EVERYMAN AND THE ENERGIES OF STASIS
Richard Hillman
The well- known
c o l o u r fu l l a n g u a g e ,
"la c k s " —
E n g l is h m o r a lity p l a y s
to,
of co nflict,
a n d so on —
c h a r a c te riza tio n ,
comedy,
t h at s e t Everyman a p a r t from the o th e r
are now w id e ly r e c o g n iz e d as so urces o f ,
i t s ack n o w led ged d ra m a tic im p act and d i d a c t i c e f f i c a c y .
not obstacle s
B u t m erely to
t r a n s la t e a b s e n c e s in t o c o rr e s p o n d in g p r e s e n c e s and to speak o f such v a lu e s
as s i m p l i c i t y ,
stark n ess,
t a k in g fo r g r a n t e d ,
in g p a g e s ,
I w is h
are a c t iv e o n e s ,
un ity ,
n a t u r a ln e s s i s
to lea p o v e r , w it h o u t even
the p l a y * s most s i g n i f i c a n t a ch iev em en t.
I n the f o l l o w ­
to s u g g e s t that the c e n t r a l s t r a t e g i e s o f r e p r e s e n t a t io n
b e s t d e s c r ib e d i n terms o f r e s i s t a n c e ,
s u b v e r s io n , and
d is r u p t i o n p r a c t i s e d upon the t e x t 's own p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and t e n d e n c i e s ,
and
so upon i t s a u d i e n c e ’ s e x p e c t a t i o n s .
By s u b s t i t u t i n g p ilg r i m a g e f o r p syc ho m a ch ia, w h il e
out in p resen ta tio n a l
ae sth e tic jou rn e y,
th ere is more
fla ttening it s e l f
t e c h n i q u e , Everyman makes o u r own jo u r n e y ,
d e c e p t iv e l y e a s y - g o in g , i f n ot b l a n d .·1·
"d r a m a " than meets the e y e ,
the s p i r i t u a l v i c i s s i t u d e s
in h e r e n t ,
too,
2
the
U n q u e s t io n a b ly ,
and an a u d ie n c e w i l l be a l e r t to
in the concept o f p il g r i m a g e .
h o ly d y in g sim p ly does n o t o f f e r the s a l i e n t dram atic p o s s i b i l i t i e s
s tr u g g le d u r in g l i f e
b etw e en good a nd e v i l —
e x t a n t m o r a l i t i e s .^
And as the a c t io n u n f o l d s ,
G o d 's d e t e r m in in g s p e e c h ,
dram atic engagem ent i s
the focus o f a l l the o th e r
the r e s i d u a l p o t e n t i a l
i n m easured f a s h i o n ,
from
f o r the u s u a l k in d s o f
c o n s i s t e n t l y n e g a te d and s u p p r e s s e d .
But
o f the
In fa c t ,
the
t e r r a in
through w h ic h we seem to p as s so sm oothly has been w r e s t e d ,
dom estic r e b e l l i o n ,
grabs,
led ge
from h ig h e r dra m a tic a u t h o r i t y ;
it
as i f by
i s ve ry much up fo r
a nd so we are c o n t in u a l l y rem inded in ways t h at p r e s s home the know4
t h a t , even fo r an a u d ie n c e , ‘'s e c u r i t y / I s m o r t a l s ' c h i e f e s t e n e m y ."
Such k n o w le d g e , o f c o u r s e ,
o u r dra m a tic e x p e r ie n c e ,
e x p e r ie n c e o f i t s
then,
the p la y s u b j e c t s us to so m eth in g l i k e
c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , k e e p in g i t s
throughout to the i n i t i a l
"e n d y n g e ,"
im p lie s acknowledgm ent o f m o r t a l it y i t s e l f .
to in v o lv e
5
the
a u d ien c e c lo s e enough
n a iv e p o s i t i o n o f E verym an,
i t d i s t u r b i n g l y in
Through
u n c o n sc io u s o f h is
the u n fo l d i n g and d e e p e n in g o f
c o n s c io u s n e s s .
These e f f e c t s and the te c h n iq u e s t h at p roduce them are s h a r e d , by and
l a r g e , w it h
work.**
the Dutch E l c k e r l i j c , and so in a l l p r o b a b i l i t y d e r iv e
from t h at
They are e x t e n d e d , h o w e v e r, and made to perm eate the p l a y even more
th oro u ghly by the most d i s t i n c t i v e
fe a tu r e o f the E n g l i s h v e r s io n —
q u it e
T h is b a s i c a nd t a n g i b l e elem e nt o f f e r s
u n sy s tem a tic v e r s i f i c a t i o n .
c o n v en ien t s t a r t i n g p o i n t fo r a s s e s s i n g the p l a y 's
presum ed t r a n s l a t o r 's
verbal s k i l l
u n iq u e n e s s .
it s
a
G iv en the
and the in f l u e n c e b o th o f the p u t a t iv e
o r i g i n a l a nd o f E n g l is h m o r a lity c o n v e n t io n , we are c l e a r l y d e a l i n g w it h a
c a l c u l a t e d r e f u s a l to co nfo rm , n o t w it h mere i n e p t i t u d e .
A .C .
C a w l e y ’ s d efe n c e o f the
m etre 7
—
B e h in d i t
f u n c t i o n a l i t y o f the p l a y 's
an argum ent p e r s u a s iv e
lie
in i t s own terms —
abo ut decorum ,
the v e r s i t i c a t i o n o f Everyman
sure ly,
is
do w it h v e r s e .
tru e en o u g h .
than to Everyman —
However i n c o n s i s t e n t the p r a c t i c e ,
B u t more s i g n i f i ­
c o n v e n tio n a l —
in what i t
much
seek s to
the aim i n H ic k s c o r n e r i s
to s u i t the form to the s p eak e r and the n atu r e o f the sp eec h in
o r d e r to r e i n f o r c e
the c o n t r a s t between good and e v i l p r i n c i p l e s .
b a s i c and n a t u r a l a t ec h n iq u e as to q u a l i f y ,
tendency o f m o r a lity p l a y s ,
It
is
I
sh o u ld a r g u e ,
so
a fu n c t io n o f the t e x t s ' own im pulse to make t h em s elv e s ,
a c t u a l l y b e lo n g s to the t e x t —
i n c l u d i n g E ve rym a n .
T h is i s
as an in h e r e n t
s a n c t io n e d by b o th d ram atic and d i d a c t i c con­
a c c o r d in g to the e x p e c t a t io n s o f t h e ir a u d ie n c e s ,
Hence i t
seems u n d uly a p o l o g e t i c .
the f a c t t h at the l a t t e r p la y i s q u it e
c l o s e r to o t h e r E n g l is h m o r a l i t i e s
s id e r a tio n s .
lig h t,
the r e l a t i o n betw een s t y l e and c o n t e n t .
Th at
g
" c l o s e l y r e s e m b le s "
t h at o f H ic k s c o r n e r in
e x h i b i t i n g a s i m i l a r d i v e r s i t y o f p a t t e r n s is
c o nsisten tly
t h is
u n q u e st io n e d assum p tio n s abo ut th e v alu e o f r e g u l a r i t y a n d ,
more l a r g e l y ,
cant,
In
i r r e g u l a r rhyme and
Y e t Everyman o f f e r s so l i t t l e
ot verse- form to c h a r a c t e r ,
d oc t rin e ,
can o n ly t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f y
l i v e l i e r and more f o r c e f u l .
to any t e x t in the g e n r e ,
that i s ,
in the way o f a d a p t a t io n
o r even d ram atic o c c a s io n t h a t Cawley
"s i g n s t h a t the a u t h o r - t r a n s la t o r
.
f e e l i n g h i s way towards a d ra m a tic use o f d i f f e r e n t v e r s e -fo r m s . "
.
9
. is
T h is
" l a c k " amounts to a rup ture o f the c o n n ec tio n betw een s ig n a nd s i g n i f i e d ,
a w it h h o ld i n g o f c o n sen t to the code b i n d i n g s p e c t a c l e and s p e c t a t o r .
resu lt is
an u n d e rc u rre n t d i s t u r b i n g the smoothly t lo w in g s u r fa c e
—
The
the
s ig n o t the h id d e n ro c k .
Ihe p l a y ’ s v e r s i f i c a t i o n
lin g u is t ic p r a c tic e s .
is m erely a q u a n t i f i a b l e a s p e c t o f i t s b ro a d e r
I t has become commonplace to t h in k h ig h l y o f
E v e r y m a n 's c l e a r , p l a i n ,
" n e u t r a l " s t y l e , w h ic h r a d i c a l l y s e t s i t a p a r t from
the o th e r m o r a l i t i e s . 1^
Commentators are happy to fo rgo the u s u a l extrem e
c o n t ra st s b etw e en a u r e a te p i e t y and o om bastic w ic k e d n e s s , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e
the p l a y ’ s s u b s t i t u t i o n o f the jou rney m o tif f o r the mode o f c o n f l i c t seems
to c a l l
fo r a c o r r e s p o n d in g ly s u s t a i n e d and subdued t o n e .
the s t y le
is s u f f ic ie n t l y fle x ib le
d ram atic nuance r e q u i r e d o f i t .
it s
C e rta in ly ,
too,
to convey the r e l a t i v e l y n arro w rang e o f
T h is is
most a p p ar e n t w here the a c t io n makes
c l o s e s t a pp ro ac h to the c o n v e n t io n a lly d r a m a t ic ,
d e s e r t e d by those on whom he h a s r e l i e d —
Kynreae,
as when Everyman is
tor ex am p le.
Y e t even as
the co n trar y em o t io n a l s t a t e s o f the c h a ra c te r s a t such a moment m irro r t h e i r
p h y s i c a l p a r t i n g o f the w a y s ,
w it h
the p a r a l l e l s y n t a x ,
E v e ry m a n .
the s ta r k u n ifo r m ity o f the d i c t i o n ,
s t r o n g ly l in k s
A las,
to g eth er
them:
t h a t e u e r I was b o r e !
For now s h a l l I n e u e r be mery,
It
t h a t y o u fo rs ak e me.
Kynrede.
A,
s y r , w hat ye b e a mery man!
Take good h e r t e to y o u ,
and make no mone.
B u t one thynge I w a m e y o u , by S a y n t Anne —
As
fo r me ye s h a l l go a l o n e .
(l i n e s
3 4 8 - 5 4 )11
What has n o t r e c e i v e d due a t t e n t io n i s the way i n w h ic h such l i n k a g e ,
r e i n f o r c e d by the
fo r m u la ic r e p e t i t i o n and the use o f p ro v erb s p r a i s e d by
Cawley and o th e r s as d r a m a t i c a lly e f f e c t i v e ,
c r ea te an a nt i- d ra m a tic s t a s i s
—
a g a in ,
dim en sio n o f the p l a y a c t i v e l y r e s i s t s
12
w orks on a d eep er l e v e l to
the rock in the str e am .
the tw in dynam ics o f a c t io n —
fo rw ard m o tio n, w it h i t s im p l ic a t i o n o f l i n e a r tim e,
o f as d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ,
T h is
and w hat may b e thought
the c o n t in u a l b r i n g i n g to b i r t h o f new m eaning through
the making o f d i s t i n c t i o n s .
The p l a y 's h a n d l in g o f time i s an im portant
i n d e x o f i t s m ethod, as I hope to show l a t e r .
c o n c en tr a te on the l a t t e r c o n c e p t.
the la ng ua ge o f d ram a, b u t p erhap s t h is
p o s i t s o f those la n g u a g e s we s p e a k ,
For the moment, I w is h to
We are used to t h in k i n g o f c o n f l i c t as
is
lang uage
to o ,
as S a u s s u r ea n l i n g u i s t i c s
g e n e r a t e d by d i f f e r e n c e
—
by
s u c c e s s i v e l y g i v i n g fig u r e s on s t a g e ,
ev ery th ing ,
t h in g s
to w e a r ,
do,
o f whom we m ight im a gine a n y th in g a nd
and say t h a t r e s t r i c t our p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n s and le n d them d i s t i n c t i d e n t i t i e s .
In a way r e m in is c e n t o f those myths
o f c r e a t io n in w h ic h c o n f l i c t a r i s e s a f t e r the b i r t h o f the
c r e a te s i t s e l f by the c r e a t io n o f d i f f e r e n c e .
o f Everym an , i n
o f f o f parts
In a s e n s e ,
c o n s t it u t in g i t s e l f as a sequence o f
from a w h o le ,
drama even more d i r e c t l y
h a rn e ss e s i t s e l f
"p a r t i n g s ,"
the a c t io n
the s p l i t t i n g
to the e s s e n t i a l p r o c e s s e s o f
than do the m o r a li t i e s
s im u lta n e o u s ly d e n y in g d i f f e r e n c e
" o t h e r , " drama
then,
through i t s
th at d e a l i n
la n g u a g e ,
co nflict.
By
the t e x t i s e x p o s in g
the r e a l i t y o f c o nn ec te dn ess t h a t u n d e r l ie s b o th i t s method a nd the d iv i n e
purpose:
t h is
Kynrede does in d e e d b e lo n g to Everym an,
and Everyman i s u s .
But
tru th does n o t sim ply loom through the lim p id it y o f the l i n g u i s t i c
medium —
it
p assiv ity —
i s h a r d won.
Nor i s
"n e u t r a lity " —
b ec au s e i t im p lie s
an adequate d e s c r i p t i o n o f the medium i t s e l f .
c h a ra c te rs and m oral sta n c e s by form ing p a t t e r n s —
a nd e l a b o r a t e s t a n z a i c forms —
as i t seems
a llite ra t io n ,
la n g u a g e i n the o th e r m o r a l i t i e s i s
i t s n a t u r a l b e n t as a means to a dra m a tic e n d .
i t s e l f d is a p p e a r ,
In d iffe r e n t ia t in g
o f a u reatio n,
f o l l o w in g
I n o r d e r f o r la ng ua ge to make
to do in Everym an,
the in h e r e n t tendency toward
such p a t t e r n in g must be c o n s t a n t ly d i s r u p t e d .
P a rad o xica lly ,
r e p e t i t i o n i t s e l f i s made d is r u p t i v e .
The i n s i s t e n t
r e c u rr e n c e i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x ts and the sp eec h o f d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c te r s o f
k ey words
.
.
("r e k e n y n g e "), phrases
. e n d y n g e ")
serv e
("m o o st n e d e " ) ,
to b re a k down b a r r i e r s o r ,
and form ulas
( "b egynnynge
p erh ap s more p r e c i s e l y ,
p r e v e n t them from form ing d e s p i t e an a u d i e n c e 's n a t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e
d istin c tio n s
and com partm ents.
to
fo r
When a c h a r a c te r uses suc h a f a m i l i a r t a g ,
we see through the sta g e i d e n t i t y , w hic h we are e a g e r to a c c e p t on i t s own
term s,
and w i l l y - n i l l y f i n d o u r s e lv e s
m eaning b e y o n d .
c o n fro n ted by the u n i v e r s a l non- dram atic
A s i m i l a r e f f e c t i s p rod uc e d by the p r o v e r b s , whose p r e v a l e n c e
c l e a r l y r e f l e c t s a p o l i c y o f the t r a n s l a t i o n .
sen se f o r Everyman to ex p r e s s h i m s e l f ,
in
the c o l l e c t i v e
I t makes o b v io u s d i d a c t i c
a t moments o f both f o l l y and w isdom ,
common lang uage o f the a u d ie n c e he r e p r e s e n t s .
H i s own
fum b lin g attem pts a t u n d e r s ta n d in g are a way o f making us e q u a l l y d epe nd en t
upon Knowlege
fo r s p i r i t u a l g u id a n c e .
p r o v e r b ia l mode g e n e r a lly )
B u t h is use o f p r o v e r b s
(a nd the
a l s o becomes a way o f m a in t a in in g a d u a l r o l e ,
he moves back and fo r t h betw een co ncrete c h a r a c te r and a b s t r a c t sym bol.
Thus in a d d r e s s in g the d e p a r t i n g S t r e n g t h , he b e g in s by s p e a k in g o ut
o f a d is c r e t e i d e n t i t y , n e x t d is s o l v e s in t o a b s t r a c t i o n through h i s
p erso n m o r a l i z i n g ,
then r e - m a t e r ia lize s as an i n d i v i d u a l
third-
fic tio n al en tity :
as
I had wende s u r e r I
s ho lde yo u haue fo u n d e .
He t h at t r u s t e t h in h is S t r e n g t h ,
She hym d e c e y u e t h a t the l e n g t h .
Bothe S t r e n g t h and Beaute
fo r sa k e th me;
Y e t they prom ysed me fayre
It is
as i f he hangs up h is
costume
i n t e r r u p t i n g the d ra m a tic i l l u s i o n
in g more d eep ly w i t h i n i t ,
In d e e d ,
all
and lo u y n g l y .
826-30)
fo r a moment on an a p h o r is t ic h o o k , n o t
in a B r e c h t ia n w a y,
fo r w it h o u t h i s
the a l l e g o r i c a l
(lin e s
b u t r a t h e r withdraw13
costume he i s i n v i s i b l e .
c h a ra c te r s show a s i m i l a r c a p a c it y to fade i n and
o u t o f d ram atic e x is t e n c e w i t h i n
the a c t io n much as they come a nd go from the
a c t io n i t s e l f .
And t h e i r f o r m u l a ic , p r o v e r b i a l ,
p a t t e r n s en su re
that the hooks on w h ic h the costumes are h ung form the o n ly
constant p a t te r n ,
emerges i s
as
and g e n e r a l i z i n g speech
they a re used by one c h a r a c t e r a f t e r a n o t h e r .
What
a p ic t u r e o f the f i x e d and e t e r n a l o r d e r l y i n g b eyo n d the i l l u s i o n
o f t h is w o r l d ,
in w h ic h we a c t o ur p a r t s i n
costumes o f c o r r u p t i b l e f l e s h .
The e l u s i v e n e s s o f E v e r y m a n 's c h a r a c te r s as d ram atic p r e s e n c e s ,
u n w illi n g n e s s
to commit them selves w h o lly to the s t a g e ,
i c a l l y a resp o nse
to the
resp o nse b e c a u se i t
b i a s e s o f the g e n r e ,
is ,
c h a lle n g e o f a l l e g o r i c a l dram a.
the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r s i n
Such d e s ir e
the o t h e r m o r a l i t i e s .
sp e c if­
And i t i s an u n u su a l
in v o lv e s r e s i s t i n g the a u d i e n c e 's d e s i r e ,
fo r s e lf- c o n t a in e d i l l u s i o n .
t h e ir
I b e lie v e ,
em bodied in the
c l e a r l y governs
To p a t r o n i z e
the
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f the t y p i c a l m o r a lity p l a y as rud im entary and monochromatic
is
to u n d erv a lu e i t s
f ig u r e s
co m pleten ess in i t s own term s.
embrace and s u s t a i n
b e in g and d e f i n e
those d i f f e r e n c e s
t h e ir d is t a n c e
a nd comes most n a t u r a l l y to the d r a m a t i s t ,
virtu es,
d i a b o l i c and a n g e l i c p o w e r s.
in
B u t even in the
the dynam ics are c e n t r i f u g a l ,
the on-stage
"c h a r a c t e r " in t o
from a l l e g o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
o b v io u s ,
the o t h e r p l a y s ,
That i s ,
th at b r i n g
T h is i s most
the case o f v i c e s and
"Everym an” f ig u r e s
in
t e n d in g p o w e r f u l l y tow ard the
i n d i v i d u a l a nd p a r t i c u l a r .
Where suc h c h a r a c te r s are n ot more o r l e s s p a r t i c u l a r i z e d to s t a r t w i t h ,
a s a re
the K in g in P r i d e o f L i f e ,
the farm er M an k in d,
p r o t a g o n is t s o f the l a t e r m oral i n t e r l u d e s ,
through the s t a g e s o f l i f e
to p l a y v a rio u s p a r t s .
that o ffers
there i s
the c e n t r a l f ig u r e a s e r i e s o f chances
The p a t t e r n i s e s s e n t i a l l y
P e r s e v e r a n c e , whose h e r o i s
(by abo ut a h u nd red y e a r s )
and the v a r io u s
u s u a l l y a p r o g r e s s io n
Humanum G e n u s ,
the same i n
The C a s t l e o f
and i n the c o n s id e r a b l y l a t e r
Mundus e t I n f a n s , where the s u c c e s s iv e i d e n t i t i e s
are a c t u a l l y fo r m a liz e d by the assum ption o f new names —
W a n to n ,
L u s t and
L y k yn ge ,
d e c is iv e ,
M anhode, Shame,
as i f
and A g e .
In both c a s e s , en tr y i n t o ea c h r o le is
the d ram atic p ro c e ss is
14
in
flig h t
from the s u s p en d e d anim atio n
and in d e te rm in a c y o f a b s t r a c t i o n :
C o u ey ty se,
thou s e y s t a good s k y l .
So g re te God me a va un c e,
A l t h i byddynge don I w y l .
I
In
fo rsake
the C a s t e l o f P e r s e u e r a u n c e ;
C oueytyse I wyl me hyle
For to g ete sum s u s t y n a u n c e . ^
Ah ha'.
Wanton i s my name!
I can many a quaynte game
When such c h a r a c te rs
do,
i t m erely flo w s
16
. . . .
use the lang uage o f p o p u la r w isd o m ,
from and so r e i n fo r c e s
as they o f t e n
t h e i r c u r r e n t m oral p o s i t i o n ,
a g a i n s t w hic h the a u d ien c e i s b e in g urged to m easure i t s e l f .
Thus the sp eech
o f Humanum Genus above c o n t in u e s :
A fom
me le men mete s c h u l t y l e ;
It
good fo r a l chaunce
is
Sum good owhere to h y d e .
(l i n e s
2537- 40)
There i s no b r e a k i n g o f the dra m a tic i l l u s i o n h e r e , no s e l f - e r a s u r e ,
o p e n in g up o f a m etadram atic d im e n s io n .
o f rep en ta nc e
Infa ns
(now
no
O nly when the s e l f - c o n s c io u s mode
f i n a l l y becomes t h e ir mode o f i d e n t i t y are Humanum Genus and
"A g e ")
cap a ble o f the s o r t o f self-com m entary t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s
Everyman th ro u g h o u t:
Now,
good men,
takythe example a t me.
Do fo r y o u r e s e l f w hyl ye han s p a s e .
For many men thus s e ru y d be
Thorwe the w e r ld i n dyuerse p l a c e .
(C a s t le o f P e r s e v e r a n c e , l i n e s
Now, s y r s ,
2995- 98)
take a l l ensam ple by me,
How I was borne in symple d e g r e ;
The W orlde r y a l l rec ey ue d me.
.
.
.
(Mundus et I n f a n s ,
By c o n t r a s t ,
lin e s
961- 63)
to such an e x t e n t are we c o n d it io n e d to the dou ble
f u n c t i o n i n g o f Everyman that h i s own form al a d d r e s s to the a u d ie n c e ,
when
i t e v e n t u a l l y com es,
a nd fu r n is h e s
w ithdra w s
seems much more c l o s e l y woven in t o the d ram atic f a b r i c
le s s sen se o f c l o s u r e .
from,
th en r e e n t e r s ,
Gram ercy,
J u s t a few l in e s b e f o r e ,
he y et a g a in
the a c t i o n :
Good D e d e s 1
Now may I
tru e fr e n d e s s e .
ühey haue fo r s a k e n m e, e u e r y c h o n e ;
I lo u e d them b e t t e r than my Good Dedes a l o n e .
K n o w leg e, w y ll ye
Ih e
fo rs a k e me a ls o ?
d ram atic momentum i s b r i e f l y i n t e r r u p t e d ,
abstractio n.
T h is
t ory i n j u n c t i o n ,
(l i n e s
855-58)
the b a la n c e t ip p e d towards
f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n n e a r l y sw allow s up the s ta n d a r d h o r t a ­
w h ic h in o t h e r p la y s
Me th y n k e ,
a las,
r in g s o u t so c l e a r l y :
t h at I must b e gone
To make my reken y ng e a nd zny d e t t e s p a y e ,
F o r I se my tyme i s nye s p en t aw aye.
Take ex a m p le ,
a l l ye that t h i s do h ere o r s e ,
How they t h a t I lo u e d b e s t do fo rs ak e me,
M oreover,
E x c e p t e my Good Dedes t h at b y d e th t r u e l y .
(lin e s
Good Dedes h e r s e l f im m e diately r e c a p i t u l a t e s
the p a t t e r n , b e g i n n in g
w it h a moral a pho rism —
" A l l e r t h l y thynges i s b u t v a n y t e "
8 6 4 - 6 9) ^
(l i n e
871)
—
then r e t u r n in g through h e r own a b s t r a c t m eaning to rec a p tu re h e r d ram atic
id en tity :
if
"A ll
the t e x t i s
to d i s s i p a t e
f l e e t h saue Good D e d e s ,
and t h a t am I "
a n x io u s n ot to a llo w the t e n s i o n o f i t s
in
the topos o f e x h o r t a t i o n .
i t s method r e q u ir e s
stron ger a lle g ia n c e
its
u lt im a te
a u d ie n c e ,
lo y a lt y i s
8 7 3 ).
I t i s as
A t t h is p o i n t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y ,
to the d ra m a tic f l u x than we f in d
i n i t s more c o n s i s t e n t l y d ra m a tic c o u n t e r p a r t s .
that it s
(l i n e
a l l e g o r i c a l b a la n c e
A g a in , Everyman d em onstrates
to the p r i n c i p l e o f o p p o sin g the com placency o f
ev en when t h a t com placency i s c e n t r e d on a d ecorous e x i t
from
illu s io n .
The c o m p lic it y o f Good Dedes p o in t s up the e x t e n t to which the m a in te­
nance o f s u b v e r s iv e
Everyman a l o n e .
t e n s io n i s
a c o llec tive en te rp rise ,
n o t the p r o j e c t o f
The t y p ic a l m o r a lity c h a r a c te r assumes h i s dra m a tic i d e n t i t y
by d i s c l o s i n g h i m s e l f a t some le n g t h a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s d i s t i n c t i v e speech
pattern:
Now I s y t t e ,
Satanas,
As d e u y l d o w ty ,
in my sa d s y n n e ,
in d r a f as a d r a k e .
I champe and I c h a f e ,
I
chocke on my c hynne,
I am boystows and b o l d ,
as B e l y a l the b l a k e .
(C a s t le o f P e r s e v e r a n c e ,
I haue be
lin e s
the very mene fo r yowr re s t y t u c y o n .
Mercy ys my nam e,
Dy v erte n o t y o w r s y lffe
t h a t mornyth fo r yowr o f f e n c e .
in tyme o f tem tacyon,
I h a t ye may be a c c e p t a b le
to Gode a t yowr goyng h e n c e .
The b o u nd a ry- c ro ssin g language o f Everym an , on the o t h e r h a n d ,
co m p o sitio n a l p o l ic y o f i n d i r e c t in t r o d u c t i o n ,
and r e s i s t a n c e
196- 99)
to a m p l i f i c a t i o .
In
18
sup p o rts a
relu ctant se lf- r e v e la tio n ,
the p la c e o f a r i s i n g a c t i o n c o n s t r u c te d
w it h b u i l d i n g b lo c k s o f c h a r a c t e r - d e f i n i t i o n , the p l a y opens by r e c e d in g
a l o n g a c h a in o f en ig m at ic p r e s e n c e s .
i n m o tio n,
is
m es s en g er,
Death.
o u t w a rd ,
the
Even God, w h o , o f c o u r s e ,
in t r o d u c e d by a M e sse n g e r, w h il e he i n
I n the s p eeches o f b o th God a nd D e a t h ,
tone p r a g m a t ic ,
s e t s e v en ts
turn in t r o d u c e s h i s own
the o r i e n t a t i o n is
the em phasis on the task in h a n d .
D eath does
n ot even i d e n t i f y h im s e lf to Everyman u n t i l c h a l l e n g e d , w h il e Everyman h im ­
s e l f does n o t u t te r a word b e fo r e
appearance,
m oreover,
Death a cc o st s h im .
Even b e fo r e h i s
the t e x t has w a vere d betw een r e f e r e n c e s to Everyman as
19
so t h at h i s ve ry i n c a r n a t io n seems alm ost f r a n k ­
c o l l e c t i v e a nd p a r t i c u l a r ,
ly a c o n c e s s io n
to d ram atic n e c e s s i t y :
Euery man w y ll I b e s e t t h at ly u e t h b e e s t l y
O u t o f Goddes la w e s , a n d d re d eth n ot f o l y .
Lo o , yo nd er I se Eueryman w a lk y n g e .
S u b s e q u e n t ly ,
(lin e s
the p la y moves a h ead by way o f b r i e f e x c h an g e s and
fr e q u e n t s h i f t i n g o f c h a r a c te r g r o u p s .
P r e c i s e l y b ec au s e the a c t io n i s
sm oothly co ntin uo u s w ith a momentum o f i t s own,
c o n t in u a l o c c a s io n
a r r iv a l
f u r n is h e s
"moost n e d e " —
c h a r a c te r s w it h
ev en as most o f them
T h e ir a p p e a r a n c e s ,
are made to seem c o n t in g e n t on p l o t .
o f nowhere a t the t e x t 's
Dedes sp eaks
it
to s te p b ac k from s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e ,
r e t r e a t from commitment to Everyman h i m s e l f .
Everym an’ s ,
74-80)
I h e y come,
most s t r i k i n g l y ,
from the ground when c a l l e d upon.
turn s the t id e o f d e s p a ir fo r E verym an,
lik e
as i t w e r e ,
o ut
no d o u b t , when Good
As fo r K n o w le g e , whose
she e n t e r s as i f
sprung from
the w ords o f h e r s i s t e r a nd im m e diately hangs up h e r costume on the v e r b a l
hook p r e v i o u s l y p r o v id e d :
In
’’E verym an,
thy moost nede to go by thy s i d e "
I w y l l go w it h
( l i n e s 5 2 2 - 2 3 ).
the and be thy g y d e ,
I t is
a sta tem en t o f
/
s e lf- e ffa c e m e n t ,
not o f s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n ,
th o ro u gh ly t h a t the p r e c is e
more than any o t h e r a sp e c t o f
W h i le i t i s
p a r t ic ip a n t in
the a c t io n p r o p e r —
t y p ic a l m o rality - p la y f a s h i o n , h i s
than the
s u s t a i n e d so
the p l a y .
n ot s u r p r i s i n g t h at God —
the lo n g e s t i n the p la y )
p a r a lle l way.
a nd i t s mode i s
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Know lege has p r e o c c u p ie d c r i t i c s
fa ils
the o n ly n o n - a lle g o r ic a l
to d i s c l o s e and d e f in e h im s e l f in
s i n g l e s p eec h
(a t forty-two l in e s by f a r
c o n t a in s a no m a lies t h at d is l o c a t e
co nv en tio n i n a
There i s no b e t t e r emblem f o r the p l a y 's method on many l e v e l s
j o i n i n g here o f s i m p l i c i t y and d i r e c t n e s s o f e x p r e s s io n to i n t r a n s i ­
g ent m ystery and enigma —
d iv in ity
that i s ,
d i d n ot p o se d i f f i c u l t i e s
the w it h h o l d i n g o f r e v e l a t i o n .
f o r m ed ia e v a l d r a m a t i s t s ,
i n s o u c ia n c e a b o u t a n th ro p o m o r p h izin g the p e rso n s o f the T r i n i t y
H o ly G h o s t ,
is
who app ea rs
re fle c te d in
purposes.
f o r in s t a n c e i n
tends
(even the
the N orw ich p a g e a n t o f the F a l l )
the normal p r a c t ic e o f k e e p in g them d i s t i n c t fo r d ram atic
Even where
’’A lp h a a nd Omega" i s
three- in- one i s i n s i s t e d upon
portrayal
D e p i c t in g
and t h e ir
to adhere
u se d as a tag o r the p ar a d o x o f
(most n o t a b ly in the C r e a t io n p a g e a n t s ) , the
to the p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f the d iv i n e n ature most
o b v io u s ly im p l ie d by the c o n t e x t .
In
t h is
r e s p e c t Everyman is h ig h l y
u n c o n v e n t io n a l, esqploiting to the f u l l
the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f i t s
context.
to h i s m y sterio us e s s e n c e ;
God makes no o v e rt r e fe r e n c e
in d e te r m in a te
he b e g in s
by s p e a k i n g alm ost m atter- o f- fa c tly and g e t t i n g r i g h t down to b u s i n e s s :
I p e r c e y u e , h e re i n my m a ie s t e ,
How t h a t a l l
c r e a tu r e s b e
to me v n ky nd e,
Lyuynge w it h o u t d re de in w o r ld ly p r o s p e r y t e .
Y e t as h i s c o m p la in t d e v e l o p s ,
i t s e l f in to
(lin e s
22-24)
the m ystery o f the god h ead p o w e r f u l l y o btrud es
the very t e x t u re o f the s p e e c h ,
as
the d i v i n e vo ic e i s
f e l t to
s h i f t from F a t h e r to Son a nd back a g a i n .
A lt h o u g h
t h is e f f e c t i s w it h o u t e x a c t p a r a l l e l ,
E n g l i s h m e d ia ev a l dram a,
fo un d i n
it
is
the c y c le p a g e a n t s .
to my k n o w le d g e ,
in
sup p o rted by s p e c i f i c co n v en tio n s o f d e p i c t io n
At f ir s t ,
we d i s t i n c t l y h e a r the v e n g e f u l O ld
T estam ent G o d , b e n t on p u n is h in g the p r o l i f e r a t i n g s i n t h a t m a n ife s ts man*s
in g ra t itu d e
f o r the C r e a t io n :
O f g h o s t ly s y g h t the p e o p le be so b l y n d e ,
Drowned i n s y n n e ,
they know me n ot fo r t h e y r G od.
I n w o r ld e ly ry ch es i s
all
th ey r mynde;
They fe r e n ot my r y g h t w y sn e s , the sh a rp e r o d .
(lin e s
25-28)
The f ig u r a t i v e
use o f
"d r o w n e d " h e lp s
to evoke in p a r t i c u l a r the w r a t h f u l
d e it y o f the Noah p a g e a n t s :
Me t hog ht I
shewed man l u f when I made hym to be
A l l a n g e ls a b u f l i k e
Ven ia nc e w i l l
In e r t h
I
fo r syn sake
I rep en te
to the t r y n y t e ;
.
.
.
take,
.
.
.
f u i sore t h at eu er m aide I man,
Bi me he s e t t i s
no s to re and I am h i s s o f e r a n . ^
We are not a llo w e d to r e s t ,
h o w e v e r, e i t h e r in a s in g l e
id e n t i t y or a t a c o m fo rta ble h i s t o r i c a l d i s t a n c e .
0
c o nc ep t o f G o d 's
T h is is
a p l a y n o t about
the a n c ie n t p un ishm en t o f p a r t i c u l a r s i n n e r s , b u t about E v e r y m a n 's p u n i s h ­
ment —
that i s ,
o urs —
in s t a n c e o f G o d 's
love
in
the i n d e f i n i t e p r e s e n t .
Next,
the sub lim e
t y p o l o g ic a l l y p r e f i g u r e d by the s a v in g o f Noah i s
b ro u g h t to b e a r through an a b r u p t y e t seam less
t r a n s it i o n to the u n m is tak a b le
vo ice o f the Se co n d P e r s o n :
My lawe t h a t I s h e w e d , whan I
They fo r g e te c le n e /
a nd shedynge o f my b lo d e r e d e .
I h a n g ed bytwene two t h e u e s ,
To gete
them l y f e
fo r them d yed ,
it
These reproaches o f the s o r r o w fu l C h r i s t ,
sin fu ln e s s ,
can not be d en y ed ;
I s u f f r e d to be d e e d .
(lin e s
B e h a ld e , m ankynde,
Thus was I d i g h t
Man,
i n j u r e d by m a n 's c o n t in u i n g
lo ke,
by ec h o in g h i s
t h is ilk e is
the
ro le as Doomsday j u d g e :
I,
fo r thy f o l y e —
thy l i f f e was to me f u l l l e f f e .
22
When C h r is t so a p p ea rs in the York and Towneley c y c l e s ,
the in c a r n a t i o n
the godhead i s s t r e s s e d a nd h i s i d e n t i t y i s p o in t e d l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
from t h a t o f the F a t h e r :
La s t Judgem ent,
In
21
r e d i r e c t the a u d i e n c e 's a t t e n t io n to the a n a g o g ic a l l e v e l —
o p p o s it e verge o f human h is t o r y —
of
29- 32)
lin e
the York v e r s i o n ,
w r a t h fu l F a t h e r,
2 3 3 );
"M i f a d i r o f h e u e n e ,
he has me se n te
. . . "
"M i fa d e r o f heuen has me downe s e n t e .
.
and prom ises
woundes
fyve /
(York
23
.”
the p l a y i s op ened by the d i s t i n c t i v e v o ic e o f the
who sp eaks o f h a v in g s e n t h is Son to redeem m ankind
27 f f . )
.
the S o n 's
(l i n e s
la t e r appearance:
That my sone s u f f e r e d
"T h er s c h a l l t h e i see the
24
fo r them a l l ” (l i n e s 71- 72) .
G iv en
the m anuscript i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b o th s p eakers as Deus and the
fa ct that a
s in g le
a c t o r e v i d e n t l y p la y e d both p a r t s , p erh ap s w it h a change o f costum e,
the s t r o n g
tend en cy towards s e p a r a t io n s u g g e sts a tendency to produce
c h a r a c t e r b y means o f d ram atic f u n c t i o n .
the p l a y m ig h t the d iv i n e
d iv i n e p e r s o n s
the v o ic e
in t o d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r s .
at least d iffu s e s
w itn e ssed in t o
O nly i n
the c o n c l u d in g s t a n z a o f
v o ic e be s a i d to c ro ss the b oundary d i v i d i n g the
i t s e l f as i t
A f t e r c l e a r l y s p e a k in g as C h r i s t ,
in c o r p o r a t e s the a c t io n we have
the g ra n d p r o v i d e n t i a l d e s i g n :
Nowe i s
f u l f i l l i d a l l my fo r t h o g h t ,
For e n d i d i s a l l e r t h e ly t h y n g .
A l l w o r l d ly w i g h t i s
A ftir
t h a t I haue w ro gh t,
t h e r w e r k is haue nowe w o nn y ng .
(lin e s
373-76)
Even in the C h e s t e r Ju d g em en t , w hic h i s opened by a Deus who a s s e r t s the
i n d i v i s i b i l i t y o f the T r i n i t y ,
izin g o f id e n t it y .
d iffe re n tiatio n .
there i s an im m ediate c e n t r i f u g a l p a r t i c u l a r ­
Ih e t e x t v i r t u a l l y s e i z e s upon the p o s s i b i l i t i e s
A f t e r two l in e s
t h at may r e f e r t o the F a t h e r ,
d e c i s i v e l y becomes t h a t o f the S o n .
an on- stage d o n n in g o f costume
nowe I b e a r e "
scent as
[ l in e s
"F iliu s D e i"
21- 22J ) ,
(lin e
I h i s may be acc o m p an ie d,
("w h a t weede fo r them I w e a r e ,
to
356 SD)
"my F a t h e r a l m i g h t i e "
c r e d i t fo r the c r e a t io n o f man
i t seem s, by
/
upon my body
a s Deus moves i n t o c h a r a c t e r f o r h i s l a t e r d e ­
I n a l l s u b s e q u e n t ap p ea ran c es the
. 26
m a n u sc rip t s a gree i n d e s i g n a t i n g the c h a r a c te r a s
refers
fo r
the voice
(l i n e
(l i n e s
3 9 0 );
" J e s u s ” ; a t one p o in t he
a n d , e x c e p t p erh ap s where he takes
369 f f . ) ,
the c h a r a c t e r o f the Son i s
c o n s i s t e n t l y a n d r i c h l y d ev elo p ed as s u c h .
As God c o n t in u e s i n Everym an, h o w ev er, h i s v o ic e p a s s e s
beyo n d the hu m an ity o f the Se co n d P e r s o n .
through and
By n e x t assum ing the un m istak ab le
p e r s p e c t i v e o f Judgem ent Day F a t h e r , d i v i n i t y r e s i s t s the d ram atic p r es s u r e
to r e s o lv e
the su s p e n d e d m ystery o f i t s
I
se the more t h a t I
The w o rse they be
I
u n it a r y m u l t i p l i c i t y :
them fo rbere
fro yere to y e r e .
.
.
p r o f e r e d the p e o p le gre te m ultytude o f m ercy,
A n d few th ere b e that a sk eth i t h e r t l y .
.
.
.
. . .
. n ede s on them I must do iu s t y c e ,
O n e u e r y man lyuynge w it h o u t f e r e .
W here a r t e th o u .
Det h e ,
thou myghty m essengere?
Se then haue t h e i
founde me f u l l o f m ercy e.
F u l l o f g ra c e and f o r g i f f e n e s s e ,
(lin e s
42-63)
And t h e i a ls w r e c c h i s , w i t t i r l y ,
Has led de
Men s e i s
th er l i f f e
in
lit h irn e s s e .
.
.
.
the w o rld e b u t v a n it é ,
Y i t t w i l l no manne beware therby ;
l i k e a d ay ther m irro u re may t h e i s e ,
Y i t t thynke t h e i nog ht t h at t h e i s c h a l l d y e .
(York La st Judg em en t,
The im m ediate e f f e c t o f these s h i f t s
and reso n an ces i s
lin e s
41- 52)
to communicate an
u n s e t t l i n g sen se o f G o d 's m y sterio us essen c e b en e ath the s u p e r f i c i a l
s t r a ig h t fo r w a r d n e s s o f the p r e s e n t a t i o n ,
the o s t e n s i b l e
f o u n d a t io n o f the
e n s u i n g dram a, b o t h in t h e o l o g ic a l and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l terms
o n ly one remove
allego rical
from " r e a l i t y " —
rep resen ta tive)
an o b je c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,
i s made e l u s iv e
and u n c e r t a i n .
r e p o s it o r y o f t ru s t becomes im p o s s ib le to g r a s p ,
m e d ia t i o n ,
and above a l l k n o w le d g e ,
t h at God w i l l
s ta y s t i l l
a nd m o r a lit y a n a lo g u e s ,
n ature
is
a nd o u r o b l i g a t i o n .
h is word b o th c r e a t e d an d ,
as C h r i s t ,
n o t an
and o u r n e e d f o r h u m i l i t y ,
To suppose
as we m ig h t e x p e c t from b o th c y cle
(r a th e r than the w h o l e ) ,
C e rta in ly ,
at
The im p e r a tiv e
thereby e s t a b l i s h e d .
fo r us a nd p l a y ,
a part
(God i s
is
God speaks c l e a r l y ;
r e- c rea ted ,
us.
to f o r g e t h is
as we are rem in d ed,
B u t b e c a u s e we have
h e a r d these m essages i m p e r f e c t l y , n o t taken them to h e a r t , we are in n e e d o f
a n o th er so r t o f message and m e s se n g e r.
com placency as a u d ie n c e , what Death says
Euerym an,
sta n de s t y l l j
Ih e te x t says to u s ,
Whyder a r te thou goynge
Thus g a y l y ? /H a s t thou thy Maker fo r g e te ?
More d e e p l y , by u n i t i n g i n
(lin e s
85- 86)
c o n c en tra te d form the v a r io u s d i v i n e m ani­
f e s t a t i o n s o f the c y cle p l a y s , Everynen e s t a b l i s h e s
tim e,
i n o u r would-be
to o u r s ta n d - in :
the e t e r n a l w i l l o f God p r o v i d e n t i a l l y
the c o n c ep t o f d iv i n e
fu lfilled ,
b e h in d the l i n e a r
time so in t e n s e l y e x p e r ie n c e d by man as a consequence o f the c o n s c io u s n e s s
o f death.
E v e r y m a n 's aw aren ess o f time i s r a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d ,
the d i v i n e m essa ge .
He has n o t been t h in k i n g o f h i s e n d i n g ;
one more day w o u ld be i n e x p r e s s i b l y p r e c i o u s .
u n w it t i n g l y mocked by F e l a w s h i p 's
by t h is d a y e l "
(lin e
206)
—
cheery g r e e t i n g ,
sudde nly,
even
form er n o n c h a la n c e is
"E uerym an,
good morowe,
a b i t t e r c o u n t e r p o in t to the F a u s tu s - lik e
d e s p e r a t io n t h a t d om inates Everyman
l l in e 1 9 4 ] )
H is
o f c o u r s e , by
("T h e day p a s s e t h and i s
alm o st ago o n"
un til
the i n f l u e n c e o f Knowlege re v e r s e s h i s a t t i t u d e ("F o r
27
îoy I wepe ; I wolde we were t h e r e ! " [lin e 5 3 7 3 ) .
As has o f t e n b een n o t e d ,
t h is u n r e m it t in g em phasis on the p a s s i n g o f time i s
an im p o rta n t source
o f d ram atic pow er
a nd i s p e c u l i a r to Everym an,
c o n t r a s t in g w it h the
l o o s e r h a n d l i n g o f time in the o th e r m o r a lity p l a y s .
Y e t in
g ra in ,
t h is
r e s p e c t Eve rym a n,
f a r from c u t t i n g a cr o s s the dra m a tic
i s a c t u a l l y p u s h in g a n a t u r a l dra m a tic tendency b eyond i t s
lim it.
O b v io u sly ,
the c o nc ep t o f time i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
u s u al
im p o rta n t in p o r t r a y ­
in g the c a r e e r o f any m o rality - p la y p r o t a g o n i s t , w h a tev er s t y l i z a t i o n may
be employed i n
the sta g e - c h ro n o lo g y .
are fu n d am en ta l to a l l
dilemma i n
it
terms o f human t im e ,
is part o f
and h i s
More b r o a d l y ,
d ra m a tic p a t t e r n i n g .
th erefo re,
the p r o c e ss o f e n c o u r a g in g
s itu a tio n .
l i n e a r i t y a nd s e q u e n t i a l i t y
The s t r e s s on E v e ry m a n 's
e x p l o i t s a b a s i c a u d ie n c e r e s p o n s e ;
" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " w it h the c h a r a c te r
And d e s p i t e the m inato ry message h e r e ,
in es sen c e a com placent o n e .
I t is o n ly p o s s i b l e ,
t h a t response i s
after a l l ,
to
"id e n tify ”
w it h a c h a r a c t e r who p o s s e s s e s a d i s c r e t e i d e n t i t y and fu n c t i o n s i n c ircum ­
s ta n ce s
t h at have an a p p a re n t r e a l i t y o f t h e i r own a nd t h a t are d r a m a t ic a l l y
" c o m p l e t e ."
ness;
The p r em ise o f suc h an im a g in a t iv e com ing- together i s
a way o u t o f the e x p e r ie n c e i s
The im p a ct o f E v e r y m a n 's
fin d s,
Once a g a in the t e x t draws the a u d ien c e in t o
f i c t i o n o n ly i n o r d e r to draw i t
n o t an image o f i t s e l f ,
p la c e in
separate­
reassuring ly.
tem poral p r e d ic a m e n t does n o t end b u t r a th e r
b e g in s w it h suc h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
the d ram atic
l e f t open,
through and b e y o n d , where i t
but i t s e l f i n d e e d .
the tem poral gap d e f i n e d by the c y c l e s ,
A l l m o r a lity p la y s take
the i n d e f i n i t e here-and-
now s t r e t c h in g b etw een the term inus o f B i b l i c a l h is t o r y and the Judgem ent to
come.
By m aking t h is
framework so e x p l i c i t and i n s i s t e n t , Everyman does
more than a c c e n t the u n i v e r s a l i t y o f the e x p e r ie n c e o f d eat h —
l i n e a r i t y o f t h at e x p e r i e n c e ,
i n a s e a o f cosm ic t im e ,
the very mechanism o f o ur en gagem en t,
d e t a c h in g i t
p artic u la r,
the d e t e r m in a t e ,
Everyman i s
‘’b o u n c e d o f f "
short,
has,
d eat h i s
a d rift
f o r c i b l y from the p o l e o f the
to w h ic h i t seeks to c l i n g .
Ihe
fate o f
a g a i n s t t h at o f the s in n e r s p u n is h e d by the F l o o d ,
th en a g a i n s t t h at o f the m a le d i c t i on Judgem ent D a y ,
that h is
i t s e t s the
so as to make i t c l e a r
29
In
those d e a t h s a nd the d eaths o f a l l men i n b e tw e e n .
i t i s o u r d e a t h , n o t t h a t o f a c h a r a c te r who r e p r e s e n ts u s .
Death
o f c o u r s e , e x i s t e d s in c e Adam, y e t God i s a l s o d e c i d i n g b e f o r e o u r eyes
to in t r o d u c e i t i n t o
c o n t in u a l l y u n t i l the
the w o r ld a s p u n ish m e n t:
fin a l death.
that d e c is io n w i l l be reenacted
The c h a r a c t e r Everyman may have a stage
day whose p a s s i n g he and we a r e made to f e e l a c u t e l y . 3^
B u t a g a i n s t th at
sense o f f a m i l i a r m ea su ra b le time i s s e t the m e a n in g le s s n e s s o f the c o ncep t
from the d i v i n e p e r s p e c t i v e .
v e nience,
We r e a l i z e
t h a t " d a y " i s a m e t a p h o r ic a l con­
a span i n w h ic h a m e t a p h o ric a l jou rney m ight take p l a c e .
u n it o f human time i s
Any
i n t e r c h a n g e a b le w it h t h is day and amounts to the
" a l l d a y e " d u r in g w h ic h ,
(lin e
6
) .
a c c o r d in g to the M es s e n g e r , we are
Any p e r i o d may serv e
" b e g y n n y n g e "? i t i s
these
w hat we can be sure o f .
to reach the
"t r a n s y t o r y "
"e n d y n g e " im p l ie d i n our
two m utually d epend en t v e r i t i e s
t h at b e g i n and end
And so we are l e d to see through the t e x t as through
a window by the r a i s i n g o f the s h a d e .
We must be k e p t aware o f the r e l a t i o n betw een shade a nd w indow i f we
are n o t to m istake e i t h e r the b a r r i e r to o ur s i g h t o r the d i s c l o s e d image
f o r e x c l u s iv e
c y cle p l a y s ,
rea lity .
in
T h is i s
p r e s e n t tru th d i r e c t l y ,
in d irec tio n s.
p r e m is e s ,
s u r e ly the key to E v e r y n a n 's m etho d.
t h at they dra m a tize B i b l i c a l
e n r ic h e d though the p r e s e n t a t io n
The o t h e r E n g l is h m o r a l i t i e s ,
s l i p c o n t i n u a l l y in t o
app ro aches
n ecessarily s u f f e r ,
w it h E ve rym a n .
the s a i n t s '
e it h e r d id a c t ic a lly or a e s t h e t ic a l l y ,
But i t may be a rg u ed t h a t ,
lik e
ra te o f p r o g r e s s ,
h e a r t e d ly o p p o r t u n it i e s
o f dra m a tic i m p e r a t i v e s :
Not that
by com parison
a b o a t th at s a i l s
close-
u n iq u e ly in touch w it h the
and even d a n g e r .
fo r c o n f l i c t and c o lo u r is
To e x p l o i t w h o le­
to run b e fo r e the w in d
we tend to lose o ur sen se o f m otion and take o ur
fo r g r a n t e d .
The ultim a te embodiment o f E ve rym a n*s r e f l e x i v e n e s s
K n o w leg e, whose m u lt iv a le n t ro le i s
m o r a lity dram a.
As E v e ry m a n 's g uid e
th eo lo gy o f the w o rk ,
h er f o r g u id an c e
is
the c h a r a c te r
u n p a r a l l e l e d e ls ew h e r e i n
to s a l v a t i o n ,
she i s
the e x t a n t
c e n t r a l to the
a nd the a u d ie n c e is made com m ensurately d epe nd en t upon
through the t e x t 's m ea ning .
A t the same t im e ,
the s t r a t e g y o f w it h h o l d i n g c e r t a in t y and r e s o l u t i o n ,
were,
p lays.
"t e n o r " and " v e h i c l e " i n a c o n s t a n t
s t a t e o f t e n s io n the p la y keeps i t s au d ien c e
j o u r n e y 's d i f f i c u l t y ,
i s by t y p o lo g ic a l
t h e ir a l l e g o r i c a l
to c o nveying C h r is t i a n know ledge on stage
h a u l e d a g a in s t the w i n d , by k e e p in g i t s
a r r iv a l
d e s p it e
f a s c i n a t i o n w it h dra m a tic s u r f a c e s , w h il e
th ese s u r fa c e s serv e as p rim ary sub sta n ce in
th ese a l t e r n a t iv e
The
f ig u r e s and a c t i o n s , p u r p o r t to
b e fo r e o u r e y e s .
she m a in ta in s
of d isap p ea rin g ,
as i t
Many commentators have taken up the c h a l l e n g e o f her
a m b ig u ity as m e d ia t r i x between Everyman and t r u t h ,
g e n e r a l l y a ttem p tin g to
f i x h e r d o c t r i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e on a s c a le between human u n d e r s ta n d in g and
s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n k in d s o f acknowledgem ent —
reason and r e v e l a t i o n .
t h at i s ,
The most s a t i s f a c t o r y argum ents,
r o u g h ly , betw een
I b e lie v e ,
t h a t s t r e s s the l i n k betw een self- know ledge a nd know ledge o f G o d .
app ro ach s u it s
the g e n e r a l tec hniqu e o f the p l a y :
K n o w le g e 's m eaning le a d s
to the r e a l i z a t i o n o f i t s
i n d e e d meant to c arr y t ru th s
loom ing b e h i n d ,
are those
Such an
31
the e l u s iv e n e s s o f
in c lu s iv e n e s s .
She is
t h at o r ig in a t e b o th w it h man a nd w it h G od,
for
s h i n i n g t h r o u g h , and c o n t a in in g the d i v i s i o n s o f the t e x t i s
t ru th i n d i v i s i b l e .
P r o b le m a t ic in a s i m i l a r l y s t i m u l a t i n g way i s
K n o w le g e ’ s m e d ia tio n betw een t e x t and a u d ie n c e .
n ific a n c e ,
the d ram atic dim en sio n o f
W h atever h e r d o c t r in a l s i g ­
in terms o f the d ram atic f i c t i o n she at l e a s t b e g in s as u n eq u iv o ­
c a l l y E v e ry m a n 's —
Strength.
as much a p a r t o f him as are h is Good Dedes and h is
H er p o s i t i o n o f s p e c i a l a u t h o r i t y m erely e x p r e s s e s h e r a l l e g o r i c a l
im p o r ta n c e .
It
is
lo gic al,
p r o o fs o f s t e a d f a s t n e s s ,
th erefo re,
she w i l l
t h a t , d e s p i t e h er a s s u r a n c e s and
fin a lly
fo llo w the exam ple o f the o th e r
p e r i s h a b l e p a r t s o f him :
K n o w leg e, w y ll ye fo rsak e me a lso ?
K n o w le g e .
For Everym an,
e a r t h l y k n o w le d g e ,
s u p e r s e d e d by s e e i n g
the p l a y ,
Y e , Euerym an, whan ye to Deth s h a l l g o .
"f a c e
seeing
to f a c e . "
K n o w le g e 's a u t h o r it y —
(lin e s
"throu gh a g l a s s d a r k l y , " i s
Yet in ev itab ly ,
860-61)
to be
over the course o f
hence h e r new i d e n t i t y —
a p p ly b e y o n d the c e n t r a l c h a r a c te r to those he r e p r e s e n t s .
has a l s o come to
H e n c e , K n o w l e g e 's
d e t a c h in g o f h e r s e l f from Everyman o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l l y resem bles the p r e c e d in g
desertio ns o f B eaute,
negations
Strength,
D y s c r e c io n , and V . W yttes —
th at m e c h a n ic a lly e n a c t the sta g e s o f d y i n g .
t r a n s f i g u r e d and e n l a r g e d ,
even as h er a u t h o r it y is
those s e l f ­
I n s t e a d , h e r r o le is
d iffu se d .
Knowlege prom ises Everyman to "s e where ye s h a l l be-come"
then rem ains on sta g e to t ra n sm it the in fo r m a t io n ,
fu n c t i o n by r e o r i e n t i n g h e r s e l f towards the a u d ie n c e .
does n o t sto p t h e r e , h o w ev er,
b e h in d h e r :
from u s .
thanks to the s t a g e - e ffe c t s
And so Knowlege h e r s e l f j o in s
e x p e r ie n c in g w ha t we do and sp e a k in g fo r us r a t h e r than to u s :
"Now h a t h he s u f f r e d t h a t we a l l s h a l l e n d u r e "
pates
in t a c t
to rem ain s ep ara te
and the in fo r m a t iv e A u n g e l l ,
we are g iv e n e q u a l d i r e c t knowledge o f o u r own.
the a u d i e n c e ,
The tra n s fo r m a tio n
fo r t h is w o uld be to lea v e the f i c t i o n
m erely to become o u r g u id e in s t e a d o f h i s i s
Rather,
(lin e 8 6 2 ) ,
thereby r e d e f i n i n g h er
(lin e
8 8 8 ).
She thus a n t i c i ­
the E p ilo g u e c o n v e n tio n o f l a t e r dram a, where an a c t o r ste ps p a r t l y o ut
o f character,
spectators.
c r e a t in g a b r i d g e b etw een the sta g e w o rld and th at o f the
E v e ry m a n 's Knowlege
t horo u ghly becoines o urs b y m e lt in g i n t o our
c o n s c io u s n e s s —
the c u lm in a tio n o f h e r e v o lv in g r o le as l im i n a l f ig u r e in our
32
own r it e - d e - p a s s a g e .
Her d is a p p e a r a n c e as p a r t i c i p a n t in the f i c t i o n ,
c o i n c i d i n g w it h the en d o f E v e r y m a n 's
the
t r u t h she has p o r t r a y e d .
journey,
in d u c e s our p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
As happens o ver and over in t h is p l a y , we are
co m p e lled to a c k n o w le d g e , n o t o n ly t h a t she has b e e n i t s e n d u r in g s u b j e c t ,
b u t t h a t so have w e .
H er r e f u s a l to e x i t on c u e ,
to j o i n the f i n a l c lo s u r e
by c o n c lu d in g h e r ro le w i t h i n
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w hic h i s
the dra m a tic i l l u s i o n , b a r s our own esc a p e
t h at i l l u s i o n 's
from
le g a c y .
York U n iv e r s it y
NOTES
^ The metaphor o f f l a t t e n i n g has a p p e a le d to c r i t i c s
d iv e r s e a s p e c t s o f the p l a y .
J ohn C o n le y ,
E v e r y m a n ," No tes and Q u e r i e s ,
N .S .
30
( 1 9 8 3 ) , p o in t s out t h a t the Dutch
” v o e r s ie n ic h has been f l a t t e n e d o u t to
the p o i n t ,
John W e b s t e r ,
'g o o d a d u y s em e n t' "
The F a e r ie Q u e e n e ," i n S p e n s e r a n d the M id d le A ges 1 9 7 6 ,
2-5 May 1 9 7 6 ,
(p .
3 9 5 ).
More to
"T he A lle g o r y o f C o n t r a d ic t io n in Everyman and
S e s s i o n a t the E le v e n t h C o n feren c e
M ic h ig a n ,
commenting on
"The I d e n t i t y o f D i s c r e t i o n in
ed.
Proc. o f a Sp ec ia l
in M e d ie v a l S t u d ie s i n Kalam azo o ,
D a v id A .
R ic h a r d s o n , m ic r o fic h e
(C l e v e l a n d ,
O h io 1 9 7 6 ) , sp eaks o f the dra m a tic a sp e c t s o f c h a r a c te r and s i t u a t i o n as
"flattene d out"
2
(p .
3 6 7 ) , though o n ly
Thomas Van L a a n ,
4 6 5 - 75,
"E v e ry m a n :
from time to tim e.
A S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s , " PMLA 78
has e f f e c t i v e l y drawn a t t e n t io n
(1 9 6 3 )
to the l a t e n t dynam ics o f the p l a y ,
in c l u d i n g the i m p l i c i t p re se n c e o f the s in s p o rt r a y e d in o th e r m o r a l i t i e s .
^ R ecent s t u d i e s o f the p l a y in
c lud e Phoebe S .
Q u a r t e r ly 64
M orien di :
6
(1 9 8 3 )
4
Sp in ra d ,
(1 9 8 5 )
terms o f the a r s m oriendi
t ra d itio n i n ­
"The L a s t Tem ptation o f E v e r y m a n ,” P h i l o l o g i c a l
1 8 5- 9 4, a nd D o n ald F .
D u clo w ,
"Everyman and the A rs
F ift een th - C en t u ry Cerem onies o f D y i n g , " F ifte e n th - C e n t u r y S t u d i e s
9 3- 113 .
The o b l i g i n g l y c o n c is e e x p r e s s io n o f E v e r y m a n 's in fo r m in g p r i n c i p l e
by the p r o b a b ly n on- Shakespearean H e cate o f M ac be th , e d .
A rden Sh a k es p ea r e
(1 0 t h e d . ,
London 19 7 1 )
K enneth M u ir ,
The
I I I . v . 32- 33.
^ T h is view o f the p r o c e s s o f the p la y i s in g e n e r a l acc o rd w it h those
o f W e b ste r
Im ag e:
(at n .
1)
A lle go ric a l
p retatio n ,
358- 8 6,
a nd C aro ly nn Van D y k e ,
"The I n t a n g i b l e a nd I t s
D is c o u r s e and the C ast o f E v e r y m a n ," in A c t s o f I n t e r ­
The Text in I t s C o n te x t s 700- 1600 :
E s s a y s on M ed iev a l and
R e n a is s a n c e L i t e r a t u r e i n Honor o f E .
J.
Carruthers
and E l i z a b e t h D . K ir k
Van Dyke p u t s
ourj
it,
T alb o t D o n a l d s o n , e d .
(Norman, Oklahoma 1 9 8 2 )
an im p o rtan t a sp e c t o f the p l a y i s
ed ucation in
a llego rica l v isio n ,
w h ic h i s
p a r t i c u l a r and tim ebo un d as the u n i v e r s a l "
a n a ly s e s
(p .
l i m i t them selves by p r e s e n t in g what I
fu s i o n o f
" l i t e r a l ” and
"f ig u r a t iv e "
(Van D y k e, p .
t h at d i s l o c a t e
the p e r c e p t io n o f the a u d ie n c e .
a n a c h r o n i s t i c Van D y k e 's
illu s io n
called
't h e
Everyman a nd h i s
3 1 5 ),
d i r e c t o r c o u ld w i s h "
3 1 6 ).
Ho w ev er, b o th o f these
see as the p e r v a s iv e uneasy
359- 60) , o r
I a ls o
(p .
323)
"th e
t h e a t r ic a l
and h e r argum ent t h at " I n i t i a l l y
are as r e a l i s t i c as the most t r a d i t i o n a l
[modern]
3 2 2 ).
"r e a lis m "
(p .
M unson,
C om parative Drama 9
A u s e f u l p e r s p e c t iv e on is s u e s o f
St ro u p e
^ I
M e ie r ,
i s p r o v id e d
"A u d ie n c e and M eaning i n Two M ed iev a l D ram atic R e a lis m s ,
(1 9 7 5 )
44- 67 ,
rpt.
in
The Drama o f the M id d le A g e s :
C om parative a n d C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , e d . C l i f f o r d D a v id s o n ,
John H .
"c o n c r e t e "
f i n d fun d am en ta lly
assum ption o f the e x is t e n c e o f
in m ed ia ev a l dram a, w it h prim ary re fe r e n c e to the c y cle p l a y s ,
by W i l l i a m F .
[hence
in terms o f s u c c e s s iv e dra m a tic e f f e c t s
fo u rth w a l l ' "
frie n d s
"E v e r y m a n 's
As
the r e c o g n it io n o f the
{W eb ste r, p p .
and " a b s t r a c t ”
Mary
311- 24.
(New York 1 9 8 2 )
C .J .
G ia n ak a ris,
and
183- 20 6.
f i n d p a r t i c u l a r l y s u g g e s t i v e , ho w ev er,
"M id d le E n g l i s h S t y l e s in T r a n s l a t i o n ;
the o b s e r v a t io n o f Hans H .
A Note on Everyman and
C a x t o n 's R e y n a r d ," i n From Caxton to B e c k e t t : E s s a y s P r e s e n t e d to W . H . Toppen
on
the O c c a s io n o f h i s S e v e n t i e t h B i r t h d a y , e d .
R ic h a r d T odd
J ac q u es
B . H . A l b l a s and
(Amsterdam 1 9 7 9 ) , t h at the E n g l i s h a d a p to r tend s to v i o l a t e
d ra m a tic r e q u ire m e n ts a nd even l o g i c
in t e r p r e t a t iv e ,
"by b e in g a n t i c i p a t o r y ,
o r e x p o s it o r y out o f h i s
turn"
(p .
e x p lic it,
1 8 , my em phasis) .
For
a summary o f the arguments and e v id e n c e r e g a r d in g the r e l a t i o n betw een the
Dutch and E n g l i s h w o r k s ,
x - x iii.
is
see A . C . C a w le y , e d . Everyman
f u r n i s h e d by E l s a S t r ie t m a n ,
E v e r y m a n ," r e v .
7
8
9
Caw ley
(a t n .
x x v ii.
Ib id .
xxv ii.
c it e s
^
art.
Ib id .
See,
turn
(M an ch ester 1 9 61)
A more r e c e n t p e r s p e c t iv e on what now seems a dormant co ntro versy
e .g ..
T .S .
6
(1 9 8 3 )
1 11- 1 4 .
) x x v ii- x x v iii.
Van Laan
E l i o t 's
A l l references
"The M idd le Dutch E l c k e r l i j c and the E n g l is h
Medium Aevum 52
(a t n .
2)
4 74- 75,
c i t i n g Caw ley
well-known app ro ba tio n
(p .
(a t n .
6
),
x x v ).
to Everyman are to C a w l e y ’ s e d i t i o n
(a t n .
6
).
who in
Cawley
"le n d
(a t n .
[the hero]
she i s ,
Van Dyke
6
) x x v i- x x v ii.
For Van Laan
u n i v e r s a l i t y a nd charm "
(a t n .
5)
(p .
c o n s p ic u o u s ly f a i l s
lang uage in t o a c c o u n t , e x c e p t p erhap s w h en ,
she comments t h at K y n r e d e ’ s
him as o n ly too t y p i c a l "
^
"u n t h in k in g
(p .
(a t n .
4 7 5 ).
2 ),
the p ro v erb s
A ttun ed to
to take t h is
"r e a l i s m "
f e a t u r e o f the
i n my view m is s in g the p o i n t ,
[sic ]
r e l i a n c e on c l i c h e s
r e v e a ls
3 1 7 ).
Even a l l o w i n g fo r the d i f f e r e n t aims o f B r e c h t and m e d ia e v a l drama­
tis ts ,
C lau de G a u v in ,
Moyen A g e ,
"R i t e e t
" Revue d 'h i s t o i r e
j e u dans le théâ tre r e l i g i e u x a n g l a i s du
du Théâtre 29
(1 9 7 7 )
in s is ts ,
"Il
r e s t e que
l e s moyens pron és p ar B r e c h t e t le s proc éd és de d ram atu rgie m é d ié v a l —
sont p a r fo is
id e n t i q u e s
—
a b o u t is s e n t au même r é s u l t a t —
c a t io n e t l a n o n - i l l u s i o n "
(p .
i l l u s i o n " a p p ly in r a d i c a l l y
134) .
S u r e ly
B r e c h t 's
la n o n - id e n tifi­
For me,
the
the key to the d i s t i n c t i o n betw een
V er fr e m d u n g s e ffe k t and the suprem ely im p l ic a t e d a u d ie n c e
fo s t e r e d , w it h u n p a r a l l e l e d s u c c e s s , by Everyman :
provoke c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s ,
ils
" n o n - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ” a n d "non-
d i f f e r e n t ways in the two c a s e s .
s h a r p ly c o n t r a s t in g d i d a c t i c p u r p o se s are
n ess
as
c o n s c io u s ­
B r e c h t so u g h t to
the Everyman a u t h o r to evoke an u n c r i t i c a l
fa ith .
Such a resp o nse m ight w e l l have been f a c i l i t a t e d by the p e r c e p t io n o f a c t i n g
p o s i t e d fo r R e n a iss a n c e a u d ie n c e s by W i l l i a m E .
S c rip t:
A ffe c t iv e S t r a t e g ie s
Com parative Drama 19
(1 9 8 5 )
Gruber,
30- 48, who argues
that s p e c ta to r s were c o n s c io u s
o f the p ro c e ss o f im p e r so n a t io n i n a way w h ic h d i d n ot
between c r i t i c a l o b j e c t i v i t y
14
and em o tio nal p r e s e n t a t i o n "
(p .
3 4 ).
i d e n t i t i e s shows t h a t the
(London 1 9 8 5 ) , f o r whom such a s u c c e s s io n o f
fift e e n t h - c e n t u r y concept o f a human b e i n g d i d n o t
the c a p a c ity to fu n c t io n as
i d e n t i f y w it h the
in the v e r b "
is
that o f C a t h e r in e B e ls e y i n The S u b j e c t o f T r a g e d y : I d e n t i t y and
D i f f e r e n c e in R e n a is s a n c e Drama
(p .
"s u b je c t" —
' 1 ' o f an u t t e r a n c e ,
1 5 ).
that i s ,
s u b j e c t i v i t y w h ic h c o u ld c o n s t it u t e such an o r i g i n "
very tenden cy —
d idactic reasons,
" s u b j e c t i v i t y " in
to
(p .
d isc o n tin u o u s,
he has no s in g l e
1 8 ).
t h is sen se
u n iq u e ly r e s i s t e d by Everyman —
i d e n t i t y o f a fig u r e who i s
"D is u n it e d ,
i s n o t the o r i g i n o f a c t io n ;
s h o u ld deduce a prem ise o f
"t o s p e a k ,
to be the a gen t o f the a c t io n i n s c r i b e d
R a t h e r , a c c o r d in g to B e l s e y ,
the hero o f the m o r a l i t i e s
I
"f o r c e a dichotom y
T h is r e a d in g o f the dynamic o f c h a r a c t e r iz a t i o n in the m o r a l i t i e s
at odds w it h
in c l u d e
"The A c t o r i n the
in S h a k e s p e a r e 's A ntony and C le o p a tr a
On the c o n t r a r y ,
from the p l a y s '
to p a r t i c u l a r i z e
th eo retically u n iv ersal,
even i f ,
the
fo r o bv io u s
the r e s u l t i n g i d e n t i t i e s may be m u lt ip le a n d " d i s c o n t i n u o u s ."
See a ls o N a t a l i e Crohn S c h m it t ,
"The I d e a o f a Person in M e d ie v a l M o r a lit y
P l a y s , " C om p arative Drama 12
Ages:
(1 9 7 8 )
2 3- 34,
C om p arative a n d C r i t i c a l E s s a y s
t ec h n iq u e
in
that
than we have assum ed "
The C a s t l e o f P e r s e v e r a n c e ,
(London 1 9 6 9 )
r e f e r e n c e s are
^
lin e s
76- 77 .
n.
fin d s
.
. They may .
.
. be un d ersto o d as
3 1 2 - 1 3 ).
in The Macro P l a y s , e d .
2531- 36
Mark E c c l e s ,
(p and 3 t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) .
EETS,
Su bseq u ent
c i t e d here and b elo w from J . M . M an ly,
the Pre- Shakesp earean Drama
T h is a d d r e s s to the a u d ien c e i s
5)
.
(p p .
to t h is e d i t i o n .
Mundus e t I n f a n s ,
Sp ec im e ns o f
lin e s
304- 1 5 , who a n a ly z e s d ram atic
"we must n o t assume t h at s h i f t s in p e r s o n a l i t y have
to be develo p m en ta l to be v e r i s i m i l a r .
more l i f e - l i k e
^
i n The Drama o f the M id d le
5)
terms o f m ed ia eva l p sy c h o lo g y and c o n c lu d e s , w it h r esp ec t to
Mundus e t I n f a n s ,
O . S . 262
rpt.
(a t n .
the
"t h e a t r ic a l il l u s i o n "
(1 8 9 7 ;
rpt.
ed.
New York 1 9 6 7 )
I,
the f i r s t p o i n t a t w h ic h Van Dyke
to be v i o l a t e d
(p .
(at
3 2 3 ).
10
M a n k in d ,
19
in e d .
E c c le s
O b s e r v e d by Cawley
(at n .
(a t n .
6)
a n d the P a r a b le o f the T a l e n t s , " i n
15)
lin e s
17-20
(f> and 3 t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) .
note to l i n e 6 6 .
V .A . K olve,
The M edieva l Dram a, e d .
"Everyman
Sandro S t i c c a
(A lb a n y 1 9 7 2 ) , comments on the way i n w h ic h Everyman i s
thus not im m ediately
d is tin g u is h e d
360- 61,
Dyke
(a t n .
from the a u d i e n c e .
5)
m erely f i n d s
"la w e "
22
1982)
the
1)
and Van
"m etam o rp h o sis" o f the
" s i n g u l a r ."
Noah a nd the A rk
George E n g l a n d ,
21
(a t n .
t h a t the c h a r a c t e r 's app ea ran c e e n a c t s a
" c o l l e c t i v e " in t o
20
C f . W eb ste r
3 14 - 15 , who ig n o r e s the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the a u d ien c e and
(P r o c e s s u s Noe cum f i l i i s ) , The Towneley P l a y s ,
EETS, E . S .
71
(London 1 8 9 7 )
(a t n .
6)
to
c itin g
the p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e o f the Judgem ent p l a y s .
2 9 , on the p r o p o s ed em endation o f
The L a s t Judgem ent p ag ea n t in York P l a y s ,
lin e s
265- 67
ed.
82- 92.
See Cawley
"l o u e ,"
note to l i n e
lin e s
(Jd a nd 3 t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) .
ed.
R ich ar d B e a d le
(London
Su b s eq u en t r e f e r e n c e s are to
t h is e d i t i o n .
23
24
N.
The Tow neley Ju dg em en t,
E n g la n d
The o p e n in g o f the Towneley p a g e a n t i s
Town Doom sday, w h i c h ,
sin g le
in e d .
f ig u r e
addresses
h o w ev er,
(a t n .
20)
lost.
So is
390.
the e n d in g o f the
i s e v id e n t l y much s im p l e r .
It
i d e n t i f i e d as I h e s u i n the o p e n in g s tag e d i r e c t i o n ,
the b l e s s e d as
"P a t r i s mei ye c h ild e r y n d e r e " —
C o v e n t r ia e o r the P l a i e C a l l e d Corpus C h r i s t i , e d .
12 0
lin e
(London 1 9 2 2 )
l in e
41
(3 t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) .
features a
who
see Ludus
K .S . Blo ck,
EETS, E .S .
Hie in d e n t u r e made w it h
W o un d ed ” as p a r t o f the
M arg aret R o g erso n,
The Records
Ihe
s c r ip ts ,
EETS,
e d s .,
text c ited ,
fo r g o d " —
as w e l l as the source o f in fo r m a t io n r e g a r d in g manu­
(London 19 74) .
in the o p e n in g l i n e s ,
a "S i r k e
J oh n sto n and
55.
The C h ester M ystery C y c le ,
S .S .3
1433 s p e c ifie s
See A le x a n d r a F .
R eco rd s o f E a r ly E n g l i s h Dram a, York 1 , I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
(To ro nto 1 9 7 9 )
is
the York Mercers in
"A rra y
see
Commentary and G l o s s a r y ,
ed.
R .M . Lum iansky and D a v id M i l l s ,
I,
For d is c u s s io n o f the s h i f t i n g o f d i v i n e p erso ns
the same e d i t o r s '
EETS,
S .S .9
o ut the c h a lle n g e o f d r a m a t ic a lly
The C h ester M ystery C y c l e ,
(London 1 9 86 )
II
352-5 3 , where they p o in t
r e c o n c i l in g the r o le o f J e s u s
in c o n d u c tin g
the Judgem ent w it h the t r a d i t i o n t h a t the ho ur o f doom w as known o nly to God
the F a t h e r
27
22
(note
See D a v id K u a l a ,
(1 9 6 0 )
28
7 - 8 ).
"Time i n Everyman and Do cto r F a u s t u s , " C o l l e g e E n g l is h
12.
See,
29
C f.
e .g .,
K olv e
petual p resen t,
K u a la
to l i n e s
(a t n .
Van Laan
(a t n .
(a t n .
19)
82,
2)
467.
who d is c u s s e s
27)
30 A g a in s t the r e l a t i v e l y l i t e r a l
1947)
M a t e r ia ls
184,
(1 9 7 2 )
a n d Van Laan
325;
K u a la
(a t n .
19)
31
See,
(a t n .
M oran,
(a t n .
n otably , e d .
u n d e rsta n d in g o f the p l a y 's
27)
2)
467,
chro no lo gy
A Com parative St u d y o f T ex ts and
N .S .
20
(L o uv ain
may be s e t the more f l e x i b l e p e r ­
1 2 ; W eb ste r
(a t n .
1)
Cawley
361;
and,
most v a l u a b l y ,
(a t n .
6)
x x i- x x ii,
'K n o w l e d g e ', " in M e d ie v a lia e t H u r m n i s t ic a :
Pa ul M aurice C logan
" Ev e ry m a n :
and the e x t e n s io n o f h is
"Everyman and the I m p l i c a t i o n s o f B a r n a r d in e
S t u d i e s i n M edieval a n d R e n a is s a n c e C u lt u r e , N . S .
W a rren,
a ls o
"The L if e o f E v e r y m a n ," N e o p h il o l o g u s 56
Jam b ec k,
Humanism in the C h ar a c ter
ed.
"a p e r ­
Doomsday;
81- 82.
a pp ro ach by Thomas J .
C o n t i n u it y ,
s e t t i n g in
i .e .
fo r the Stud y o f the O ld e r E n g l is h Dram a,
s p e c t i v e s o f Denn is V .
K olve
t im e " —
12.
e x e m p l if ie d by Henry de V o c h t, Everym an:
Sources,
the p l a y 's
b ut a ls o a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l
8,
(Cambridge 1 9 7 4 )
T r a n s fo r m a t io n and
103- 23.
Knowledge Once M o r e ," D a lh o u s ie R e v ie w 54
M ic h a e l J .
(1 9 7 4 )
136- 46,
p r o v id e s a n o t h e r u s e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the problem and o f some p rop o sed
so lu tio n s.
More r e c e n t l y , h o w ev er, W i l l ia m Munson,
E v e r y m a n C h a u c e r R e v ie w 19
K n o w leg e,
is
the
(1 9 8 5 )
"c o m p r e h e n s iv e ,
"K now ing and D o ing in
2 52- 7 1, has argu ed t h a t Good D e d e s , not
c o n t r o llin g term ” i n the p l a y
(p .
2 5 2 ).
See V ic t o r T u rn er and E d i t h T u r n e r , Im age and P ilg r im a g e in C h r is t i a n
C u l t u r e : A n t h r o p o lo g i c a l P e r s p e c t iv e s
w it h Munson
(a t n .
31)
(New York 1 9 7 8 )
o b s e r v e r d e t a c h e d from the t e n s io n s o f the c o n c r e t e ,
(p .
1 - 39.
that the l a s t speech o f JCnowlege
I can n ot agree
"b e lo n g s
in dividu al
to the
a c t io n "
2 6 7 ) , b e c a u se i t does n ot seem to me that the s p e c t a t o r becomes
such an o b s e r v e r .