CHAPTER I CHAPTER I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON LAND-LOCKED STATES A state being disadvantaged in terms of resources and trade to and upon the sea is not a access, recent From the concepts of natural law in the 18th phenomenon. century, the idea was born that an inland state has a right of access emerging to the sea. principle was The earliest application of this applied to rivers which through the sovereignty of more than one state. 19th century, international the right river of access to because widely accepted world's nations (Pounds 1959). disparity, the land-lacked sorts at the Third U.N. (UNCLOS III) concessions states in the flowed During the sea via an among the Because of this acknowledged states formed an alliance of Conference on the Law of the Sea (Glassner 1986). This alliance tried to garner concerning resources their emerging marine from neighboring zones. The coastal land-locked states also tried and failed to apply ancillary provisions upon the coastal states where deep ocean resources are concerned. Land-locked states share the characteristics of having no coastline, no direct access to the sea, and varied economic, ethnic and political histories. Of the 34 land-locked states nine are in Europe, five are in Asia, four in central Asian states, two are in South America, with the remaining fourteen located in Africa. Many of these states have achieved independence since World 1 war I I , cover large areas, have rising population densities, and are among the poorer members of the family of nations (Bowe~ 1986). Their boarders were established generally as a matter of administrative convenience (Alexander 1981) . Landlocked states have always faced an international legal problem in order to trade with states other than their immediate neighbors, they must import and export goods across the territories of adjacent states. During the negotiations of UNCLOS I I I the, land-locked states were at a continues disadvantage because they lack coastlines upon open, enclosed or semi-enclosed seas as well as any maritime transportation capability. The problems of being land-locked have significantly contributed to the continued under development of a number of these states. Developm~nt Trade and land-locked states, sea, aggravated markets and As the United Natipns Conference on (UNCTAD) has concluded that developing the lack of territorial access to the by the remoteness greater and causes constraint of to their their isolation difficulties international transport services, major large relative further from and world costs of appears to be one of the poverty and economic a serious and social development." 1 Reviewing these facts the important issue is whether land-locked countries have a right of access to and from the sea, or whether such access is merely a advantage, that is, 2 dependent upon terms and co~ditions unilaterally imposed by countries of transit. The study is in the context of the Asian land-locked states such Bhutan. as Afghanistan, The focus Mongolia, Laos, Nepal and Nepal is one of the is on the Nepal. poorest land-locked states among the Asian countries. Its nearest distance to and trom the sea is about 710 kms from eastern border. Nepal's The nearest seaport is Calcutta in India. dependence on India for foreign trade is nearly Due to land-locked position, Nepal has not been absolute. India still retains able to diversity hen export marlcet. hen monopoly over Nepal's foreign trade, claiming about 90 per cent of the total trade. 2 So it consequences is quite should be obvious one of that the the geographical significant factors conditioning Nepal's role in the United Nations. Indeed -·· Nepal's name, in the United Nations has become in exorably identified with the problem of land-locked countries. During the period of British rule in India, Nepal enjoyed limited transit facilities under the treaty of 1923. After India became independent, the 1950. Treaty of Trade and Commerce came to govern the trade and transit relations between Nepal and India. Nepal's early efforts to draw attention of the United Nations on the problems of land-locked countries 1955-58, soon after becoming member of the United Nations in December 1955, Nepal along with two other land-locked states of Asia, 3 Afghanistan and Laos, took the initiative in acquainting the Committee problems on of Industry land-locked (January 1956) that the and Trade states. of the CAFE with At its eighth the session the committee is its resolution recommended needs of land-locked member states and members having so easy access to the sea in the matters having so easy access to the sea in the matter of transit trade be given full adequate recognition facilities by all therefore members be states recorded in and terms that of international law and practice in this regard. Sinjela's 3 book which is a detailed study on the different aspects of the land-locked states and their claim for the drawback which is generally seaborne countries does not face. It also discussed about the characteristics of land-locked states, their fight for the right to the freedom of high exclusive countries. all this seas claims, economic claim zone, for claims the for continental these disadvantaged Finally about the deep sea resources. is a detailed study about the shelf, So over problems and constraints facing by the land-locked states. Glassner 4 studies the efforts on the problems of access to the sea and emphasis on trade and economic development. This book is an outgrowth of an interest in the question of access to the sea. It is an elaborated study about the problem of access to the sea which has become more critical since the World War II as the emphasis on trade and economic 4 development has grown which at the same time many new landlocked states were being born. odas in his reference book had tried to describe and analyse the process of the work of the sea bed committee over its six discussions years in the period, General along 'with Assembly, by official documents and his personal notes. the related referring to Here he also highlighted the problems of land-locked and geographically disadvantaged states. He briefly examined the draft articles relating to these disadvantaged countries. Merryman and Ackerman analyzed in their book, 6 the various aspects of the problems of transit trade of landlocked states. Regarding that for the upliftment of the economic condition of the land-locked states. It is also noteworthy to provide facilities to enable them to overcome the effects of the!ein land-locked position on their trade. They highlighted the case of Bolivia which is one of the land-locked state of the world. International law does give Bolivia certain nights of transit over the territories of Chile and Penu, but they are of little value of Bolivia. They put emphasis on the development and the content of the right of transit law, and will assess reducing or and related rights in international the effectiveness of such rights eliminating the trade disadvantages of in land- locked states. The second part of the book moves from the general and abstract to the particular and 5 concrete. There is a states, land-locked of number large surprisingly representing a wide variety of geographic positions, stocks of natural political, and human social resources, and histories economic and systems, and cultures, stages of The practical significance of the fact that development. the state is land-locked various from one to the other so does the way the right of nations trade with other nations. Every land-locked nations is likely to be a party to treaties concerning transit rights with neighboring states, and such treaties are often a surer guide to the position of that state in international trade than general formulations of the right of transit in international law. The variety that exists among land~locked states makes it extremely difficult to select one of them as "typical or representative". to balance the The need for concretions and specificity co~ceptual generalities of international law, however makes a discussion of one land-locked state highly desirable. If that state happens to be comparable significant way to other land-locked states, in so much the better. The case of Bolivia, which is the main object of this book is completely a land-locked state. It is also a very much a developing nation lying in the geographic heart of a developing continent. Nasila 7 in his book highlighted the African states on international understanding laws of the which are position 6 relevant taken by to these the better states in UNCLOS III. One chapter deal with the problems of land-, locked African countries. It has broadly discussed the problems facing by these countries regarding the access to and from the sea. over the Rights and duties of land-locked states resources limitation of of Z under the exclusive foreign economic domination and zone the finally on restriction on exploitation of resources. Mahalu 8 equality" of in the international states, his book discussed about He land-locked states. law regarding the the focuses maritime and their right to own it. "Sovereign flag on of the these The right to own, a maritime flag is not a privilege of the whistle states only. Glassner and Harm D. Blij 9 emphasis on land-locked state and their right relating to free transit and trade of these disadvantage states, make to understand the drawback of these states. this subject. In this book one chapter .is related to He put some light on the recommendation of UNCTAD relating to Transit Trade of land-locked countries during October and November 1964, and Asian land-locked states led the discussions. It is an introductory book on Political Geography. has discussed on land-locked states and It their characteristics. Insistence on absolute sovereignty began to give way to a recognition of the advantages a free flow of trade and the convention on trade and transit of land-locked states to establish a legal right 7 of transit have been concentrated in the UNCLOS III and is the seabed Committee that preceded it. The collection of lecture series by Walsh 10 is a wide range of Ocean policy issues which related to the law of the sea. the The intent was to consider several facts of the law of sea' s impact on resource uses of Ocean Space through presentations by the best experts available. Represented here are ·views of people concerned with living and non-living resources as well as the problem faced by the developing world is gaining a fare share is uses of R. Gopalakrishnan's 11 work on Afghanistan is a Ocean Space. comprehensive study of land-locked states. the problems country. and constrains Different discussed here. aspect facing of He highlighted by these disadvantage land-locked Afghanistan is Foreign Trade has become an important means for Afghan economy. Its export potential has been partially responsible for attracting foreign aid and assistance for its economic development. Afghan pressure foreign from position. trade difficulties has been arising persistently from its under geographical These difficulties have been mostly due to non- availability of free access to the sea and sudden exposure to fast economic development and consequent concentration of the Afghan trade to selective areas. The become hazardous quite nature evident as of its frequently obstructed. 8 Afghans transit land-locked facilities states were The detailed speculation of this war affected country help to assess the condition of this geographically disadvantaged state. Edited book by Clingan and Alexander 12 emphasized on the constrains of maritime transit states on their trade and transit It issues. provides a modern and futuristic perspective on legal problems relating to the hazards of maritime commerce. The Evolution of the Law of the Sea by Johnson 13 deal with special regard to the polar It areas. questions of resources and strategy. focuses on The study is grounded on international law, but aims at wider interests as well. This book put ·some emphasis on It studied some of situation. the land-locked states the convention related to these countries. Another edited book 14 by Mynon, Nordquist, Yankov and Grandy is the second substansive volume on the law of the sea 1982. Volume IV is the first of the volumes containing commentaries on the substantive provisions of the 1982 convention. It deals with the work of the third committee and UNCLOS III. Anand 15 resources, in his book discussed about geographical features. resources the sea is, The vast storehouse of the potentialities of the sea. international society has expressed itself the seabed, the under water and its resources. 9 The in claims over He examine the origin and development of the continental shelf doctrine and its culmination in the continental shelf convention of 1958. Critically examining the vague and uncertain definition of the legal continental shelf adopted in this convention. He discussed the nature and basis of the rights of the coastal state over its legal continental shelf and how they affect the traditional freedoms of the sea and the rights of the distant waters states. One chapter is devoted to a study of this area of 'no law' so far and how this legal vacuum is sought to be Examining various proposals in this connection, we filled. shall also see what kind of international machinery can be established or its early and orderly exploitation. He also developed discussed into a on how international law of co-operation law in this can be new field. Finally he recapitulate the various issues involved in the development of the new law relating to the sea-bed and suggest what can and should be done to develop a law which may be adequate and acceptable to all. Sourie 16 book on UNCTAD II provide information about the issues that faced the conference, the stand that was taken respectively by the developing countries, developed countries and the socialist countries, and the achievements and failures of the negotiations that took place during the conference. The fact in this volume have been presented with complete objectivity, covering the entire Manage of subjects 10 Working groups and which were discussed in the committees. plenary sessions of the conferences. Another documents book official of or Oda 17 is a collection non-governmental, of various relating to the international law of the sea, provide ample of information. Like this there is another collection of convention by Bohme1 8 also is a compilation of proposals for a new ocean regime from the various point of view. study. It will also help in ' The simle conceptualizations of both ideological and technical consideration by Gamble 19 is also discussed about different policy issues making by Hulk nations. and Osgood's book 20 is a study of legal materials and attention given to the political problems. It present -the great all inclusive problem of international organization in general. It dealing with the freedom of the seas. Another book on law of the sea by Phiphat 21 is an analysis of the important issue facing the ASEAN countries and land-locked countries of South China have played in the negotiations as well as their future rates, provides an understanding of the realities and problems of this region. The edited book of Gerald Blake 22 is the presentation of nine papers at a meeting of the International Geographical Union's study group on the world political map help in Reading in January 1986. Blake leans off with a brief overview of the problem and a general description of 11 some maritime boundary This agreements. is followed by five papers on various aspects of maritime boundaries. Another edited book 23 of Johnson and Sounders is one of three works produced under the Ocean Boundary Programme of Dalhousie Ocean Studies Programme of Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. It produced many splendid studies on various aspects of marine resources maritime transport and maritime legal problems before its recent incorporation into Dalhousie's International Institute for transportation and Ocean policy studies. In their introduction, the editors give an overview of the subject, the next seven articles are case studies of particular regions the concluding chapter discussed on the region and regionalism. This book present a extremely valuable comprehensive, discussion on. one non-technical of the most and import aspects of the new political geography of the sea. Shrestha 24 in the book also discussed on the problems of land-locked states in one of the chapter. She shed light on the Nepal's fight for the free access to the sea. of access The attempted to give emphasis on the question of international land-locked practice and countries was formalized in recognized in bilateral and multilateral treaties raised by Nepalese delegate on the law of the sea adopted by the sixth committee Commission for Asia and Far East (ECAFE) . 12 of Economic She discussed about the different resolution taken in the Assembly Nepal's on land-locked contribution to the countries. She discussion of discussed Economic and Social issues in the UN in a comprehensive way. Rama Puri's book 2 5 one of the chapter dealt with the problems of land-locked states. concept of exclusive controversial _ and economic potentially National Zone in the sea. hand in UNCLOS I I I Chapter five examine the zone the an most developed novel significant. India and the group of 77 tried to achieve a consensus on the various issues . relating to the 2000 mile zone. examine the most The study aims to law of the sea as codified and progressively in the United Nations. It is particularly concerned with evaluation of the role that India has played in the world body is the process of development of the law regarding national Jurisdiction in the sea. This volume presents the analyses and results of the study undertaken for the purpose. He discussed about the . concept of exclusive economic zone and right of linking resources of the sea with the land-locked and geographically disadvantaged state. The common concern specifically about in these books are on the the problems and constraints facing by these land-locked states. States are facing difficulties in access they to the sea and have to depend neighboring states for their transit and trade. 13 upon the Though, the customary international law concerning the right of access of land-locked states to and from the sea, and freedom of III. transit has been incorporated into UNCLOS Land-locked states, however, treaties with their neighbors still have to negotiate in order opportunity of freedom of transit. stated garnered resources adjacent in limited the coastal states to some exclusive and a exercise that In addition and locked rights proposal to of the economic concessionaire living zone right of from coastal states to mineral wealth generated from the deep sea bed. Unfortunately the whistle states against the land- locked states any provisions entitling them to 'non-living' resources in the zoo nautical mile exclusive economic zone. Some of the articles which highlighted the drawbacks of land-locked states and their right to get the share of natural resources under the seabed. Goble in his paper 26 on land-locked states, highlighted the new right for living marine resources and how much these states get share of it. The states being disadvantaged in terms of access resources and trade to and upon the sea, is not a recent phenomenon. access to the sea. The inland state has a right of Because of the disparity faced by the land-locked states formed an alliance of sorts at the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III). Antonio' s 27 attempts to answer arising in support of these states. some of the queries Specifically it aims to provide a better understanding of the main factors that in 14 the authors opinion, delimi~ the scope of the participation of such states in the living resources of the Z. number of discrepancies doubtedly others that will be clarified, perhaps . awaits the While a there more are elaborated analyses that will be forthcoming as the convention of the law of the sea is subjected to progressively more complete facing by land-locked and geographically disadvantage states by Bowen 28 at UNCLOS III. The countries with no seacoast at all or a coast that for some reason did not enable them to Over 50 such benefit from an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) countries quite different in most other respects, enhance their action. limited While she bargaining land-locked strength states tried to through above group had some successes at the first United Nation Conference on Transit Trade of land-locked countries, conditions were different at UNCLOS III, and disadvantaged ... even in This was coalition due at with least 11 Geographically partly to the inability of the group at any time to constitute a realistic blocking bird of Conference participants in order to present adoption of Treaty articles by a two-third vote, because political the group power or comprised states influence. As a with result and also very little the modest concessions made to them in the United Nation Convention on the Law of the sea may in the future give them some leverage when bargaining with other countries for access to the sea and its resources, but they will have to rely primarily on good relations in general with their coastal neighbors. 15 Caflisch' s 29 notes and comments of the Third United Nations Conference perceived to the common cause, locked states and 26 states 29 land- considering themselves to be geographically disadvantaged states joined forces to form an interest group. This alliance of 55 countries, the group of land-locked . and geographically disadvantaged states played an important role in the conference as it was able to command_a blocking third is the framework of the conferences voting process on matters of substance. This paper attempts to throw some emphasis· on the concept of geographically disadvantaged states without going into the question of the rights given to these states. Pounds 30 in his paper deals with the problem of access to the sea by reference to various and proposals arrangements either for corridors or for establishing rights of transit. Kaur's 31 specifically efforts the on case problems of of land-locked Afghanistan, based state on the theoretical assumption that geo-political analysis can throw much fucies on some of the major problems and attitudes to be found in present day international relations. The geographical reality of being a imposes for reaching compilation foreign policy options of and land-locked state restraints Afghanistan which political implications. 16 on the have various Single's notes and comments3 2 on the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, he examine the extent of the rights of land-locked states in the exploitation of the resources of the exclusive economic zone. Land-locked states cocented in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America, were one of the many interest groups represented at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), first met in 1973 and concluded its final session in 1982. The land-locked countries went to the conference with the hope of protecting their rights in certain specific areas relating to the uses of the sea. Prominent among these rights was the right to exploit the marine resources of the exclusive zone. As the study is oriented around the land-locked ·Asian state, Nepal which is surrounded by China in the North and India in other three sides. Most of the country consist of rugged terrain with 42 per cent of the land. same kind of problems and constraints as locked state. The geographical setting It also have the other landof the country, India is the largest trading partner with Nepal. Nepal's land-locked position has placed it in a difficult situation, in that there is no commercial access to the sea except via the Indian land routes. In order geographically barrier of isolation, it to overcome is most the important that Nepal has easy access to the Indian market and to the world market by transit passage through India. 17 The first trade and transit agreement between India and Two separate treaties on trade Nepal was signed in 1960. and transit between the two countries were concluded in March 1978. The validity of the Treaty of Trade is five years and that of the treaty of Transit is seven years. The treaty of Trade was extended for a further five years in March 1983. Each successive treaty has been better than the previous one as far as Nepal is concerned. Separate agreement of co-operation with India, aimed at controlling unauthorized trade under Article specific reference to checking of re-exports, III with requires that products containing materials imported from India exceeding 50 per cent of the in ex-factory exported to third countries. value should not be Like wise products containing imports from third countries exceeding 50 per cent of the ex-factory value cannot be exported to India. The problems of the land-locked states had been more or less satisfactorily solved in Europe, there counterparts in Asia, Africa and Latin America were struggling hard to win concessions from their bilateral agreement. coastal neighbors mainly through These bilateral agreements regulating transit trade between the land-locked and transit states of the regions were not adequate for the needs of the former. So the urgent need for an international convention on the subject was brought to the notice of the world forum of all nations, land-locked and coastal, the United Nations. 18 Nepal's Nations on early efforts the problems of to attention of the land-locked countries United 1955-58 soon after becoming member of the United Nations in December 1955, Nepal along with two other land-locked states of Asia, Afghanistan and Laos, took the initiative in acquainting the Committee problems on of Industry land-locked (January 1956) that the and Trade of states. the At its ECAFE with eight the session the committee in its resolution recommended needs of land-locked member states and members having so easy access to the sea in the matter of transit trade be given full recognition by all Member states and that adequate facilities therefore be accorded in terms of international law and practice in this regard. 33 The analysis reveals that the trade and transit problem in the land-locked a poor and the least developed countries is causing serious economic problems and as a result these countries are difficulties. framework not in a position to overcome the For this United Nations through Institutional trying to ease the problem and friendly relations with neighbors. develop better The better neighborly relations will provide access to sea and develop greater. Secondly, Nepal's membership of the SAARC has indeed helped Nepal to widen her diplomatic and trade contacts with other countries in the region. Nepal's contribution to the activities of the regional organisation has been positive as it has provided Nepal with yet another important platform to project and preserve her sove~eign 19 status and independence. The need to have a free trading regime in South Asia is considered to be so vital that without this South Asia may find it difficult to promote intra-regional trade as well as to meet some fresh challenges from the developing countries at the global level. The hypothesis will be applied for their validity in the succeeding chapters. study, In the present the problem of trade and transit of a country Nepal will be framework the SAARC, and resolved through the which frame indepth analysis in succeeding chapters. 20 land-locked institutional subject matter of THESIS 337.505495 02604 Tr FOOTNOTES IIIII II lllflfllllllfJI f/1 __ ___ TH~_Q62 1. Development and International Economic to Operation Report of the Secretary General, 7 UNGAOR (Agenda Item 7) 7, UN/DOCA/10203 (1975) 2. Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East, 1969, 1970 p. 220. 3. Sinjela A. Mapj i land-locked Regime, Ocean Publication 4. Glassner Ira, Access to the sea for developing landlocked States, 1970. 5. Oda Shigeru, Ocean Development, The· Law of the Sea in our time II, The United Nation Sea bed Committee, 196873, Siythoff Publications. 6. Merryman & Ackerman, Transit Trade of land-locked States: The Case study of Bolivia Hamburg, 1969. 7. Rambe, Nasil, S., Africa and the International Law of the Sea: A study of the contribution of the African states to the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. 8. Mahalu, Costa Ricky, Public International Law and Shipping Practices: The East African Aspirations: 1984 9. Glassner Haring Geography 1980. 10. Doa Walsh (Ed) . The Law of the Sea Issues in Ocean Resources Manager even, 1977 Praeger Publications. 11. R. Gopalkrishnan, Political Geography of State: A Case Study of Afghanistan. 12. Thomas A. Clingan Jn. Lewis M. Alexander (Ed) Hazard of Maritime Transit 1973. 13. Theuten Berg, Johnson Bo, Natural Resources and the Environment Series Vol. 17, The Evolution of the law of the sea, Dublin 1984. 14. Nordquist, sea, 1982. 15. Anand R.P., Legal Regime developing countries, 1975. 16. Sourie N.D., UNCTAD II A step forward, IIFT, 1968. Yankob Dee & Bliq, Gandy, '~ X: 5'"Lt' l..tLI'TcN'<6 ~~ 21 States and the Systematic UNCLOS Political Land-locked Commentary on law of the of the the Sea-bed and 17. Oda Shigeru, International Law of the Ocean Development, Basic Documents, Sijthoff/Leiden, 1972. 18. Bohme Eckart, Max I Kehden, From The Law of the Sea towards an Ocean Space Regime practical and Legal implications of the marine Revolution Hamburg, 1972. 19. Gamble King, John (J) and Giulic Pontecorvo (Ed), Law of the Sea: The Emerging Regime of the Oceans. Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, 1974. 20. Hollick A.L. and Oogood E. Robert. The New Era of Ocean Politics, 1977. 21. Tanqsubkul, ISAS, 1982. 22. Blake Gerald, Croom helm, Beckenham, Kent Maritime Boundaries and Ocean Resources. 23. Johnstone and Phillip- M. Saunders (Ed) Ocean Boundary Making: Regional Issues and Developments, 1988 24. Shrestha Sita "Problem of Landlocked States" Chapter 6 in her Nepal and the UN New Delhi, Sindhy Pub. Ltd. 25. Puri, Rama, India and National Jurisdiction in the Sea; N.D. 1985, Articles:- 26. Gable Frank, the landlocked states New Right to adjacent coastal states living Marine Resources, Is there anything left for them? With an assessment by state per capita income, proceedings of conference Oceans' 89 at University of Washington, Seattle 27. Martinez Punal Antonio. The Rights of land-locked and Geographically Disadvantaged states in exclusive Economic Zones, Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce, July, 1992. 28. Bower E. Robert, ·The landlocked and geographically Disadvantaged states and the Law of the Sea. Political Geography Journal, 1986. 29. Caflish Lucius, What is a geographically Disadvantaged State? Ocean Development and International Law, 1990. 30. Ponds Normal J. G. , "A Free and secure Access to the Sea". 49 Annals Association of American Geographers (1959) Phiphat, ASEAN and 22 the law of the (Ed) Sea, 1987, 31. Kaur,Kulwant, Problems of the Landlocked countries in the Third World: A case-study of Afghanistan. 32. Mapzi Sinyela, A., Landlocked States Rights in the Exclusive Economic zone from the perspective of the UN convention on the law of the sea: An Historical Evaluation. Ocean Development and International Law. 33. ECO SOC, DOC E/CN; 11/425 paras 1 and 3. 23 References 1. United Nations and General Assembly official Records, here after referred as (UNGAOR) , Development and International Economic co-operation Report of the Secretary General Agenda 7, UN/DOL, A/10203, 1975. 2. Economic Survey of Asia and the Far East 1970, p. 200. 3. Sinj ela A. Mapj i, Regime Oceans. 4. Glassner Ina, Access to the Sea for developing landlocked States 1970. 5. Oda Shigeru, Ocean development the Law of the Sea in our time II, the United Nations sea sed committee, 1968-73, Sinthoff publications. 6. Merryman and Ackerman, Transit Trade of Land-locked States, the Case Study of Roliria (Homburg, 1969). 7. Rambe,Nasil S. Africa and the International Law of Sea: A Study of the contribution of the African States to the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. 8. Mahalu, Costa Richa, Shipping practices 1964. 9 .. Glassuer Harm J. Geography, 1780. 10. Don Walshled, The Law of the Sea Issues Resources Management (praeger pubs. 1977). 11. R. Gopalakrishnan, Political Geography of Land-locked States : A case study of Afghanistan. 12. Clingan and Alexander; Hazard of Maritime Transit 1973. 13. Theuten Berg, Johnson Bo, Natural Resources and the Environment Series Vol. 17, The Evolution of the Law of the sea Dobbiln, 1984 ( 14) Nordquist, Yankov & Gandy, Commentary on Law of the Sea, 1982 (15) Anand, R.P. Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the developing countries, 1975. Land-locked States at 1969, the UNCLOS Public International Law and The East African Aspirations, De Blij, 24 Systematic Political in Ocean 14. Sorie N.D. UNCTAD II A Step forward liFT, 1968. 15. Oda Shigarea, International Law of the Ocean Development, Basic documents Siythoff/Leider, 1972. 16. Bhome Exkart, Max I Kehden, from the Law of the Sea towards an Ocean Space Regime practical and Legal Implications of the Marine Revolution Homburg. 17. Gamble, King, John (Jr) and G. Pontecorvo (Ed) Law of ·the Sea; The emerging Regime of the Ocean,· ·Ballinger Publishing Cambridge 1974. 25
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