SURYA P. SHARMA
Territorial Acquisition,
Disputes and
International Law
MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS
THE HAGUE / BOSTON / LONDON
CONTENTS
Preface
v
Contents
ix
Chapter I: Introduction
1
1.
Contemporary Importance of International Territorial
Disputes
1
A. The Post-Cold War Setting
1
B. Territory, Territorial Sovereignty, and International Law
2
C. The Old (Westphalian) and New (Post-War) Pattern in
the International Legal Order
5
(i)
5
Westphalian Model
(ii) New Changes — Emergence of a New Model
(Hi) Predominance of the Traditional Model
D. The Parallel Existence of the Old and New Models —
the Question of Primacy
E. Impact on the World Territorial Order
2.
Distinction between a Boundary Dispute and a Territorial Dispute
8
13
19
20
21
A. The Identification of the Issue
21
B. There is a Realistic Distinction between the Two Categories of Disputes— Reasons
22
C. Support of Scholarly Opinion
24
Contents
D. No Absolute Dichotomy — the Two Categories are Interdependent
E. Interdependence does not mean Automatic Conversion
27
F. Conclusion
28
3.
The Traditional Classification of Territorial Disputes —
Legal and Political
26
30
Chapter II: The Traditional Modalities of Acquisition of
Territorial Sovereignty
35
1.
Introduction
35
2.
Discovery
40
A. Scholarly Opinion
40
B. Judicial Opinion
42
C. Appraisal
44
D. Conclusion
46
3.
Symbolic Activities
47
A. Meaning and Forms
47
B. Past Practices
47
C. Scholarly Opinion
48
D. Judicial Opinion
49
E. Appraisal and Conclusion
50
4.
Contiguity
A. Nature and Basis of Claims in the Past and Present
51
B. Status of the Principle — Law and Policy
52
(i)
Scholarly Opinion
(ii) Judicial Opinion
5.
51
53
54
C. General Appraisal
56
D. Conclusion
59
E. Status of Islands Situated in the Maritime Zones of a
Coastal State
60
Occupation
61
Contents
A. Introduction
(i)
Origin and Essential Elements of Occupation
(ii) Contemporary Importance
B. Criteria of Effective Occupation — a Complex Process
xi
61
61
63
63
(i)
Introduction
63
(ii)
Scholarly Controversy over the Scope of the Criteria of Effective Occupation
64
C. Historic Practices of Effective Occupation
(i)
North and South American Continents
66
66
(ii) African Continent
67
(iii) Polar Regions
70
D. Judicial and Arbitral Decisions on the Criteria
(i)
The Island of Palmas Case
70
71
(ii) The Eastern Greenland Case
76
(iii) The Clipperton Island Case
82
(iv) The Minquiers and Ecrehos Case
83
(v)
89
The Rann ofKutch Case
(vi) Other Cases
92
(vii) Cases Involving Uti Possidetis — Relevance
92
E. Appraisal of Cases
(i)
97
Shift in the Meaning of the Concept of Effective
Occupation since 1885
(ii) The Scope of the Concept of Intertemporal Law
(iii) The Concurrent Development of the Concept Of
Sovereignty — Implications
(iv) Flexible Criteria of Display of Sovereignty or Effective Occupation
97
98
99
100
(a) Peaceful
100
(b) Actual
101
(c) Sufficient
102
xii
Contents
(v)
6.
7.
(d) Continuous
103
Critical Review of the Earlier Cases by Scholars
104
Prescription
107
A. Meaning and Policy
107
B. Requirements and Classification of Prescription
108
C. Validity under International Law of the Concept of Prescription
112
Occupation and Prescription: Differences and Similarities
114
A. Differences
114
B. Common Requirements of Conditions
114
C. Special Emphasis on the Conduct of the Parties and
8.
Attitude of Interested States
117
Uti Possidetis Juris
119
A. Meaning and Scope
B. Efficacy of the Principle in International Law and the
Transplantation of the Doctrine from Latin America to
Africa and Newly Independent States
121
C. Relationship between Uti Possidetis and Legal Titles on
which the Implementation of the Principle is Based —
Review of Cases
125
(i)
9.
The Frontier Dispute Case
119
125
(ii) Other Cases
126
(iii) The Land, Islands and Maritime Frontier Cast
128
(iv) The Rationale of the Case
129
Equity
129
A. The Issue
129
B. The Meaning, Function and Contents Of Equity
130
C. Status of Equity in International Law and its Applicability as the Legal Criterion
131
D. Judicial Cases on Boundary/Territorial Disputes
131
Contents
(i)
The Frontier Dispute Case
131
(ii) The Land, Islands, and Maritime Frontier Dispute
Case
133
(iii) The Rann ofKutch Case
134
E. Conclusion
10.
xiii
Cession
136
136
A. Meaning and Essentials of Cession
136
B. Classification
137
C. Typical Issues concerning the Modality of Cession
D. Cession by Native Peoples in Asia and Africa during the
Colonial Period
138
139
11.
Accretion
141
12.
Conquest
143
A. Introduction (Traditional Status, Ingredients and Classification of Conquest)
143
B. Validity of Title Acquired Through Conquest in Modern
Times
145
(i)
Various Schools of Thought
145
(ii) Majority View
146
(iii) Assessment of Contemporary Prescriptions Prohibiting Territorial Acquisition by the Illegal Use
of Force
146
C. The Principle of Non-Recognition
(i)
Introduction
148
148
(ii) The Origin and Development — Collective NonRecognition
148
(iii) Practice of Individual States Regarding Non-Recognition
154
(iv) Non-Recognition as a Sanction
156
(v)
157
Conclusion
xiv
Contents
D. Effect of Non-Recognition on the Territorial
Acquisition
158
E. Appraisal
160
Chapter III: The Review of the Traditional Modalities
161
1.
The Traditional Law and Interests of Colonial Powers
161
2.
The Modern Context
163
3.
The Emergence of a New Trend of Reforming the
Traditional Doctrines
164
A. Response of Scholars — Identification of Omissions
and Conceptual Anomalies in Traditional Modes
165
(i)
Omission of "The Emergence of the New State"
and the Principle of "Self-Determination"
165
(ii) Ambiguity Surrounding the Concept of Prescription
167
(iii) Confusion about the Operation of the Two Modalities, namely, "Occupation" and "Prescription"
168
(iv) Absence of Distinction between "Occupation" and
"Historic Title"
170
B. The Attitude of Courts and Tribunals
4.
New Approaches or Theories
171
173
A. The Historic Consolidation Theory
173
B. The Multiple Considerations Theory
179
C. The Territorial Effectiveness Theory
5.
Conclusion
180
182
Chapter IV: The Framework of the Contemporary
Process of Acquisition of Territory
183
1.
Introduction
183
2.
Major Features of Contemporary Process of Territorial
Acquisition
185
Sources of the Law of Territorial Acquisition
190
3.
A. General Prescriptions
190
Contents
B. More Specific Criteria and their Sources
191
C. Criteria Applied by International Tribunals
196
(i)
The Award of Territory on the Basis of Probative
Force of Administrative, Social, Geographical,
Historical and Cultural Links to the Disputed Territory
196
(a) Possession and Administration
197
(b) Affiliations of the Inhabitants of the Disputed
Territory
199
(c) Geographical, Economic, Historical and
Other Considerations
200
(ii) Technical Doctrines: Recognition, Acquiescence
and Preclusion (or Estoppel)
D. Summation
4.
xv
Self-Determination and its Many Forms
A. Introduction
B. Development of the Principle of Self-Determination in
its Expanded Meaning
C. Various Forms of Self-Determination and their Juridical
Legitimacy
(i)
201
210
212
212
214
217
Freedom from Colonial Domination
217
(a) Current Status
217
(b) The Issue of Territorial Integrity v. Self-Determination
218
(ii) The Right of Secession
223
(iii) Dissolution of States and Formation of New Ones
227
(iv) Rights of Minorities without Sovereignty Connotation
232
(v)
Rights of Indigenous Peoples with Territorial Implications
(vi) The Right to Democratic Governance
234
242
xvi
Contents
(a) The Right to Democracy
242
(b) The Right of Group Participation in Democratic Government
246
D. Conclusion
5.
Fundamentals and Advantages of the "Process" Approach
6.
The Major Contemporary Territorial Disputes —
Claims and Legal Perspectives
A. Introduction
(i)
Factors Giving Rise to Territorial Disputes
(ii) Incidence of Territorial Disputes
248
249
253
253
253
256
B. Specific Disputes Involving the Modalities of
Discovery, Symbolic Annexation and Contiguity
258
(i)
258
Discovery
(ii) Symbolic Annexation
260
(iii) Contiguity
262
(iv) Conclusion
C. Specific Disputes involving the Modality of Historic
Possession (Competing Claims about Historic Title and
Exercise of Territorial Sovereignty)
(i) Introduction
(ii) Specific Disputes
(iii) Conclusion
D. Disputes involving Claims in regard to the Implicit
Conduct of the Parties — Invocation of the Technical
Doctrines such as Recognition, Acquiescence, Preclusion or Estoppel
(i)
265
265
265
266
307
307
Introduction
307
(ii) Specific Disputes
308
(iii) Conclusion
309
Contents
E. Specific Disputes Involving the Principle of Self-Determination
(i)
xvii
309
Self-Determination v. Territorial Integrity
310
(a) Specific Disputes
310
(b) Conclusion
313
(ii) Disputes involving Claims of Group Identification
313
(a) Specific Disputes
313
(b) Conclusion
318
F. Specific Disputes Involving the Modality of Cession
320
G. Specific Disputes Involving the Modality of Accretion
324
H. Specific Disputes Involving the Modality of Conquest
324
Chapter V: The General Appraisal
327
Index
343