involves an interrogation.
The number four is also not frequently used in the English idioms. There were found 8
idioms with the number four. Very few idioms share common shades of meaning. The idiom
on all fours with is used in the sense of being equal with and presenting an exact analogy
with. The idioms to the four winds, be scattered to the four winds and the four (or far) corners
of the world (or earth) have similar meaning of all four directions; the first idiom
communicates the meanings: in all four directions and so as to be abandoned or neglected; the
second idiom means to be broken up and lost, or spread over a wide area (in the two
mentioned examples four is associated with omnipresent wind, which cannot be seen); and the
third expression conveys the meaning of remote regions of the earth, far away from each
other.
The idiom the fourth estate is closely related to the British culture. It refers to the press
or the profession of journalism. The three traditional Estates of the Realm (the Crown, the
House of Lords, and the House of Commons) are now viewed as having been joined by the
press, which is regarded as having equal power.
34
The idiom the big Four has almost the same meaning as the idiom the big Three, only
the number of people is different; it is used in the sense of the dominant group of four.
There is also the idiom firing on all (four) cylinders, which means working or
functioning at a peak level. This expression is a metaphor from an internal-combustion
engine: a cylinder is said to be firing when the fuel inside it is ignited.
In addition, the number four in the idiom four eyes refers to two eyes and the glasses.
This is a rude expression used about someone who wears glasses (used especially by
children).
The number five in the English idioms is associated with the part of the body, namely,
with a hand. The idiom give me five is used when you want to hit someones hand with your
hand in order to show that you are very pleased. This phrase is assigned to slang and it
communicates possitive meaning; while the idiom a bunch of fives is used in the opposite
sense. In this idiom the number five implies a fist or a punch.
One more idiom containing the number five and conveying negative meaning is fifth
column. It is used in the sense of an organized group of people sympathizing with and
working for the enemy within a country at war or otherwise under attack.
Moreover, the number five is associated with time. The idiom take five is a short form of
'a five-minute break' and it means to take a short break in order to relax (in this idiom number
five is associated with five minutes). The expression nine to five refers to typical office hours
(in this idiom number five is associated with five o’clock).
Furthermore, the number five is also connected with counting. The number five, as in
the cases with the numbers three and four, goes together with the word ‘big’, but it refers not
to counting people, but animals. The idiom the big five is a name given by hunters to the five
largest and most dangerous African mammals: rhinoceros, elephant, buffalo, lion, and
leopard. The idiom know how many beans make five describes an intelligent person; such a
person has to know how to count, i.e. to know how many beans make five; this idiom is used
to say that someone is sensible, especially about money.
The number six holds mainly negative associations. The instances with negative
meaning include the idioms: at sixes and sevens, hit (or knock) someone for six, six of the best
and six feet under. The idiom at sixes and sevens communicates the meaning of being in a
state of total confusion or disarray. This phrase originated as gambling slang and may be an
alteration or corruption of Old French cinque (five) and sice (six), these being the highest
numbers on dice. The idea of risking all your goods on the two highest numbers led to the
35
idea of carelessness and neglect of your possessions and eventually to the development of the
phrase’s current meaning. The idiom hit (or knock) someone for six conveys the following
meaning: to affect someone very severely, in other words, utterly overwhelm someone. In this
expression, six stands for six runs, referring to a hit in cricket which sends the ball clear over
the boundary of the ground for a score of six runs. The last idiom, containing number six,
which evokes negative associations is six feet under. This expression bears the meaning of
dead and buried. The idiom six feet under can be explained from the cultural point of view.
Six feet is the traditional depth of a grave. One more idiom with negative meaning is six of the
best. But, now this idiom is used mainly in a figurative way. It refers to a caning as a
punishment, traditionally with six strokes of the cane. Six of the best was formerly a common
punishment in boys’ schools, but it is now chiefly historical in its literal sense and tends to be
used figuratively or humorously.
Two idioms with the number six can be described as having neutral meaning. The idiom
six of one and half a dozen of the other is used to convey that there is no real difference
between two alternatives. The idiom containing a compound word with the number six, that
is, on a sixpence (of a stop or turn) means within a small area or short distance. It is similar to
the idiom containing the number two: add (or put in) your twopenn'orth, where twopenn’orth,
as was mentioned before, means amount of something that is worth or costs two pence or it
can mean a small or insignificant amount of something. Thus, the idioms containing the word
‘pence’ usually have the sense of something insignificant or small.
The number seven is not used very frequently to form number idioms in the English
language. Originally, the number seven might be associated with something magical. For
example, although now the idiom seven-league boots means the ability to travel very fast on
foot, but originally this phrase comes from the French fairy story of Hop-o'-My-Thumb, in
which magic boots enable the wearer to travel seven leagues at each stride. Also, the idiom in
seventh heaven, meaning in a state of ecstasy, came from the late Jewish and Muslim
theology. There were considered to be seven heavens, and the seventh of these was the
highest, where a state of eternal bliss was to be enjoyed.
Only 1 idiom containing the number eight was found. This idiom is one over the eight.
It was discussed together with the number one.
From the semantic point of view the number nine does not have the established pattern
of usage. It can express time, as in the examples: a nine days’ wonder and mixed type idiom
36
nine to five. The idiom a nine days’ wonder means something that attracts enthusiastic interest
for a short while but is then ignored or forgotten; thus, here the number nine conveys short
time. In the idiom nine to five the number nine expresses nine o’clock and the number five –
five o’clock, while the whole idiom is used in the sense of typical office hours.
The number nine in the English idioms is also used with the word ‘cloud’. The idiom on
cloud nine is interchangeable with the expression in seventh heaven, communicating the
meaning of being extremely happy. On cloud nine refers to a ten-part classification of clouds
in which nine was second highest. A dated variant of the expression is on cloud seven.
One more idiom with the number nine having positive meaning is: be as right as
ninepence. It is an old-fashioned British idiom which is used in the sense of being completely
healthy.
As was mentioned before numbers in the idioms can go together with the word ‘pence’
meaning something insignificant or small. Thus, the idiom containing the number nine, that
is, no more than ninepence in the shilling describes a person of low intelligence. However,
since the decimalization of the British coinage, this phrase has gradually fallen out of use, but
there are numerous other humorous variations on the theme of someone not possessing their
proper share of brains or intelligence, but new variants do not include the number nine.
One more idiom containing the numbers nine ant ten should be mentioned. The
expression nine times out of ten means: on nearly every occasion. In this case the number nine
may have the sense of something incomplete and the number ten expresses completion.
The number ten was found in the idiom two (or ten) a penny, where it is used
interchangeably with the number two. Ten is used as a part of the following mixed idioms:
threescore and ten and nine times out of ten. These idioms were described above.
Also, the number ten is used in the original sense of counting something. The
expression count to ten implies counting to ten under your breath in order to prevent yourself
from reacting angrily to something. The idiom it’s handbags at ten paces is a humorous
expression used about a fight or argument in which neither side is very effective. This idiom
comes from the old custom fighting duels, in which a man was insulted or angered by another
man arranged to fight him with guns or swords. In a duel with pistols, the men stood ten steps
or ‘paces’ from each other when they fired.
And the last idiom with the number ten is ten to one; it is used in order to emphasize
that something is very likely. It cannot be assigned to any of the described above meanings of
the number ten.
37
To summarise, the number one (or first) in the English idioms refers to something or
somebody superior to all the others. This meaning can include such meanings as: the most
important, notorious, excellent, and of the highest quality (e.g. public enemy number one, onehorse race, first among equals, first past the post, of the first order (or magnitude), of the first
water, etc.)
The number two is commonly used in the sense of two (usually opposite) ways of action
(situation) or two effects of the action (situation) (e.g. a two-edged sword, two-way street, two
sides of the same coin, two sides of a shield). This number is also used in the meaning of two
alternatives or two conflicting and opposing principles (e.g. ride two horses (at the same
time), serve two masters, the lesser of two evils, fall between two stools). Besides, number two
(or second) in the English idioms is frequently associated with thinking or hesitating (e.g. on
second thoughts, have second thoughts (about), be in (or of) two minds.)
As for the number three, it does not communicate any particular meaning in the English
idioms. Although, it can be pointed out that the number three holds positive associations more
frequently than negative ones (e.g. positive: three musketeers, third time lucky, three cheers
for; negative: three sheets to (or in) the wind).
The meaning of four directions is typical of the number four in the idioms (e.g. to the
four winds, be scattered to the four winds and the four (or far) corners of the world (or earth).
The number five in the English idioms is associated the part of the body, namely, with a
hand e.g. give me five, a bunch of fives). In addition, the number five is frequently used to
refer to time (e.g. take five, nine to five).
The number six evokes mainly negative associations. For instance, this number may
communicate the following meanings: the total confusion or disarray (at sixes and sevens), to
affect someone very severely (hit (or knock) someone for six), someone dead and buried (six
feet under) etc.
Even though the number seven is very symbolic in the British culture, it is not frequent
in the English idioms. The number seven is associated with something magical (e.g. sevenleague boots, in seventh heaven).
The number eight is active in the English idioms. Only one idiom one over the eight
(meaning slightly drunk) was found.
The number nine in the English idioms does not have any established pattern of usage.
It can express time (e.g.a nine days’ wonder, nine to five), happiness (on cloud nine), and
good health (be as right as ninepence).
The number ten is sometimes used in the sense of counting something (e.g. count to ten,
it’s handbags at ten paces). Other meanings of this number do not reveal any pattern of usage.
38
It should be noted that in the English idioms numbers tend to be used with the words
‘penny’ and ‘pence’, for instance, the numbers two or ten in the idioms add (or put in) your
twopenn'orth and two (or ten) a penny, the number six in the expression on a sixpence (of a
stop or turn), and number nine in the idiom no more than ninepence in the shilling. It can be
noticed that in the idioms in which the numbers go together with the words ‘penny’ or
‘pence’, the meaning of numbers is something of little value.
In addition, English number idioms do not display a tendency for being interchangeable.
There were found only two cases of such idioms. They are the idioms which have almost the
same meanings: on cloud nine (extremely happy) and in seventh heaven (in a state of ecstasy),
and two (or ten) a penny (plentiful or easily obtained and consequently of little value).
Numbers in the English idioms can express quantity, but it is usually associated with the
original meaning of the numbers (e.g. number two refers to two things etc.) The small number
of something is described by the number one (e.g. count something on the fingers of one
hand); the number two expresses the amount of two (e.g. kill two birds with one stone, it takes
two to tango) and lack of something (e.g. not have two pennies to rub together, not have two
— to rub together); the number three refers to three people or three times (e.g. three
musketeers, the big Three, three cheers for), the number four is also used to describe the
number of people (e.g. The big Four); large numbers of people are described by the number
nine (e.g. go down (or drop or fall) like ninepins); and the numbers two and ten may have the
meaning of plentiful of something (e.g. two (or ten) a penny). It can be stated that numbers in
the English idioms do not tend to be used in the sense of quantity.
Twelve somatic idioms (e.g. the idioms which contain the names of parts of the body)
were discovered in the English idioms (e.g. sleep with one eye open).
There were found fifteen English natural idioms i.e. the idioms which contain as a
headword the names of living or non-living objects of nature. Natural idioms may include the
names of animals (8 instances, e.g. ride two horses (at the same time)) or natural phenomenon
i.e. water, wind, earth, cloud (heaven) (7 instances, e.g. to the four winds).
The common semantic groups in the English idioms are:
1) Quantity (9 instances);
2) Not intelligent person (6 instances);
3) Drinking alcohol or drunken people (5 instances);
4) Happiness (4 instances);
5) Death (3 instances);
6) Work (2 instances).
39
6.2. Semantics of Lithuanian number idioms
The data on the Lithuanian idioms was collected from Lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos
žodynas (2003), Frazeologijos žodynas (2001), and Sisteminis lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos
žodynas (1995). 212 randomly chosen Lithuanian idioms were analyzed. There were
distinguished 18 mixed type number idioms. According to Figure1 the most frequent numbers
used in the Lithuanian idioms include: one (99 instances), two (35 instances), and nine (39
instances). The frequency of occurrence of the numbers one and two cannot be explained from
symbolic point view, while the number nine can be regarded as deeply symbolic. As was
described in the previous chapter, the number nine is closely connected with the Lithuanian
culture. The least frequent numbers within Lithuanian idioms are numbers: six (1 instance),
seven (4 instances), eight (0 instances), and ten (4 instances).
Figure1. The frequency of occurrence of numbers in Lithuanian idioms
ten
nine
eight
Numbers
seven
six
five
four
three
two
one
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Frequency of occurrence
The first number to be analysed is one. It is the most popular number in the Lithuanian
idioms which may express several meanings. However, the usage of this number can be
explained by logic and reality and is not directly related to the symbolic meaning of the
number. From Table 1 it can be deduced that in the Lithuanian idioms the number one has
three most frequent meanings, they are the following:
1) to get along, to have a friendly relationship or to have the same opinion. The
examples of this use of the number one include: vienas už vieną, vienas o vienas, vienas eina
40
už vieną (these three idioms literally mean: one follows the other), iš vieno eiti (to go
together), kaip vienas (as one), viena giesmė (one song), vienu kąsniu misti (to eat one
mouthful of something);
2) to do something together, to be in accord, for instance, iš vieno, per vieną, per vienas
kitą, į vieną daiktą;
3) the same, identical or similar, for instance, vienas į vieną, vienas iš vieno (similar),
kaip vienas (as one).
Moreover, as Table 1 shows, the number one can express quantity in the Lithuanian
idioms. The analysed idioms reveal that one might have the meaning of the whole, when we
speak about all people or things, for example, ant vienam, be vieno, be vienojo, iki vieno, ligi
vienam. The number one may express the meaning of not many as in the idiom vienas kitas
(one or two), or it might have the meaning of doing something individually as in the idiom po
vieną.
Furthermore, the number one may express time which is not clearly indicated and
means once/ once upon a time, for example, vieną kartą (once), vieną dieną (one day), vieną
gražią dieną (one fine day), vieną sykį (once), iš pirmagalių (from ancient times), or to do
something constantly, as in the idiom vienų vien.
Besides, as it can be seen from Table 1, one when used with parts of the body might
mean age, as in the idioms: pirma galva ant karkužės, pirmutinė galva ant pečių (‘the first
head on the shoulders’ means not old). It is also used in the meaning of getting along: vieną
bambą čiūpoti, kaip iš vienos burnos (‘as if from one mouth’ means in unison). If only one
part of the body is mentioned in the idioms while people have two parts (e.g. two eyes, two
legs, two arms), then one means to do something superficially, for example, viena akimi
(‘with one eye’), to be going to leave soon, as in the idioms: viena koja (‘one leg’), ant vienos
kojos stovėti (‘to stand on one leg’), viena koja karste, viena koja grabe (have one foot in the
grave) (in some of the examples we can associate death with a journey) or it may mean to be
in accord, for instance, viena ranka (‘one hand’), vieną ranką laikyti (‘to hold one hand’),
vieną ranką turėti (‘to have one hand’). In a couple of the idioms associations, related to
human behaviour, can be noticed, for example, when a person is happy he/she jumps on one
foot. The examples of this usage of the number one are: ant vienos kojos suktis (‘to spin
around on one leg’), ant vienos kojos šokti (‘to jump on one leg’).
Table 1 demonstrates that one can be used in idioms describing personal characteristics.
For instance, one is used to describe a chatterbox, as in the idiom vienas kala, kitas auksina
(dailina), a spendthrift person, as in the idiom vienos dienos, a slightly stupid person, for
instance, vieno balkio trūksta, vieno balkio trūksta į galvą, be vieno balkio, or this number can
41
be used to show that one person is better than the other in something, for instance, vienas už
kitą (koks) (one is better than the other).
Also, one might be used to speak about marital status, as in the idiom with negative
connotation vienu kąsniu užspringti (‘to choke on one mouthful’ - a person who had been
married once and decided not to marry again), or in the idiom viena galva (‘one head’)
meaning single.
The number one can represent the beginning of something, for instance, iš pirmo, nuo
pirmo, pirmoje rankoje, nuo pirmo gaidžio (‘from the first, from the first rooster’ - very early,
the beginning of the day), su pirmaisiais gaidžiais (‘with the first roosters’ - early in the
morning), pirmąjį kirminą maldyti (‘to soothe the first warm’ - the beginning of eating or
drinking).
In the idioms vienas ir tas pats, vis viena we can distinguish the meaning of something
unimportant. In this case English language speakers would say: “It does not matter”.
As it can be deduced from Table 1, the number one might sometimes convey the
meaning of refusal to compromise and can describe an unyielding person, for instance, vienas
pro vieną and už vienas kito.
In the Lithuanian idioms one may be used with natural phenomena, namely, with the
wind and thunderstorm. When it is used in the idiom with the word ‘thunderstorm’ it means a
person who is not very intelligent, as in the example pirmos perkūnijos trenktas (‘hit by the
first thunderstorm’), while in the idiom vienu vėju (with one wind) wind is associated with
speed and it signifies the action which is done very quickly and within a short period of time.
One more group of idioms should be mentioned. This group includes idioms which
have two numbers (the numbers one and two) at once in their structure. As Table 1 indicates
there is not any tendency in meaning of idioms containing two numbers at once. These idioms
may communicate the meaning of doing something very quickly or happening suddenly, as in
the example vienas du (one two). The idioms might express a not coherent speech, for
instance, nei vienas nei du (neither one nor two). They can also mean two people doing
something together, for example, du vien (two together), etc. As we can see from the
examples above, it is difficult to divide idioms containing two numbers into groups according
some particular meaning because all of them tend to be used in different senses.
Lithuanian idioms do not display clear tendency in meaning towards the usage of the
number two. It might be associated with the lack of unity, separation, and confrontation. The
number two may have both positive and negative meanings. However, it usually expresses
42
some contrary notions, one (positive, right) or another (negative, left) side of something. But
it may also be used in the positive sense of joining together these opposite poles.
As was stated above, idioms containing the number one are used with parts of the body.
Similarly, idioms containing the number two can go together with particular part of the body.
Very frequently used Lithuanian idioms antra ranka (‘the second hand’) and antromis
rankomis (‘with second hands’) mean an assistant.
Table 2 demonstrates that the number two may communicate the union of two. This
number is associated with love, affection or the state of being in accord. As the examples kaip
du balandžiai show, two evokes positive emotions related to a special treatment of other
people.
The examples antra pusė (the second side (of me)), antras kelis (the second knee), antri
keliai (the second knees) illustrate that the number two in idioms may refer to family
members, namely, a wife (antra pusė), brother’s children (antras kelis) or distant relatives
(antri keliai).
This number is sometimes used in the same sense as the phrases ‘on the other hand’ or
‘otherwise’. The examples with this usage of two are: antra apsukus and antrą pusę vertus.
The number two may express quantity, as in the examples: du grybai barščiuose (two
mashrooms in soup‘- more than necessary) and dviem petnyčiomis (a little), and antra tiek
(double or the same quantity), du vienu (two together).
As was mentioned before, the number three decomposes into two identical and one
different image. For example, in the tale of the three brothers, two of them are clever and the
third - a fool or in the Bible two of the Three Kings bring gold and frankincense to
Bethlehem, and the third - myrrh (Adomonis, article on-line). In these examples the first and
second elements serve as an antipode to the third element which can be negative.
Confirmation of this statement can be found in the Lithuanian idioms: du tuščius trečią
nepilną (two empty and a third incomplete) and du baltus, trečią kaip sniegą (two white, a
third like the snow). The idioms show that the number two used together with the number
three in the idioms represents nothingness (e.g. du tuščius trečią nepilną - not to give (pay)
anything at all; du baltus, trečią kaip sniegą - not to receive (find) anything).
As Table 3 indicates, in the Lithuanian idioms the number three is mostly used to
express time. This number may communicate something what happened long ago, for
instance, treti (trečia) pernai, treti propernai (long ago), something what happened or was
done too late, for example, po trečio (‘after third’ – too late), and something what lasted (or
lasts) for a short time, as in the example tris dienas su pakaičiu (very briefly).
43
The number three can go together with the word ‘grašis’ (name for a coin) as a part of a
compound word, for example, savo trejoką kišti, savo trigrašį pridėti, savo trigrašį prikišti,
and su savo trigrašiu kištis (add (or put in) your twopenn'orth). These idioms have the senses:
to interfere, to intervene or to interrupt somebody when they are speaking. Like the English
word ‘twopenn'orth’, the Lithuanian word ‘trigrašis’ means something of little value,
(something that is worth or costs three pence (tris grašius)). Thus, the idiom už trigrašį
expresses the quantity meaning a little.
The analyzed examples show, that the number three like the number two is used to
speak about relatives: trečias kelis (about cousin’s children), treti keliai (not very distant
relatives).
Besides, the examples of idioms with the number three: trečia į vieną, į trečią vieną
(carelessly) show that three might convey the meanings of approximately, not all or to do
something in a careless way, anyhow.
Similar to the number two, three is used with the word ranka (arm), but the meaning is
slightly different. The example of an idiom with the number three, trečios rankos, does not
represent the notion of a simple assistant (as in the case with the number two), but it is
associated with a backup assistant, somebody additional, besides the two.
This number is also associated with counting. The idiom ne trijų nenuskaito refers to
not clever, unintelligent person who, if we translate the idiom word by word, cannot count to
three.
The number three together with the number nine may also mean a lot of something or
countless, as in the following examples: trejos devynerios/treja devynelia/ treja devyneria/
treji devyneri/ treji devyni.
As for the symbolism of the number four, it represents (as was mentioned in the
previous chapter) four parts of the world as well as the world and the universe. This symbolic
meaning can be distinguished in the Lithuanian idioms. Table 4 shows, that the number four
is generally used in the sense of everywhere or anywhere. This number frequently goes with
the word ‘vėjas/vėjai’ (the wind(s)), meaning in all directions or from everywhere, as in the
examples: iš keturių vėjų, nuo keturių vėjų (‘from four winds’). This number, used with the
word ‘wind’, has also the meanings of kicking somebody out or making someone to leave a
place, for example: keturiems vėjams, į keturis vejus paleisti, į visus keturis vėjus paleisti and
the meaning of going anywhere, in all four direction, for instance į keturis vėjus (to the four
winds).
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As it was mentioned before, the numbers two and three in the idioms may refer to
relatives. Likewise, the number four in the idiom ketvirti keliai (‘the fourth knees’) represents
a member of a family. Noteworthy that the numbers two, three, and four in the idioms antras
kelis, antri keliai, trečias kelis, treti keliai, and ketvirti keliai usually go together with the
word ‘kelis/keliai‘ (knee/knees) and refer to distant relatives. Thus, they can be used
interchangeably.
As was described in Chapter 2, the numeral system starts from five: there are five
fingers on one hand, and when we count the fingers of the both hands, we get the sacred
number ten. This is reflected in the idioms.
The collected data includes fifteen idioms with the number five. Some of the idioms
evoke negative associations, others have neutral connotation, while several idioms express a
positive meaning.
As it can be seen from Table 5, in the majority of the examples the number five carries
negative connotation connected with unintelligent, crazy person. As most of the cases of
idioms with the number five show, five is connected with five fingers having the word-forword meaning: a person is not clever enough to count to five. The examples are the following:
penkių neišmano, penkių nepaskaito, penkių nesuskaito, iki penkių nesuskaito. This meaning
can be interpreted in the way that a person does not see or understand evident and simple
things. Also, the idiom penkto balkio trūksta conveys similar to the mentioned above
meaning.
Moreover, two more examples with five fingers having negative connotation can be
distinguished, namely, penki pirštai (‘five fingers’), penkiais pirštais nupirkti (‘to buy with
five fingers’). The preceding examples are used in the sense of stealing something.
Furthermore, negative meaning is expressed by mixed type number idioms. These
idioms are presented in Table 5, they are: iš penkto iš dešimto (‘from five from ten’) meaning
to do something hastily, disorderly, regardless of how and nei penki nei devyni (‘neither five
nor nine’) meaning nonsense.
Besides, two instances with five, te penkis (give five), te penkis, bus dešimt (‘give five
and get ten’), communicate neutral meaning. The examples have associations with five
fingers or a hand and are used to say goodbye while extending a hand. This meaning is
different from the meaning of English expression give me five which is said, when someone
wants to hit your open hand against theirs as a way of congratulation or greeting. One more
example of an idiom carrying neutral meaning includes the idiom savo penkis daiktus (‘your
five things’) which means the entire property taken with you while leaving a place.
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Table 5 presents two idioms which evoke positive associations. One of the idioms is
penki juokai (‘five jokes’), which communicates the idea of something not difficult or
troublesome. English equivalent of this idiom would be: It’s no big deal. Another idiom with
positive connotation is kaip penkis pirštus (‘as five fingers’) – to know something/ somebody
very well, perfectly.
It was discovered that the number six is not typical of Lithuanian idioms. There were
found only 1 idiom with this number, namely, kad (tave...) šeši which is used to express
surprise.
It can be deduced from Table 6, that the number seven is also not very frequently used
in idioms. It can be associated with positive feeling of happiness, as in the example:
septintame danguje (in seventh heaven). Something inaccessible or difficult to reach is
communicated by the idiom po septyniais užraktais (‘under seven locks’). The idiom septyni
prakaitai išpila has the meaning: when you do something and it becomes very hard. English
idioms with the similar meanings are: sweat blood or sweat your guts out. Finally, the idiom
containing number seven, iki septinto vainiko, describes the illness diarrhoea.
No idioms with the number eight were found.
The number nine is one of the most frequent numbers in the Lithuanian idioms. In the
Lithuanian folklore, the number nine is used in the meaning of “much or many” or
“abundance of something”. This meaning is transferred into idioms in a form of an intensifier.
As the examples of Lithuanian idioms demonstrate, the number nine in idioms is often used as
an intensifier, it makes the utterance stronger. This number is used to express strong feelings
(e.g. very happy) or to show the intensity of an action (to work very hard). The number nine
may intensify positive as well as negative feelings, emotions or actions.
As was described in the previous chapter, once the number nine was the "last" number
and it served as a kind of boundary separating the known from the unknown, the mysterious.
It was regarded as a kind of limit, the highest of all numbers. Therefore, it is not surprising
that in the idioms nine expresses the state of being happy or extremely happy, as in the
examples: devintame danguje (on cloud nine), kaip devintame danguje (like on cloud nine),
kaip ant devyniu arklių (‘like on nine horses’).
However, as it can be deduced from Table 7, this number is mostly used with idioms
expressing negative meaning. For instance, it can communicate the idea of ruthlessly
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exploiting somebody, as it might be seen in the idioms: devynis kailius dyžti (lupti), devintą
kailį nudirti (‘to remove nine skins’). These idioms can be used interchangeably with the
idiom containing the number two, that is du kailius nulupti (‘to remove two skins’). The
above mentioned three idioms have similar forms; they include the word ‘kailis/kailiai’ (the
skin). But, the use of numbers differs. In the first two idioms we use the number nine, while in
the third idiom we have the number two.
Similar case of negative meaning of the number nine is noticed in the idioms devynis
kailius nulupti, devintą kailį nulupti (nuplėšti) (‘to remove nine skins’). Here nine
demonstrates person’s dissatisfaction with the fact that he/she has to pay too much for work
or a purchase. The number nine can also be associated with troubles, miseries or worries, as in
the examples: devynios bėdos (‘nine troubles’) and devynios bažnyčios (‘nine churches’).
In Table 7 there are presented more examples of idioms, containing the number nine,
which express not a pleasant feeling. This number may be used to describe a deeply troubled
person who does not know what to do, as in the idioms: devyni avinai daužosi po galvą,
devyni avinai mušasi po galvą (‘nine rams are fighting in the head). Moreover, nine can show
the feeling of exhaustion, for instance, devyniais prakaitais apsipilti, devyni prakaitai išmušė
(‘to break into a heavy (nine) sweat’). These examples are similar to the idiom containing the
number seven, namely, septyni prakaitai išpila (‘to break into a heavy (seven) sweat’). Thus,
these three idioms can be used interchangeably. Furthermore, this number is sometimes
preferred by people while speaking about work. Work is associated with something negative,
something what people are unwilling to do or it is hard for them to do it. The instances with
this meaning of nine include the idioms: devintą prakatą lieti, devintas prakaitas pila, su
devintu prakaitu. This case of the use of the number nine is almost the same as the previously
described meaning of feeling of exhaustion and can be translated into English as to work hard,
to take pains or try very hard to do something. Two more idioms, which are connected with
work, might be mentioned. These idioms communicate two opposite meanings: one is used to
describe a workaholic − barbė devyndarbė (tridarbė) (‘a Barbie who has nine or three jobs’),
while the other conveys the idea of bad workmen − gaidį pjauna devyniese (‘nine people cut
one rooster’). Besides, the number nine might be used to describe a deeply dissatisfied person
or a frowning and sullen man, for example, kaip devynios pėdnyčios and kaip devyni
penktadieniai (‘like nine Fridays’).
As Table 7 shows, there are also neutral idioms, containing the number nine, which do
not carry any positive or negative meaning. They might express wonder, for instance, nerenka
(jo...) devynios, kad (tave...) devynios or they may be used while speaking about a big secret,
something concealed, for example, po devyniais užraktais, už devynių užraktų (‘under nine
47
locks’). These expressions convey the same meaning as the idiom po septyniais užraktais
(‘under nine locks’).
It should be mentioned, that, like the numbers two, three, four, the number nine is used
to speak about distant relatives. The example of the idiom with this meaning is: kaip devintas
vanduo nuo kisieliaus.
Table 8 demonstrates that there are only 4 idioms with the number ten. One of the
idioms, namely, iš penkto iš dešimto (‘from fifth from tenth’) was described above. All the
other idioms can be used interchangeably with idioms containing other numbers. For
example, the idiom ant dešimto vainiko means diarrhea and can be changed into ant trečio
vainiko, į devintą vainiką, į trečią vainiką, iki devinto vainiko, iki septinto vainiko or the
idiom dešimto balkio trūksta conveys the same meaning of a slightly stupid person as the
idioms containing the numbers nine, five, and one, as in the examples: devynių balkių trūksta,
devinto balkio trūksta, denkto balkio trūksta, dieno balkio trūksta, dieno balkio trūksta į
galvą, be vieno balkio. There is also the idiom kaip ant dešimt arklių sėdos (‘as if to be
mounted on ten horses’) which carries the meaning of a very cheerful and happy person and is
similar to the expression: kaip ant devyniu arklių (‘like on nine horses’).
To summarise, the use of the number one in the Lithuanian idioms is determined by
logic and reality. This number within idioms has three most frequent meanings: 1) to get
along, to have a friendly relationship or to have the same opinion (e.g iš vieno eiti (to go
together), kaip vienas (as one), viena giesmė (one song), vienu kąsniu misti (to eat one
mouthful of something); 2) to do something together, to be in accord ( e.g. iš vieno, per vieną,
per vienas kitą, į vieną daiktą); 3) the same, identical or similar (e.g. vienas į vieną, vienas iš
vieno (similar), kaip vienas (as one)).
In the Lithuanian number idioms two usually expresses the lack of unity and separation;
it implies some contrary notions, i.e. one (positive, right) or another (negative, left) side of
something (e.g. antra ranka (‘the second hand)’ and antromis rankomis (‘with second
hands’), antra pusė (the second side (of me)), antras kelis (the second knee), antri keliai (the
second knees). However, the number two may also be associated with love and affection (e.g.
kaip du balandžiai)
As for the number three, it is often used to express time (e.g. treti (trečia) pernai, treti
propernai (long ago), po trečio (‘after the third’ – too late), tris dienas su pakaičiu (very
briefly)). Also, the number three can go together with the word ‘grašis’ (name for a coin) as a
part of a compound word in the sense of something of little value or unimportant (e.g. savo
48
trejoką kišti, savo trigrašį pridėti, savo trigrašį prikišti, su savo trigrašiu kištis (add (or put in)
your twopenn'orth) and už trigrašį (for three pence)). Besides, the number three may be
associated with two identical and one different image (e.g. du tuščius trečią nepilną (‘two
empty and a third incomplete’- not to give (pay) anything at all) and du baltus, trečią kaip
sniegą (‘two white, a third like the snow’ - not to receive (find) anything)). The idioms show
that the numbers two and three used in one idiom represent nothingness.
The number four in the Lithuanian idioms frequently goes with the word ‘vėjas/vėjai’
(the wind(s)), meaning in all directions, from everywhere, going anywhere or kicking
somebody out making them to leave a place (e.g. iš keturių vėjų, nuo keturių vėjų (‘from four
winds’), keturiems vėjams, į keturis vejus paleisti, į visus keturis vėjus paleisti, į keturis vėjus
(to the four winds)). In addition, the number four may refer to distant relatives (e.g. ketvirti
keliai (‘the fourth knees’)).
The number five in idioms usually carries negative connotation and is mostly associated
with five fingers. It may refer to unintelligent, crazy person, a person who is not clever
enough to count to five (e.g. penkių neišmano, penkių nepaskaito, penkių nesuskaito, iki
penkių nesuskaito. Moreover, the number five is connected with the process of stealing
something using five fingers of one hand (penki pirštai (‘five fingers’), penkiais pirštais
nupirkti (‘to buy with five fingers’)). Furthermore, negative meaning is expressed by mixed
type number idioms (e.g. iš penkto iš dešimto (‘from five from ten’) meaning to do something
hastily, disorderly, regardless of how; nei penki nei devyni (‘neither five nor nine’) meaning
nonsense). But, the number five (also implying five fingers) may be used to communicate
neutral and positive meanings as well, although they are not so frequent (e.g. the idioms te
penkis (give five), te penkis, bus dešimt (‘give five and get ten’) are used to say goodbye
while extending a hand; kaip penkis pirštus (‘as five fingers’) – to know something/
somebody very well).
It was discovered that the number six is not typical of Lithuanian idioms. Only one
idiom which is used to express surprise was found (e.g. kad (tave...) šeši).
The number seven is also not very frequently used in the Lithuanian idioms. It does not
reveal any tendency towards particular meaning. It can be associated with the feeling of
happiness (e.g. septintame danguje (in seventh heaven), something inaccessible or difficult to
reach (e.g. po septyniais užraktais (‘under seven locks’), the feeling of exhaustion (e.g.
septyni prakaitai išpila (sweat blood or sweat your guts out), and the illness diarrhoea (iki
septinto vainiko).
The number eight is not productive in the Lithuanian idioms. On the contrary, the
number nine is one of the most frequently used numbers in the Lithuanian culture and it is
49
reflected in the Lithuanian number idioms. The number nine in idioms is often used as an
intensifier, it makes the utterance stronger. The number nine may intensify positive as well as
negative feelings, emotions or actions (e.g. positive - the state of being happy or extremely
happy: devintame danguje (on cloud nine), kaip devintame danguje (like on cloud nine), kaip
ant devyniu arklių (‘like on nine horses’); negative - troubles, miseries or worries: devynios
bėdos (‘nine troubles’) and devynios bažnyčios (‘nine churches’)).
Only four idioms with the number ten were found. It was discovered that most of the
idioms containing the number ten can be used interchangeably with idioms containing other
numbers (e.g. ant dešimto vainiko (diarrhea) is interchangeable with ant trečio vainiko, į
devintą vainiką, į trečią vainiką, iki devinto vainiko, iki septinto vainiko).
It should be pointed out that numbers in the Lithuanian idioms might be used in their
original meaning, i.e. to express quantity, for example, the meaning of everyone is expressed
by the number one (e.g. ant vienam, be vieno, iki vieno, ligi vienam); the numbers one, two
and three may carry the meaning of a very small quantity of something (e.g. vienas kitas, už
trigrašį, dviem petnyčiomis, vienas antras); the meanings of the same amount of something,
double quantity and more than necessary are conveyed by the number two (e.g. antra tiek, du
grybai barščiuose); the meaning of large indefinite quantity is communicated by the numbers
three and nine (e.g. trejos devynerios, treja devynelia); the numbers one, two and four can
refer to two people (e.g. ant keturių akių, du vienu, vienas ant vieno).
It is interesting to note that basically all the numbers appearing in the Lithuanian idioms
show a tendency to be used interchangeably. Thus, the idioms containing different numbers
may communicate the same meaning. The examples are:
Two – antras kelis, antri keliai;
Three – trečias kelis, treti keliai;
Four – ketvirti keliai;
Nine – kaip devintas vanduo nuo kisieliaus (‘like the ninth water from pap’).
The numbers two, three, and four in the idioms antras kelis (brother’s children) antri
keliai (not the closest relatives), trečias kelis (cousin’s children), treti keliai (not very distant
relatives), and ketvirti keliai (distant relatives) usually go together with the word
‘kelis/keliai‘(knee/knees) and refer to distant relatives with a slightly different shade of
meaning. Thus, almost all the idioms can be used interchangeably. However, it can be
distinguished that the singular form of the word kelis (knee) refers to brother’s children
(antras kelis) and cousin’s children (trečias kelis); therefore these idioms cannot be changed
one into another, while idioms containing plural forms keliai (knees) have similar meanings.
Besides, there is one idiom containing the number nine which refers to distant relatives as
50
well; therefore, it can be used interchangeably with the above described idioms (e.g. kaip
devintas vanduo nuo kisieliaus (‘like the ninth water from pap’)).
When people describe a slightly stupid person, they can use the numbers one, five, nine,
and ten:
One – be vieno balkio, vieno balkio trūksta, vieno balkio trūksta į galvą;
Five – penkto balkio trūksta;
Nine – devynių balkių trūksta, devinto balkio trūksta;
Ten – dešimto balkio trūksta.
The numbers three, seven, nine, and ten can be chosen while describing an illness diarrhea.
Three – ant trečio vainiko, į trečią vainiką;
Seven – iki septinto vainiko;
Nine – į devintą vainiką, iki devinto vainiko;
Ten – ant dešimto vainiko.
Moreover, nine and seven are used interchangeably in the idioms that express the
feeling of exhaustion, for instance, devyniais prakaitais apsipilti, devyni prakaitai išmušė,
septyni prakaitai išpila.
Furthermore, the following idioms, containing the numbers two and nine, devynis
kailius dyžti (lupti), devintą kailį nudirti and du kailius nulupti, convey the same meaning of
ruthlessly exploiting somebody.
Sometimes one and the same idiom might have different case endings or prefixes, for
instance: vienai (vienui, vienų, vienut, vienum) vienas; treti pernai, treti propernai. There is
also the case when two idioms have similar meanings and almost the same word structure and
differ only in prepositions, for example, iš keturių vėjų, nuo keturių vėjų.
A number of Lithuanian number idioms (37 instances) are somatic i.e. contain the
names of the parts of the body. It is probably because our body is the closest and easily
reachable ‘thing’ which can help people to count and it is related to our feelings and senses.
The numbers one, two, three, and four are found to be used together with parts of the body,
for instance, pirma galva ant karkužės, abiem ausimis gaudyti, trečios rankos, ketvirti keliai,
etc.
There are also many natural idioms which contain the names of living or non-living
objects of nature as a headword i.e. animals (11 instances; e.g. kaip ant devyniu arklių);
natural phenomenon i.e. thunderstorm, wind, the sky (or heaven), etc. (16 instances; e.g.
pirmos perkūnijos trenktas).
It can be distinguished six most typical semantic groups in the Lithuanian idioms:
1) Quantity (17 instances);
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2) Not intelligent person (13 instances);
3) Time (13 instances);
4) Death and illness (10 instances);
5) Work and exhaustion (8 instances);
6) Relatives (7 instances);
7) Happiness (7 instances).
3.3. English and Lithuanian number idioms from a contrastive perspective
1) The frequency of occurrence
The results of the analysis show that the most frequent numbers used in the English
idioms include one (70 instances) and two (47 instances), while in the Lithuanian idioms
numbers one (99 instances), two (35 instances), and nine (39 instances) are the most frequent.
The frequency of occurrence of the numbers one and two in idioms of the two languages
cannot be explained from symbolic point of view; the use of these numbers is mostly
determined by logic and reality. However, the frequent use of the number nine in the
Lithuanian idioms proves the close connection of this number with the Lithuanian culture;
thus, the number nine is regarded as deeply symbolic.
In the analysis 5 instances of occurrence of numbers in the idioms are considered being
a border line of number productivity in idioms i.e. if there are five or less than five idioms
containing a particular number, then such a number is considered to be unproductive and vice
versa. According to this, the numbers seven (3 instances) and eight (1 instance) are
unproductive in the English idioms; and the numbers six (1 instance), seven (4 instances),
eight (0 instances), and ten (4 instances) can be considered as unproductive in the Lithuanian
idioms.
The research also revealed that the number eight is not productive in the formation of
idioms both in the English and Lithuanian languages; there was found only 1 instance of the
number eight in the English idioms and no instances of this number in the Lithuanian idioms.
The tendency towards not using the number eight in the idioms of both languages can be
explained by the fact that this number does not bear any symbolic meaning in the English and
Lithuanian cultures. Also, the number seven is not frequent both in the English and Lithuanian
number idioms (3 instances in the English idioms and 4 instances in the Lithuanian idioms). It
is not surprising that this number is not common to the Lithuanian idioms; but, it was difficult
to predict that the number seven (being one the most symbolic numbers in the English culture)
is not frequently used in the English idioms. Besides, the numbers six (1 instance) and ten (4
52
instances) are not typical of Lithuanian idioms, while these numbers are relatively frequent
(six - 6 instances; ten - 6 instances) in the English idioms.
In addition, idioms which include two numbers at once are called mixed type number
idioms in the analysis. There were distinguished 10 English mixed type number idioms (e.g.
ten to one (something is very likely) and 18 Lithuanian mixed type number idioms (e.g. nei
penki nei devyni (nonsense)).
2) The meanings of numbers in the idioms
The results of data analysis demonstrated that English and Lithuanian number idioms
can evoke similar as well as different associations.
As was mentioned before the usage of the number one can be explained by logic and
reality; therefore, it is not directly related to the symbolic meaning of the number. The number
one (or first) in the English idioms refers to something or somebody superior to all the others.
This meaning can include such meanings as: the most important, notorious, excellent, and of
the highest quality (e.g. public enemy number one, one-horse race, first among equals, first
past the post, of the first order (or magnitude), of the first water, etc.). On the contrary, this
number within Lithuanian idioms has three most frequent meanings: 1) to get along, to have a
friendly relationship or to have the same opinion (e.g iš vieno eiti (to go together), kaip
vienas (as one), viena giesmė (one song), vienu kąsniu misti (to eat one mouthful of
something); 2) to do something together, to be in accord ( e.g. iš vieno, per vieną, per vienas
kitą, į vieną daiktą); 3) the same, identical or similar (e.g. vienas į vieną, vienas iš vieno
(similar), kaip vienas (as one)).
Both in the Lithuanian and English number idioms two is associated with the lack of
unity and separation. This number implies some contrary notions, i.e. one (positive, right) or
another (negative, left) side of something. Besides, the number two (or second) in the English
idioms is frequently associated with thinking or hesitating (when you need more time to think
about something; it may also include inability to chose between two alternatives) (e.g. on
second thoughts, have second thoughts (about), be in (or of) two minds). However, the
number two in the Lithuanian idioms can be used in the positive senses in order to refer to
love and affection (e.g. kaip du balandžiai (‘like two doves’)), two people doing something
together (e.g. du vienu (‘two together’)) or an assistant (e.g. antra ranka (‘the second hand)’
and antromis rankomis (‘with second hands’)).
As for the number three, it is not used frequently in the English idioms (10 instances);
thus, this number does not communicate any particular meaning in the English idioms.
Although, it can be pointed out that the number three holds positive associations more
frequently than negative ones (e.g. positive: three musketeers, third time lucky, three cheers
53
for; negative: three sheets to (or in) the wind). While in the Lithuanian culture the number
three plays an extremely important role. Therefore, it is more frequent in the Lithuanian
idioms (22 instances), than in English ones. In idioms the number three is often used to
express time (e.g. treti (trečia) pernai, treti propernai (long ago), po trečio (‘after the third’ –
too late), tris dienas su pakaičiu (very briefly)). Also, the number three can go together with
the word ‘grašis’ (name for a coin) as a part of a compound word in the sense of something of
little value or unimportant (e.g savo trejoką kišti, savo trigrašį pridėti, savo trigrašį prikišti,
su savo trigrašiu kištis (add (or put in) your twopenn'orth) and už trigrašį (for three pence)).
Besides, the number three may be associated with two identical and one different image (e.g.
du tuščius trečią nepilną (‘two empty and a third incomplete’- not to give (pay) anything at
all) and du baltus, trečią kaip sniegą (‘two white, a third like the snow’ - not to receive (find)
anything)). The idioms show that the numbers two and three used in one idiom represent
nothingness.
In the English idioms as well as in the Lithuanian idioms the meaning of four directions
is typical of the number four. In both languages the number four frequently goes with the
word the wind(s) (‘vėjas/vėjai’) (e.g. to the four winds, be scattered to the four winds; iš
keturių vėjų, nuo keturių vėjų (‘from four winds’)).
The analysis showed that both in the English and Lithuanian idioms the number five is
associated with the part of the body, namely, with five fingers of a hand (e.g. give me five, a
bunch of fives; penkiais pirštais nupirkti (‘to buy with five fingers’)). The number five may
communicate positive and negative meanings. Positive meaning is expressed by such idioms
as give me five (said when you want to hit someone‘s hand with your hand in order to show
that you are very pleased about something you have achieved together, or that you are pleased
to see them); kaip penkis pirštus (‘as five fingers’) – to know something/ somebody very
well). However, in the Lithuanian idioms five more often refers to something negative (e.g.
penkių neišmano, penkių nepaskaito, penkių nesuskaito, iki penkių nesuskaito − unintelligent,
crazy person, a person who is not clever enough to count to five; penki pirštai (‘five fingers’),
penkiais pirštais nupirkti (‘to buy with five fingers’) − the process of stealing something). In
the English idioms one idiom communicate a negative meaning e.g. bunch of fives (a fist or a
punch). In addition, the number five is used to refer to time in the English idioms (e.g. take
five, nine to five); while Lithuanian idioms do not communicate such meaning.
It was discovered that the number six is not typical of Lithuanian idioms. Only one
idiom which is used to express surprise was found (e.g. kad (tave...) šeši); while in the
English idioms the number six evokes mainly negative associations For instance, this number
may communicate the following meanings: the total confusion or disarray (at sixes and
54
sevens), to affect someone very severely (hit (or knock) someone for six), someone dead and
buried (six feet under) etc.
The number seven is also not very frequently used in the English as well as Lithuanian
idioms. Even though the number seven is very symbolic in the British culture, it is not
frequent in the idioms. The number seven is usually associated with something magical in the
English idioms (e.g. seven-league boots, in seventh heaven). In the Lithuanian idioms the
number seven does not reveal any tendency towards particular meaning. It can be associated
feeling of happiness (e.g. septintame danguje (in seventh heaven), something inaccessible or
difficult to reach (e.g. po septyniais užraktais (‘under seven locks’), the feeling of exhaustion
(e.g. septyni prakaitai išpila (sweat blood or sweat your guts out), and the illness diarrhoea
(iki septinto vainiko)).
Like in the Lithuanian idioms, in the English idioms the number eight is not productive.
The number nine in the English idioms is not frequently used (8 instances) and it does
not have any established pattern of usage. It can express time (e.g. a nine days’ wonder, nine
to five), happiness (on cloud nine), and good health (be as right as ninepence). Contrary to
English idioms, Lithuanian idioms contain the number nine more frequently. It is one of the
symbolic numbers in the Lithuanian culture and it is reflected in the Lithuanian number
idioms. The number nine in idioms is often used as an intensifier, it makes the utterance
stronger. The number nine may intensify positive as well as negative feelings, emotions or
actions (e.g. positive - the state of being happy or extremely happy: devintame danguje (on
cloud nine), kaip devintame danguje (like on cloud nine), kaip ant devyniu arklių (‘like on
nine horses’); negative - troubles, miseries or worries: devynios bėdos (‘nine troubles’) and
devynios bažnyčios (‘nine churches’)).
The meanings of the number ten do not reveal any pattern of usage both in the English
and Lithuanian number idioms. It can be noted that, the number ten is sometimes used in the
sense of counting something (e.g. count to ten, it’s handbags at ten paces) in the English
idioms. Besides, most of the Lithuanian idioms containing the number ten can be used
interchangeably with idioms containing other numbers (e.g. ant dešimto vainiko (diarrhea) is
interchangeable with ant trečio vainiko, į devintą vainiką, į trečią vainiką, iki devinto vainiko,
iki septinto vainiko).
3) The meaning of quantity
It should be pointed out that numbers in the English idioms the same as in the
Lithuanian idioms might be used in their original meaning, i.e. expressing quantity. However,
numbers in the English idioms do not tend to be used in this sense (9 instances); whereas,
Lithuanian number idioms convey the meaning of quantity more often (17 instances). Both in
55
the English and Lithuanian idioms the number one is used to refer to a very small quantity of
something (e.g. vienas kitas; count something on the fingers of one hand); yet, in the
Lithuanian number idioms one may also communicate the meaning of everyone (e.g. ligi
vienam) or two people (vienas ant vieno). Two refers to the amount of two of something in the
English as well as in the Lithuanian idioms (e.g. du vienu; it takes two to tango). But, in the
English idioms this number has an additional meaning i.e. lack of something (e.g. not have
two pennies to rub together); while, the meanings of the same amount of something, double
quantity and more than necessary are conveyed by the Lithuanian idioms containing the
number two. The number three refers to three people or three times (e.g. three musketeers, the
big Three, three cheers for) in the English idioms; whereas, a large indefinite quantity is
communicated by this number in the Lithuanian idioms (e.g. trejos devynerios). The number
four is used to describe the number of people (e.g. The big Four) in the English idioms;
however this number is not used to convey quantity in the Lithuanian idioms. Also, the
numbers six, seven and eight do not imply an amount of something. The meaning of large
(indefinite) quantity is expressed by the number nine in the idioms of both languages (e.g.
treja devynelia; go down (or drop or fall) like ninepins). Finally, the number ten (or two)
having the meaning of plentiful of something is used only in the English idioms (e.g. ten (or
two) a penny)).
It should be noted that in the English idioms numbers tend to be used with the words
‘penny’ and ‘pence’, for instance, the numbers two or ten in the idioms add (or put in) your
twopenn'orth and two (or ten) a penny, the number six in the expression on a sixpence (of a
stop or turn), and the number nine in the idiom no more than ninepence in the shilling. It can
be noticed that in the idioms in which the numbers go together with the words ‘penny’ or
‘pence’, the meaning of numbers is something of little value.
4) Interchangeability
In addition, English number idioms do not display a tendency for being interchangeable.
There were found only two cases of such idioms e.g. two (or ten) a penny (plentiful or easily
obtained and consequently of little value) and two (or three) sheets to (or in) the wind
(drunk).
On the contrary, basically all the numbers appearing in the Lithuanian idioms show a
tendency to be used interchangeably. Thus, the idioms containing different numbers may
communicate the same meaning. For instance, the numbers two, three, and four in the idioms
antras kelis (brother’s children) antri keliai (not the closest relatives), trečias kelis (cousin’s
children), treti keliai (not very distant relatives), and ketvirti keliai (distant relatives) usually
go together with the word ‘kelis/keliai‘ (knee/knees) and refer to distant relatives with a
56
slightly different shade of meaning. Thus, almost all the idioms can be used interchangeably.
However, it can be distinguished that the singular form of the word kelis (knee) refers to
brother’s children (antras kelis) and cousin’s children (trečias kelis); therefore these idioms
cannot be changed one into another, while idioms containing plural forms keliai (knees) have
similar meanings. Besides, there is one idiom containing the number nine which refers to
distant relatives as well; therefore, it can be used interchangeably with the above described
idioms (e.g. kaip devintas vanduo nuo kisieliaus (‘like the ninth water from pap’)).
Sometimes one and the same Lithuanian number idiom might have different case
endings or prefixes, for instance: vienai (vienui, vienų, vienut, vienum) vienas; treti pernai,
treti propernai. There is also the case when two idioms have similar meanings and almost the
same word structure and differ only in prepositions, for example, iš keturių vėjų, nuo keturių
vėjų.
5) Somatic and natural number idioms
Only 12 somatic idioms (according to Kalinauskas’ classification they are the idioms
which contain the names of parts of the body) were discovered in the English idioms (e.g.
sleep with one eye open); whereas, 37 instances of somatic idioms can be distinguished in the
Lithuanian number idioms. Somatic idioms are so common to the Lithuanian idioms probably
because our body is the closest and easily reachable ‘thing’ which can help people to count
and it is related to our feelings and senses. The numbers one, two, three, and four are found to
be used together with parts of the body, for instance, pirma galva ant karkužės, abiem ausimis
gaudyti, trečios rankos, ketvirti keliai, etc.
Natural idioms (the same classification) might be also distinguished both in the English
(15 instances) and Lithuanian (27 instances) number idioms. Natural idioms are those which
contain the names of living or non-living objects of nature as a headword, for instance,
animals (8 instances in the English number idioms, e.g. ride two horses (at the same time); 11
instances in the Lithuanian number idioms e.g. kaip ant devyniu arklių;) or natural
phenomena i.e. a thunderstorm, water, the wind, the earth, and the sky (heaven or cloud) (7
English number idioms, e.g. to the four winds 16 Lithuanian number idioms, e.g. pirmos
perkūnijos trenktas).
6) Semantic groups
Six most typical semantic groups of number idioms can be distinguished both in the
English and Lithuanian languages, they are the following:
1) Quantity (English - 9 instances; Lithuanian - 17 instances);
2) Not intelligent person (English - 6 instances; Lithuanian - 13 instances);
3) Time (English -5 instances; Lithuanian - 13 instances);
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4) Death and/or illness (English - 3 instances; Lithuanian - 10 instances);
5) Happiness (English - 4 instances; Lithuanian - 7 instances);
6) Work and exhaustion (English - 2 instances; Lithuanian - 8 instances).
Semantic group of number idioms which is common only to the English language is:
1) Drinking alcohol or drunk people (5 instances; e.g. down in one, have one too many,
one for the road, one over the eight, two (or three) sheets to (or in) the wind)
Semantic group of number idioms which is common only to the Lithuanian language is
1) Relatives (7 instances; examples were mentioned above)
7) Equivalents
As can be noticed from the following examples number idioms in the two comparable
languages share equivalence, e.g.:
have one foot in the grave − viena koja karste, viena koja grabe (be near death through
old age or illness)
in seventh heaven − septintame danguje (in a state of ecstasy)
on cloud nine − devintame danguje (extremely happy)
one fine day − vieną gražią dieną (at some unspecified or unknown time)
kill two birds with one stone − vienu šūviu du zuikius nušauti (achieve two aims at
once)
with one eye on − viena akimi (giving some but not all your attention to)
in two shakes (of a lamb's tail) − vienas du (very quickly)
add (or put in) your twopenn'orth − savo trejoką kišti, su savo trigrašiu kištis
(contribute your opinion, intervene)
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CONCLUSIONS
156 randomly chosen English number idioms and 212 randomly chosen Lithuanian
number idioms were analysed. The results of the analysis showed that the numbers one (70
instances) and two (47 instances) are the most productive numbers in the English idioms;
whereas, in the Lithuanian idioms besides the same numbers one (99 instances) and two (35
instances), the number nine (39 instances) is common. The frequency of occurrence of the
numbers one and two in idioms of the two languages cannot be explained from symbolic point
view; the use of these numbers is mostly determined by logic and reality. However, the
frequent use of the number nine in the Lithuanian idioms proves the close connection of this
number with the Lithuanian culture; thus, the number nine is regarded as deeply symbolic.
The results of data analysis demonstrated that numbers within English and Lithuanian
idioms can evoke similar as well as different associations for the two nations.
As was mentioned before the usage of the number one can be explained by logic and
reality; therefore, it is not directly related to the symbolic meaning of the number. The number
one (or first) in the English idioms refers to something or somebody superior to all the others.
By contrast, this number within Lithuanian idioms has three most frequent meanings: 1) to get
along, to have a friendly relationship or to have the same opinion; 2) to do something
together, to be in accord; 3) the same, identical or similar.
Both in the Lithuanian and English number idioms two is associated with the lack of
unity and separation. This number implies some contrary notions, i.e. one (positive, right) or
another (negative, left) side of something.
The number three is not used frequently in the English idioms (10 instances); thus, this
number does not communicate any particular meaning in the English idioms. Although, it can
be pointed out that the number three holds positive associations more frequently than negative
ones. On the contrary, in the Lithuanian culture the number three plays an extremely
important role. Therefore, it is more frequent in the Lithuanian idioms (22 instances), than in
English ones.
In the English idioms the meaning of four directions is typical of the number four as
well as in the Lithuanian idioms. In both languages the number four frequently goes with the
word the wind(s) (‘vėjas/vėjai’).
The analysis showed that both in the English and Lithuanian idioms the number five is
associated with the part of the body, namely, with five fingers of a hand. Number five may
communicate positive and negative meanings.
59
It was discovered that the number six is not typical of Lithuanian idioms. Only one
idiom which is used to express surprise was found; while in the English idioms the number six
evokes mainly negative associations. For instance, this number may communicate the
following meanings: 1) the total confusion or disarray; 2) to affect someone very severely; 3)
someone dead and buried, etc.
The number seven is also not very frequently used in the English as well as Lithuanian
idioms. Even though the number seven is very symbolic in the British culture, it is not
frequent in the idioms. The number seven is usually associated with something magical and
unreal in the English idioms. In the Lithuanian idioms the number seven does not reveal any
tendency towards particular meaning.
Like in the Lithuanian idioms, in the English idioms the number eight is not productive.
The number nine in the English idioms is not frequently used (8 instances) and it does
not have any established pattern of usage. Contrary to English idioms, Lithuanian idioms
contain the number nine more frequently. It is one of the symbolic numbers in the Lithuanian
culture and it is reflected in the Lithuanian number idioms. The number nine in the Lithuanian
culture means abundance of something and in the idioms it is often used as an intensifier, it
makes the utterance stronger. The number nine may intensify positive as well as negative
feelings, emotions or actions.
The meanings of the number ten do not reveal any pattern of usage both in the English
and Lithuanian number idioms. It can be noted that, the number ten is sometimes used in the
sense of counting something in the English idioms. Besides, most of the Lithuanian idioms
containing the number ten can be used interchangeably with idioms containing other numbers.
6 semantic groups of idiomatic expressions communicating different meanings were
distinguished in the English and Lithuanian languages: 1) quantity; 2) not intelligent person;
3) time; 4) death and/or illness; 5) happiness; 6) work and exhaustion. The most common
semantic groups are: 1) quantity (English - 9 instances; Lithuanian - 17 instances); 2) not
intelligent person (English - 6 instances; Lithuanian - 13 instances); 3) time (English -5
instances; Lithuanian - 13 instances); the preference for the semantic groups of quantity and
time by the two cultures might be explained by the fact that the original meaning of numbers
is associated with counting things; while, the semantic group of not intelligent person can be
treated as a group of euphemisms, because it is not polite to say directly that a person is
stupid. Besides, it was discovered that English people tend to use idiomatic expressions
speaking about drinking alcohol or drunken people (5 instances). In some of such cases
numbers may refer to glasses of beer. By contrast, this tendency on the part of Lithuanians is
60
not conspicuous. However, Lithuanian people prefer number idioms in order to speak about
relatives (7 instances).
The analysis indicated that only 12 somatic idioms were discovered in the English
idioms; whereas, 37 instances of somatic idioms can be distinguished in the Lithuanian
number idioms. Somatic idioms are so common to the Lithuanian idioms probably because
our body is the closest and easily reachable ‘thing’ which can help people to count and it is
related to our feelings and senses. The numbers one, two, three, and four are found to be used
together with parts of the body.
Natural idioms (the same classification) might be also distinguished both in the English
(15 instances) and Lithuanian (27 instances) number idioms. Natural idioms may contain as a
headword the names of animals (8 instances in the English number idioms; 11 instances in the
Lithuanian number) or natural phenomena i.e. a thunderstorm, water, the wind, the earth, and
the sky (heaven or cloud) (7 English number idioms; 16 Lithuanian number idioms). Both
English and Lithuanian people display a tendency towards the use of natural idioms because
animals and nature are universal phenomena, and they are closely connected with people’s
everyday life.
In addition, numbers in the English idioms are not usually interchangeable. On the
contrary, basically all the numbers appearing in the Lithuanian idioms can be used
interchangeably. Thus, the idioms containing different numbers may communicate the same
meaning.
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SANTRAUKA
Šio darbo tikslas – ištirti lietuviškų ir angliškų idiomų su skaičiais ypatumus ir reikšmes
(vadovaujamasi anglų-amerikiečių tradicija terminas „idioma“ yra vartojamas vietoj
lietuviško termino „frazeologizmas“); nustatyti panašumus ir skirtumus tarp skaičių
simbolinių reikšmių dviejose kultūrose ir pamėginti juos paaiškinti. Tyrimui atlikti buvo
naudojamasi kiekybine ir kokybine analizė, bei teorine medžiaga, susijusi su idiomų ir skaičių
simbolinėmis rekšmėmis. Šiame darbe aptariami tokie teoriniai aspektai, kaip idiomos
apibrėžimo problema, kriterijai naudojami atskirti idiomas nuo laisvųjų žodžių junginių,
idiomų semantinė klasifikacija, ir idiomų ir kultūros ryšiai. Pagrindiniams dviejų kalbų
idiomų panašumams ir skirtumams pagrįsti buvo surinktos 156 anglų ir 212 lietuvių kalbų
idiomos.
Analizės rezultatai parodė, kad skaičiai vienas (70 idiomos) ir du (47 idiomos) yra
dažniausiai pasitaikaintys skaičiai anglų kalbos idiomose, tuo tarpu lietuvių kalbos idiomose
apart tų pačių skaičių, vienas (99 idiomos) ir du (35 idiomos), yra paplytęs skaičius devyni (39
idiomos). Skaičių vienas is du dažnumas idiomose negali būti paaiškintas iš simbolinės pusės.
Šių skaičių vartojimą daugiausia lemia logika ir realybė. Tačiau skaičiaus devyni dažnas
vartojimas lietuviškose idiomose parodo šio skaičiaus glaudų ryšį su Lietuvos kultūra.
Analizė atskleidė, kad skaičiai anglų ir lietuvių kalbų idiomose gali sukelti abiems
tautoms panašias ir skirtingas asociacijas. Analizė parodė, kad skaičiai vienas, trys, šeši,
devyni ir dešimt abiejų kalbų idiomose vartojami skirtingoms reikšmėms atskleisiti. Skaičių
du, keturi ir penki vartojamas gali būti pagrįstas panašiomis asociacijomis. Tuo tarpu, skaičiai
septyni ir aštuoni yra neproduktyvūs abiejose kalbose.
Be to, atlikta analizė parodė, kad abiejų kalbų idiomos su skaičiais gali priklausyti toms
pačioms semantinėms grupėms. Buvo išsiskirtos 6 semantinės grupės, kurios išreiškia
skirtingas idiomų reikšmes anglų ir lietuvių kalbose, tai yra: 1) kiekis; 2) ne protingas
žmogus; 3) laikas; 4) mirtis ir/ar ligos; 5) laimė; 6) darbas ir išsekimas. Dažniausiai
pasitaikančios semantinės grupės yra: 1) kiekis (anglų kalboje - 9 idiomos; lietuvių kalboje –
17 idiomų); 2) ne protingas žmogus (anglų - 6 idiomos; lietuvių - 13 idiomų); 3) laikas (anglų
-5 idiomos; lietuvių - 13 idiomų). Semantinių grupių „kiekis“ ir „laikas“ dažnumą abiejose
kultūrose lemia skaičių pagrindinė funkcija – skaičiavimas, o semantinė grupė „ne protingas
žmogus“ gali būti traktuojama, kaip grupė eufemizmų. Taip pat duomenų analizės rezultatai
atskleidė, kad yra dar dvi skirtingos semantinės grupės, kurios yra būdingos tik vienai iš
kalbų, t.y. semantinė grupė „alkoholio vartojimas“ − būdinga anglų idiomoms ir semantinė
grupė „giminės“ − būdinga lietuvių idiomoms.
62
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4. Paulauskas, J. (ed.) 1995. Sisteminis lietuvių kalbos frazeologijos žodynas. Kaunas: Šviesa.
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6. Stern, K. (ed.) 2000. Longman Idioms Dictionary. Longman Pub Group.
7. Wright, J. (ed).1992. Idioms Organiser: organised by metaphor, topic and key word.
Heinle.
65
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Table 1. English idioms containing the number ‘one’ or ‘first’
Public enemy number one
1. a notorious wanted criminal
2. a person or thing regarded as the greatest threat to a
group or community
Take care of (or look after) informal, be selfishly absorbed in protecting your own
number one
person and interests
One-horse race
a contest in which one candidate or competitor is clearly
superior to all the others and seems certain to win
One-horse town
informal, a small town with few and poor facilities; used
about a town that you think is small and boring
Be one in the eye for if something that someone does is one in the eye for someone
somebody
else, it will annoy that person because they did not want it to
happen or did not think it could happen;
a disappointment or setback for someone or something,
especially one that is perceived as being well deserved
To have a one-track mind
to think entirely or almost entirely about one subject, mind
set on one idea
We're back to square one
back to the beginning, to start again
Be all one to
make no difference to someone
A one-hit wonder
used about a singer, musical group etc that has only one
successful song and then is never very successful again, or
about the song that was successful
A one-night stand
1. an occasion when two people have sex, but do not intend
to see each other again;
2. a person someone has sex with once but does not intend
to see again.
There’s more than one way used in order to say that there is more than one way of
to skin a cat
achieving something
In more ways than one
used in order to emphasize that something happens or is true
in many ways or for many reasons
Be a one-way ticket to used in order to say that what someone is doing will have a
something
result especially a bad one, that cannot be changed
66
For one thing
spoken, used in order to give a reason for what you are
saying when there are other reasons but it is an important
one
Not know the first thing spoken, used in order to say that someone does not know
about
anything about something or someone
One thing led to another
used in order to say that a situation developed, when you are
not going to give details because everything happened in a
way that everyone understands
What with one thing and spoken, used in order to say that there are several reasons
another
why something happened, especially when you are
explaining why you have not done something
Be/keep/stay one step ahead to have an advantage in a situation because you are better
(of)
prepared for what is going to happen, or know more than
other people.
Go one better
1. narrowly surpass a previous effort or achievement;
2. narrowly outdo another person
Count something on the used to emphasize the small number of a particular thing
fingers of one hand
From day one
from the very beginning
One of those days
a day when several things go wrong
As one door closes, another proverb, you shouldn’t be discouraged by failure, as other
opens
opportunities will soon present themselves
In one ear and out the other heard but disregarded or quickly forgotten
Don’t put all your eggs in proverb, don’t risk everything on the success of one venture
one basket
With one eye on
giving some but not all your attention to
In (or at) one fell swoop
all in one go
(This expression comes from Macduff’s appalled reaction to
the murder of his wife and children in Shakespeare’s
Macbeth: ‘Oh hell-kite! ...All my pretty chickens, and their
dam At one fell swoop?’)
One fine day
at some unspecified or unknown time
Have one foot in the grave
informal, often humorous, be near death through old age or
illness
67
(You may hear people say that someone has ‘one foot in the
grave and the other on a banana peel’ or ‘…and the other
on a bar of soap’ to show that they are in a bad situation
that is quickly getting worse.)
One good turn deserves if someone does you a favour, you should take the chance to
another
repay it
Do something with one do something easily
hand (tied) behind
your back
Pull one out of the hat
bring off an unexpected trick in an apparently desperate
situation
(The image here is of a rabbit pulled out of a magician’s
hat.)
Have one too many
become slightly drunk
One hell of a
used to emphasize something very bad or great, informal
Like a hen with one chick absurdly fussy and overanxious
(or chicken)
One jump ahead
one step or stage ahead of someone else and so having the
advantage over them
Be too (or one too) many outwit or baffle
for
One minute to midnight
informal, the last moment or opportunity
One nation
a nation not divided by social inequality
(One nation was a political slogan of the 1990s, associated
especially with the debate between the right and left wings of
the British Conservative Party.)
In one piece
unharmed or undamaged, especially after a dangerous
journey or experience
Sleep with one eye open
sleep very lightly so as to be aware of what is happening
around you
One swallow doesn’t make proverb, a single fortunate event does not mean that what
a summer
follows will also be good
In words of one syllable
using very simple language; expressed plainly
68
In the first flush
in a state of freshness and vigour
(The exact origins of flush as a noun are unknown; early
senses share the idea of a sudden rush or abundance of
something (e.g. water, growth of grass, or emotion).)
Cast (or throw) the first be the first to accuse or criticize
stone
(The phrase comes from an incident recorded in St John’s
Gospel. A group of men preparing to stone an adulterous
woman to death were addressed by Jesus with the words:
’He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone
at her’ (John 8:7).)
Make the first move
to be a person who tries to start a romantic or sexual
relationship, when two people who like each other are
together
Get something in one
British informal, understand or succeed in guessing
something immediately
One on one (or one to one)
denoting or referring to a situation in which two parties
come into direct contact, opposition, or correspondence
The one that got away
something desirable that has eluded capture; used in order
to say that someone did not get the thing that they most
wanted
(all) Rolled into one
(of characteristics drawn from different people or things)
combined in one person or thing
Down in one
British spoken, used in order to tell someone to drink
something in one mouthful
Go one better than
to do something that is more advanced or more generous
than someone else
Ten to one
informal, used in order to emphasize that something is very
likely
Put one over on somebody
informal, if you put one over on an appointment or rival, or
get one over on them, you gain a victory or advantage over
them; deceive someone into accepting something false
There is one born every humorous, something that you say about someone who you
minute
think has been very stupid
One for the road
spoken, a last alcoholic drink before leaving a place
69
One and the same
used in order to emphasize that two things or people are
exactly the alike
Be/get one up on somebody
to do something better than someone you are competing
(get one over on somebody)
with, or get an advantage over them
Kill two birds with one achieve two aims at once
stone
Two heads are better than proverb, it’s helpful to have the advice or opinion of a
one
second person
One over the eight
British informal, slightly drunk
(The idea behind this idiom is that a drinker can reasonably
be expected to consume eight glasses of beer without
becoming drunk. The expression was originally armed
forces’ slang from the early 20th century.)
Owe someone one
informal, feel indebted to someone; said to thank someone
for helping you and as a way of saying that you will do
something for them in the future
First among equals
the person or thing having the highest status in a group
(This expression is a translation of the Latin phrase primus
inter pares, which is also used in English.)
First blood
the first point or advantage gained in a contest
(First blood is literally 'the first shedding of blood',
especially in a boxing match or formerly in duelling with
swords.)
First come, first served
used to indicate that people will be dealt with strictly in the
order in which they arrive or apply
First past the post
1. (of a contestant, especially a horse, in a race) winning a
race by being the first to reach the finishing line
2. British, denoting an electoral system whereby a candidate
or party is selected by achievement of a simple majority
First thing early in the before anything else
morning
First things first
spoken, used in order to say that you have to deal with the
most important parts of a plan or situation before you can
start thinking about the less important parts
70
(First Things First was the title of a book by George
Jackson, subtitled 'Addresses to young men' (1894))
Of
the
first
order
(or used to denote something that is excellent or considerable of
its kind
magnitude)
(In astronomy, magnitude is a measure of the degree of
brightness of a star. Stars of the first magnitude are the most
brilliant.)
old-fashioned, extreme or unsurpassed of kind; of
Of the first water
the
highest quality
(The sense of water referred to in this expression is 'the
quality of brilliance and transparency of a diamond or other
gem': if a diamond or pearl is of the first water it possesses
the greatest possible degree of brilliance and transparency.
In its transferred use, however, the phrase often refers to:
someone or something regarded as undesirable, e.g. a bore
of the first water)
Table 2. English idioms containing the number ‘two’ or ‘second’
better than anything or anyone else
Second to none
In two shakes (of a lamb's very quickly
tail)
For two pins I'd, she'd, etc. used to indicate that you are very tempted to do something,
—
especially out of annoyance
Put two and two together
draw an obvious conclusion from what is known or evident
That makes two of us
you are in the same position or hold the same opinion as the
previous speaker
Two can play at that game
used to assert that one person's bad behaviour can be copied
to that person's disadvantage
Two (or ten) a penny
chiefly British, plentiful or easily obtained and consequently
of little value
A two-edged sword
a course of action or situation having both positive and
negative effects
Add
(or
put
twopenn'orth
in)
your informal, contribute your opinion
(The literal meaning of twopenn'orth is an amount of
71
something that is worth or costs two pence; by extension it
can also be used to mean ‘fallen out of use '.)
a situation or relationship between two people or groups in
Two-way street
which action is required from both parties; something that
works both ways
Play second fiddle to
take a subordinate role to someone or something
(The expression derives from the respective roles of the
fiddles or violins in an orchestra. Both play first fiddle and
play third fiddle are much less common. The implication of
playing second fiddle is often that it is somewhat
demeaning.)
Second childhood
a state of childishness that sometimes occurs in old age
On second thoughts
spoken, used in order to say that you have changed your
mind
Have
second
thoughts to change your mind about something you have decided to
(about)
do
A second thought
a moment’s further consideration; any worry or concern
Be in (or of) two minds
be unable to decide between alternatives
Put two and two together draw a plausible but incorrect conclusion from what is
and make five
known or evident
Kill two birds with one achieve two aims at once
stone
Two heads are better than proverb, it's helpful to have the advice or opinion of a
one
second person
Two's company, three’s a
said when two people are relaxed and enjoying each other's
crowd
company but another person would make them feel less
comfortable
Know a thing or two about
used in order to say that someone has a lot of knowledge
something
gained from experience of something; be experienced or
shrewd
Teach (or tell) someone a
informal, impart useful information or experience
thing or two
It takes two to tango
used in order to say that if a problem, situation, or argument
involves two people, they are both equally responsible for it
72
Get your/a second wind
to find energy or strength to continue to do something or to
(also catch/find your second develop further, after a period of being weak or tired
wind)
Not care two straws
care little or not at all
Cross as two sticks
British informal, very annoyed or grumpy
(This expression is a play on the two senses of cross, firstly
‘bad-tempered’ and secondly 'intersecting'.)
Like a dog with two tails
showing great pleasure; delighted
(The image here is of a dog wagging its tail as an expression
of happiness.)
Not care (or give) a hoot (or informal , not care at all
two hoots)
Have two left feet
be clumsy or awkward
No two ways about it
spoken, used to convey that there can be no doubt about
something; used in order to emphasize that something is true
Like two peas in a pod (also
so similar as to be indistinguishable or nearly so; used
as alike as two peas)
about two people or things that are exactly like each other
Take someone down a peg
make someone realize that they are less talented or
or two
important than they think they are
Not have two pennies to
British spoken, lack money; be very poor.
rub together
Not have two — to rub
informal, have none or hardly any of the specified items,
together
especially coins
Two sandwiches short of a
informal, (of a person) stupid or crazy
picnic
Ride two horses (at the
British, to be supporting two opposite ideas or opposing
same time)
groups, or trying to achieve two very different things at the
same time
Have a second string to
British, have an alternative resource that you can make use
your bow
of if the first one fails
(This is a metaphor from archery; related expressions
include have several strings to your bow and add another
string to your bow. Second string can also be used on its
own to mean simply ‘an alternative resource or course of
73
action’.)
Serve two masters
take orders from two superiors or follow two conflicting or
opposing principles or policies at the same time.
(This phrase alludes to the warning given in the Bible
against trying to serve both God and Mammon (Matthew
6:24).)
The lesser of two evils
the less harmful or unpleasant of two bad choices or
possibilities
Fall between two stools
British, fail to be or to take one of two satisfactory
alternatives
(This phrase comes from the proverb between two stools one
falls to the ground, first referred to in English by the
medieval writer John Gower in Confessio Amantis (c.1390).)
Two (or three) sheets to (or
old-fashioned, to be drunk
in) the wind
(The origins of this expression are nautical. Sheets here are
the ropes attached to the corners of a ship’s sail, used for
controlling the extent and direction of the sail; if they are
hanging loose in the wind, the vessel is likely to be out of
control or taking an erratic course.)
Two sides of the same coin
used in order to say that two problems or situations are so
closely related that they are really just two parts of the same
thing
Two sides of a shield
two ways of looking at something; two sides to a question
Thick as two (short) planks
informal, very stupid
(Variants of this expression include thick as a plank and
thick as a brick. There is a play on thick in its basic sense ‘of
relatively great depth from side to side’ and its colloquial
sense 'stupid'.)
A trick worth two of that
informal, a much better plan or expedient
(This phrase is from Shakespeare’s Henry the Fourth, Part1:
‘I know a trick worth two of that 'faith'.)
Make the beast with two
slang., to have sex
backs
(The idiom comes from Shakespeare’s play Othello.)
Put two fingers up to
British spoken, to do something to show that you do not
74
respect someone or something, usually someone in authority
or something traditional or official
(In Britain putting two fingers up with the back of your hand
towards someone is a very rude way of showing you are
angry with them or do not like them.)
Table 3. English idioms containing the number ‘three’ or ‘third’
Three musketeers
three close associates or inseparable friends
(The Three Musketeers is a translation of Les Trois
Mousquetaires, the title of a novel by the 19th-century
French writer Alexandre Dumas père.)
Threescore and ten
the age of seventy
(In the Bible, threescore and ten amounts to the allotted
span of a person's life: 'The days of our age are threescore
years and ten' (Psalm 90:10).)
Third time lucky
after twice failing to accomplish something, the third attempt
may be successful
(Third time lucky has been proverbial since the mid 19th
century; a US variant is third time is the charm.)
Two's company, three’s a said when two people are relaxed and enjoying each other's
crowd
company but another person would make them feel less
comfortable
the big Three, Four, etc.
informal, the dominant group of three, four, etc
Three cheers for
three successive hurrahs expressing appreciation or
congratulation of someone or something
(Qualified approval or mild enthusiasm is sometimes
expressed by two cheers for—, as in the title of E. M.
Forster’s book Two Cheers for Democracy (1951).)
Clogs to clogs in three the return of a family to poverty after one generation of
generations
prosperity
The three Rs
reading, (w)riting, and (a)rithmetic, regarded as the
fundamentals of elementary education
Give somebody the third to ask someone a lot of questions, in a serious or threatening
degree
way, in order to get information from them
75
Two (or three) sheets to (or informal, drunk
in) the wind
(The origins of this expression are nautical. Sheets here are
the ropes attached to the corners of a ship’s sail, used for
controlling the extent and direction of the sail; if they are
hanging loose in the wind, the vessel is likely to be out of
control or taking an erratic course.)
Table 4. English idioms containing the number ‘four’ or ‘fourth’
On all fours with
equal with; presenting an exact analogy with
To the four winds
1. in all directions
2. so as to be abandoned or neglected
Be scattered to the four British, to be broken up and lost, or spread over a wide area
winds
The fourth estate
the press; the profession of journalism
(The three traditional Estates of the Realm (the Crown, the
House of Lords, and the House of Commons) are now
viewed as having been joined by the press, which is
regarded as having equal power. As early as 1843 Lord
Macaulay stated: The gallery in which the reporters sit has
become a fourth estate of the realm'.)
The big Three, Four, etc.
informal, the dominant group of three, four, etc.
The four (or far) corners of
remote regions of the earth, far away from each other
the world (or earth)
Firing on all (four)
working or functioning at a peak level
cylinders
(This expression is a metaphor from an internal-combustion
engine: a cylinder is said to be firing when the fuel inside it
is ignited.)
Four eyes (four-eyes)
spoken, a rude expression used about someone who wears
glasses (used especially by children).
Table 5. English idioms containing the number ‘five’ or ‘fifth’
Give me five
slang, said when you want to hit someone‘s hand with your
hand in order to show that you are very pleased about
something you have achieved together, or that you are
76
pleased to see them
Take five
spoken, to stop what you are doing in order to rest (take a
short break; relax)
(Five here is short for 'a five-minute break')
A bunch of fives
1. a fist
2. British informal, a punch
Fifth column
an organized group of people sympathizing with and
working for the enemy within a country at war or otherwise
under attack
( Fifth column is a translation of the Spanish phrase quinta
columna: during the Spanish Civil War, an extra body of
supporters was claimed by General Mola as being within
Madrid when he besieged the city with four columns of
Nationalist forces in 1936.)
Nine to five
typical office hours
Put two and two together draw a plausible but incorrect conclusion from what is
and make five
known or evident
Know how many beans
British informal, be intelligent; have your wits about you;
make five
used to say that someone is sensible, especially about money
The big five
a name given by hunters to the five largest and most
dangerous African mammals: rhinoceros, elephant, buffalo,
lion, and leopard.
Table 6. English idioms containing the number ‘six’
Hit (or knock) someone for British informal, affect someone very severely; utterly
six
overwhelm someone
(In this expression, six stands for six runs, referring to a hit
in cricket which sends the ball clear over the boundary of
the ground for a score of six runs.)
Six feet under
informal, dead and buried
(Six feet is the traditional depth of a grave.)
On a sixpence (of a stop or British informal, within a small area or short distance
turn)
(The old sixpenny coin was one of the smallest in circulation
prior to decimalization in 1971.)
77
At sixes and sevens
in a state of total confusion or disarray
(This phrase originated as gambling slang and may be an
alteration or corruption of Old French cinque (five) and sice
(six), these being the highest numbers on dice. The idea of
risking all your goods on the two highest numbers led to the
idea of carelessness and neglect of your possessions and
eventually to the development of the phrase's current
meaning.)
Six of one and half a dozen used to convey that there is no real difference between two
of the other
alternatives
Six of the best
a caning as a punishment, traditionally with six strokes of
the cane
(Six of the best was formerly a common punishment in boys'
schools, but it is now chiefly historical in its literal sense
and tends to be used figuratively or humorously.)
Table 7. English idioms containing the number ‘seven’ or ‘seventh’
Seven-league boots
the ability to travel very fast on foot
(This phrase comes from the French fairy story of Hop-o'My-Thumb, in which magic boots enable the wearer to
travel seven leagues at each stride.)
In seventh heaven
in a state of ecstasy
(In late Jewish and Muslim theology, there were considered
to be seven heavens, and the seventh of these was the
highest, where a state of eternal bliss was to be enjoyed.)
At sixes and sevens
in a state of total confusion or disarray
Table 8. English idiom containing the number ‘eight’
One over the eight
British informal, slightly drunk
(The idea behind this idiom is that a drinker can reasonably
be expected to consume eight glasses of beer without
becoming drunk. The expression was originally armed
forces' slang from the early 20th century.)
78
Table 9. English idioms containing the number ‘nine’
Dressed (up) to the nines
dressed very smartly or elaborately
(This expression may come from the 99th Wiltshire Regiment,
a military unit who were noted for their smart appearance.)
A nine days’ wonder
something that attracts enthusiastic interest for a short while
but is then ignored or forgotten
On cloud nine
extremely happy
(On cloud nine refers to a ten-part classification of clouds in
which nine was second highest. A dated variant of the
expression is on cloud seven.)
No more than ninepence in of low intelligence, dated
the shilling
(Since the decimalization of the British coinage, this phrase
has gradually fallen out of use, but there are numerous other
humorous variations on the theme of someone not
possessing their proper share of brains or intelligence, for
example)
Go down (or drop or fall) topple or succumb in large numbers
like ninepins
Nine to five
typical office hours
Nine times out of ten
on nearly every occasion
Be as right as ninepence
old-fashioned British, to be completely healthy
Table 10. English idioms containing the number ‘ten’
Two (or ten) a penny
chiefly British, plentiful or easily obtained and consequently
of little value;
Threescore and ten
the age of seventy
Nine times out of ten
on nearly every occasion
Count to ten
count to ten under your breath in order to prevent yourself
from reacting angrily to something.
It’s handbags at ten paces
British, a humorous expression used about a fight or
argument in which neither side is very effective
(This idiom comes from the old custom fighting duels, in
which a man was insulted or angered by another man
79
arranged to fight him with guns or swords. In a duel with
pistols (=guns), the men stood ten steps or ‘paces’ from each
other when they fired.)
Ten to one
informal, used in order to emphasize that something is very
likely
Appendix 2
Table 1. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘one’ or ‘first’
Vienas vienoj
visiškai
Vienas eina už vieną
sutaria
Vienas kitas
labai nedaug
Vienai (vienui, vienų, vienut, vienum)
vičvienaitis
vienas
Vienas kala, kitas auksina (dailina)
apie
daug
kalbančius,
pliauškančius,
įtikinėjančius, niekus pliauškančius
Ant vieno (vienos)
rizikuojant
Ant vieno (vienos, viena) eiti
rizikuojant
Vienas ant vieno
tik esant dviese, prie keturių akių
Ant vienos atsiduoti
pasiryžti
Ant vienam
visiškai visi
Be vieno
visiškai visi
Be vienojo
visiškai visus
Vieno balkio trūksta
pusprotis, kvailokas
Vieno balkio trūksta į galvą
pusprotis, kvailokas
Be vieno balkio
pusprotis, kvailokas
Vienas į vieną
apie visus vienodus, grynus, rinktinius, be
priemaišų
Iki vieno
visiškai (visi)
Iki vienam
Iki be vienam
Iš vieno
1. nuolat, be sustojimo
2. ištisai
3. sutartinai, kartu, drauge
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Iš vieno eiti
sutarti
Vienas iš vieno
1. apie visus vienodus, grynus, rinktinius, be
priemaišų
2. sutartinai
Ligi vienam
visiškai visi
Per vieną
1. kartu, drauge
2. vienodai
Vienas už kitą (koks)
apie labai pasižyminčius kokia ypatybe
Vienas už vieną
vieningi
Vienas ir tas pats
1. vienodai
2. nesvarbu
Vienas o vienas
1. apie labai draugaujančius
2. labai panašūs
Vienas per kitą
1. gausiai
2. smarkiai
3. skubiai
4. mėgdžiojant, nenusileidžiant
Vienas per vieną
1. būriais
2. mėgdžiojant, sekant
Per vienas kitą
kartu
Po vieną
pavieniui
Pro vienas kitą
galvotrūkčiais
Vienas pro vieną
nenusileidžiant
Už vienas kito
nenusileisdami
Už vienas vieno
nenusileidiant, lenktyniaujant
Kaip vienas
labai panašūs
Vienų vien
nuolatos
Vis viena
nesvarbu
Iš pirmagalių
nuo senų senovės
Ne pirmutinis ne paskutinis
sakoma teisinant kokį dažną veiksmą
Iš pirmo
iš pradžių
Nuo pirmo
iš pradžių
Kaip vienas
1. labai panašūs
2. sutartinai
81
3. vienodai
Vienu vėju
labai greitai, per trumpą laiką
Viena akimi
apgraibomis, paviršutiniškai
Nors viena akimi
sakoma trokštant ką pamatyti
Nė viena ausimi
visai nesiklauso
Vieną bambą čiūpoti
sugyventi, sutarti
Pirmajam biesui žadėtas
labai blogas
Kaip iš vienos burnos
sutartinai
Į vieną daiktą
kartu
Vieną dieną
kartą
Vieną gražią dieną
kartą
Vienos dienos
išlaidus
Nuo pirmo gaidžio
labai anksti ryte
Su pirmaisiais gaidžiais
paryčiais, anksti
Be vieno galo
1. ištisai, be pertraukos
2. labai, nepaprastai
3. visai ne
Į vieną galą
prastai (baigė)
Pirma galva ant karkužės
juok., nėra senas
Viena galva
viengungis, nevedęs, netekėjusi
Pirmutinė galva ant pečių
juok., nėra senas
Viena giesmė
tos pat nuomonės
Vieną kartą
kadaise
Vienas kartas nemeluoja
įkliūva (po daugelių išsisukinėjimų, įvyksta tai,
kas turi įvykti, neįmanoma išsisukti)
Vienu kąsniu misti
gerai sugyventi
Vienu kąsniu užspringti
apsiriboti vienomis vedybomis
Pirmąjį kirminą maldyti
sakoma apie valgymo ar gėrimo pradžią
Viena koja
beveik (būti kur)
Viena koja karste
arti mirties
Viena koja grabe
arti mirties
Viena koja stovėti (kur)
būti arti kokios grėsmės
Ant vienos kojos stovėti
būti pasiruošusiam greitai išvykti
Ant vienos kojos
1. trumpai (būti kur)
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2. apie svaigalų gėrimą
Ant vienos kojos suktis
1. džiaugtis
2. būti judriam, vikriam
Ant vienos kojos šokti
labai džiaugtis
Pirmos perkūnijos trenktas
apie nevisai protingą
Nė vienas plaukas nenukris nuo galvos
nieko blogo neatsitiks
Pirma ranka
patikimas padėjėjas, pagalbininkas
Pirmoje rankoje
pačioje pradžioje
Viena ranka
sutartinai, apie sutartinai veikiančius
Vieną ranką laikyti
sutartinai veikti
Vieną ranką turėti
sutartinai veikti
Vieno raugo
apie vienodai besielgenčius
Vieną riešutą krimsti
draugauti, sutarti
Vieną sykį
1. kadaise, seniau
2. galų gale, pagaliau
Vienu sykiu
1. staiga
2. iš karto
Su vienu sykiu
1. staiga
2. iš karto
Vienas sykis nemeluos
įvykis, kas turi įvykti
Ant vieno siūlo suverti
rišliai pateikti, sujungti
Vienas du
1. greitai, akimirksniu
2. staiga, netikėtai
Nei vienas nei du
1. apie nenuoseklią kalbą, nenuoseklus
2. prastas netikęs
Du vienu
dviese
Nei du nei vienas
niekai
Vienas antras
labai nedaug kas
Už vienas antro
nenusileisdami
Kur vienas kur du
retai
Vienas kaip antras
visi iš eilės
Vienu šūviu du zuikius nušauti
vienu kartu atlikti du reikalus
Trečia į vieną
1. apytikriai, ne viską
2. bet kaip, nerūpestingai, atmestinai
83
Į trečią vieną
1. bet kaip, nerūpestingai, atmestinai
2. apytikriai, ne viską
Table 2. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘two’ or ‘second’
Antroji vėl
atsirado (priešgyniaujant)
Ant dvejas
abejojant
Antra apsukus
kitu popožiūriu, objektyviai žiūrint
Antra atvertus
ką bekalbėtum
Antra vertus
Antra tiek
1. dvigubai
2. tiek pat
Antroji vėl
atsirado mat (priešgyniaujant)
Kaip du balandžiai
sutariant
Du kailius nulupti
išnaudoti
Antrieji namai
pamėgtoji vieta
Vienu šūviu du zuikius nušauti
vienu kartu atlikti du reikalus
Apie antrus galus šnekėti
blevyzgoti
Į antrą galą eiti
senti
Du grybai barščiuose
daugiau negu reikia
Dviejų kąsniu nekanda
valgo, ką turi, o ne ką nori
Antras kelis
apie brolių vaikus
Antri keliai
ne patys artimiausi giminės
Ant antros kojos
sakoma raginant išgerti
Du metrus žemės duoti
apie žadamą mirtį
Dviem petnyčiomis
tik truputį
Antra pusė
1. žmona
2. jaunojo arba jaunosios svečiai
Antrą pusę vertus;
kitu požiūriu
Antra puse vertus
Į antrą pusę
labai (pvz. išsigandau)
Į antrą pusę nuvaryti;
numarinti
Į antrą pusę išvaryti
Antra ranka
padėjėjas
Antromis rankomis
turint patikimą padėjėją
84
Dviejų skatikų nevertas
labai menkas, prastas
Du baltus, trečią kaip sniegą
nieko (nerasti, negauti)
Du tuščius trečią nepilną
visai nieko (neduoti, neužmokėti)
Vienas du
3. greitai, akimirksniu
4. staiga, netikėtai
Nei vienas nei du
3. apie nenuoseklią kalbą, nenuoseklus
4. prastas netikęs
Du vienu
dviese
Nei du nei vienas
niekai
Vienas antras
labai nedaug kas
Už vienas antro
nenusileisdami
Kur vienas kur du
retai
Vienas kaip antras
visi iš eilės
Table 3. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘three’ or ‘third’
Ne trijų nenuskaito
neišprusęs
Treti (trečia)pernai
labai seniai
Treti propernai
Trečia į vieną
3. apytikriai, ne viską
4. bet kaip, nerūpestingai, atmestinai
Į trečią vieną
3. bet kaip, nerūpestingai, atmestinai
4. apytikriai, ne viską
Po trečio
per vėlu
Trejos devynerios
1. daugybė, begalė
2. ant
žolelių
mišinio
vartojama vaistams
Savo trejoką kišti
į svetimą kalbą įsiterpti
Ant trečio vainiko
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Į trečią vainiką
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Savo trigrašį pridėti
papildyti, įkišti
Savo trigrašį prikišti
ne į savo reikalus lįsti
Su savo trigrašiu kištis
lįsti į kito kalbą
Už trigrašį
truputį
Tris dienas su pakaičiu
labai trumpai
85
užpilta
degtinė,
Trečias kelis
apie pusbrolių vaikus
Treti keliai
ne visai tolimi giminės
Į tris linkas susimetęs
apie susirietusį
Trečios rankos
atsarginis padėjėjas
Treja devynelia
daugybė, begalė
Treja devyneria
Treji devyneri
Treji devyni
Du baltus, trečią kaip sniegą
nieko (nerasti, negauti)
Du tuščius trečią nepilną
visai nieko (neduoti, neužmokėti)
Barbė devyndarbė (tridarbė)
neig., apie daug dirbantį
Table 4. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘four’ or ‘fourth’
Visas keturias ištiesti
mirti
Ant keturiu pasegtas (segtas)
labai gudrus
Ketvertu važiuoti
labai girtis
Keturiems vėjams
bet kur, į visas puses (išvaryti)
Keturiais vėjais išeiti
neduoti naudos
Į keturis vėjus
1. bet kur (eiti)
2. visaip (išblaškyti)
Į keturis vejus paleisti
išvaryti
Į visus keturis vėjus paleisti
išvaryti, priversti išsidanginti
Iš keturių vėjų
iš visur
Nuo keturių vėjų
iš visur
Ant keturių akių
tik dviese
Ketvirti keliai
tolimi giminės
Table 5. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘five’ or ‘fifth’
Penkių neišmano
apie apkiautusį, užaušusį
Penkių nepaskaito
neišprusęs, neprakutę
Penkių nesuskaito
nieko neišmano
Trūksta penkių nuo šimto (kam)
apie ne visai protingą žmogų
Iki penkių nesuskaito
nieko neišmano
Te penkis
sakoma atsisveikinant ir paduodant ranką
86
Te penkis, bus dešimt
sakoma atsisveikinant ir paduodant ranką
Penki pirštai
apie tai, kas įsigyjama vagiant
Penki juokai
menkniekis
Penkiais pirštais nupirkti
pavogti
Savo penkis daiktus
visą turtą, kuris pasiimamas išeinant ar
išvarant
Kaip penkis pirštus
puikiai (pažinti, mokėti)
Penkto balkio trūksta
pusprotis, kvailokas
Nei penki nei devyni
nei šis nei tas, nesąmonė
Iš penkto iš dešimto
kaip pakliuvo, padrikai, be sąryšio
Table 6. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘seven’ or ‘seventh’
Septintame danguje
laimingas
Po septyniais užraktais
apie ką neprieinamą
Septyni prakaitai išpila
labai sunku pasidaro
Iki septinto vainiko
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Table 7. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘nine’ or ‘ninth’
Devintame danguje
laimingas
Kaip devintame danguje
laimingas
Devyni dangūs pasidarė
susitrenkė
Devynios nematė
tiek to
Devinto balkio trūksta
pusprotis, kvailokas
Devynių balkių trūksta
Į devintą vainiką
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Iki devinto vainiko
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Nerenka (jo...) devynios
stebėjimuisi nusakyti
Trauk (tave...) devyni
tiek to (sakoma nusileidžiant, sutinkant);
Trauk (tave...) devynios
tiek to
Devyniais važiuoti
labai pataikauti
Kad (tave...) devynios
švelnus keiksmas, sakomas nustebus
Devynis kailius dyžti (lupti)
labai išnaudoti
Devynis kailius nulupti
1. brangiai pareikalauti (už darbą ar pirkinį)
2. smarkiai pagrasinti
87
Devintą kailį nulupti (nuplėšti)
brangiai pareikalauti (už darbą ar pirkinį)
Devintą kailį nudirti
išnaudoti, nuskriausti
Po devyniais užraktais
apie ką slepiamą
Už devynių užraktų
apie ką slepiamą
Kaip devintas vanduo nuo kisieliaus
apie tolimus giminaičius
Devyni vėjai pučia galvoje
labai išsiblaškęs
Kaip ant devyniu arklių
labai džiaugtis
Devyni avinai daužosi po galvą
ima rūpestis, nežinant ką veikti (daryti)
Devyni avinai mušasi po galvą
ima rūpestis, nežinant ką veikti (daryti)
Devyni avinai mušasi (galva)
svaigsta
Devintoji banga
veiklos, jausmų proveržos
Barbė devyndarbė (tridarbė)
neig., apie daug dirbantį
Devynios bėdos
rūpesčiai, vargas
Devynios bažnyčios
rūpesčiai, vargas
Gaidį pjauna devyniese
prastai dirba
Kaip devynios pėdnyčios
apie labai nepatenkintą
Devyniais prakaitais apsipilti
labai sušilti, pavargti
Devyni prakaitai išmušė
1.
labai pavargo
2.
labai išsigando
Devintą prakatą lieti
sunkiai dirbti, vargti
Devintas prakaitas pila
labai sunku (dirbti)
Su devintu prakaitu
sunkiai
Devynios rankos
mokėjimas burti
Kaip devyni penktadieniai
apie labai susiraukusį, suniurusį žmogų
Nei penki nei devyni
nei šis nei tas, nesąmonė
Treja devynelia
daugybė, begalė
Treja devyneria
Treji devyneri
Treji devyni
Trejos devynerios
3. daugybė, begalė
4. ant
žolelių
mišinio
vartojama vaistams
88
užpilta
degtinė,
Table 8. Lithuanian idioms containing the number ‘ten’ or ‘tenth’
Kaip ant dešimt arklių sėdos
labai linksmas, laimingas
Kaip ant devyniu arklių
Ant dešimto vainiko
apie smarkų viduriavimą
Ant trečio vainiko;
Į trečią vainiką;
Į devintą vainiką;
Iki devinto vainiko;
Iki septinto vainiko.
Dešimto balkio trūksta;
pusprotis, kvailokas
Devynių balkių trūksta;
Devinto balkio trūksta;
Penkto balkio trūksta;
Vieno balkio trūksta;
Vieno balkio trūksta į
galvą;
Be vieno balkio.
Iš penkto iš dešimto
kaip pakliuvo, padrikai, be sąryšio
89