Directed Research
SFS 4910
FALL 2016 DR Syllabus
Faculty
John Mwamhanga, M.S.
Christian Kiffner, Ph.D.
John Kioko, Ph.D.
Office hours by appointment
The School for Field Studies
Center for Wildlife Management Studies, Tanzania
www.fieldstudies.org
© 2016 The School for Field Studies
Center Research Direction
The SFS-CWMS (Tanzania) program is geared towards preparing students to answer the
following case study question:
How can changes in land use and resource availability in the Maasai Steppe of Tanzania be
managed in such a way as to foster the well-being of local communities whilst safeguarding
and promoting biodiversity conservation?
Course Overview
The aim of this course is to provide students with the opportunity to apply ecological, biological
and/or social-scientific methods to a field research project that addresses a local issue related
to the environment and conservation. This course prepares students to distinguish hidden
assumptions in scientific approaches. We will also investigate the ways that various methods
and theories differentiate (or do not) fact from interpretation, cause from correlation, and
advocacy from objectivity. Through the Directed Research projects, students will contribute to a
growing body of scientific research that informs local conservation and resource management
decisions and further the Center’s research agenda.
Each student will join a faculty-led team that will carry out field research, data analysis, and
communication of results in one or across several of the following disciplines: ecology, natural
resource management, and social sciences. The Directed Research course is designed to build
on the information students have learned in the topical courses as well as Directed Research
lectures and workshops specifically designed to assist students in understanding the scientific
process, testing hypotheses and presenting results in both written and spoken formats (see
below for these courses).
The research projects being conducted this semester are the following:
1. Project Supervisor: John Mwamhanga, Msc.
Project 1: The perceived impacts and local people responses to climate changes and their effects on
natural resources use in Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem (TME).
This project is a continuation of the climate change study from spring 2016 semester aimed at collecting
information on the changes in weather and climate experienced by the local people and the impacts of
their responses to biodiversity and natural resource use in the TME. The project will be carried out and
compared between communities living in the resource rich areas (high potential) in the highlands, and
resource poor (low potential) areas in the lowlands of Karatu and Monduli districts, respectively.
Highland areas are characterized by favorable climatic conditions such as high and reliable rainfall and
agriculture is the primary source of livelihood. The low land areas are characterized by low and
unreliable rainfall with livestock keeping being the primary source of livelihood.
Data will be collected through interviews using questionnaires and focus group discussion with local
community members and key informants.
The study on climate changes will be conducted in three selected rural communities who are (i) farmers,
(ii) pastoralists (iii) hunters and gatherers. The following will be studies:
• The type of changes experienced by the communities due to changes in weather and climate
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•
The type of adaptation responding taken by the communities due to changes in weather and
climate
The efficacy of their responses in reducing community vulnerability to climate change
•
How their responses are impacting biodiversity
•
Project 2: Community perception of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) and conservation: A case of
Randilen and Burunge WMAs in Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem
This project will i) determine community perception of the WMAs and conservation ii) determine the
socio-demographic factors influencing community perceptions of wildlife management areas and
conservation. The study will be conducted in eight villages surrounding the WMAs. The data on this
study will be collected through structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, focus group
discussions and field observations.
Project 3: Assessment of firewood consumption for brick burning in Karatu District
The study on firewood consumption for bricks burning will be conducted in Karatu district particularly in
Ngongali, Tloma and Ayalabe villages. The objectives of the study will be to (i) determine the amount of
bricks produced using fire wood burning, (ii) establish the species of trees used as firewood for brick
burning, (iii) to assess the availability and conservation status of the tree species commonly used as
firewood for brick burning (iv) establish the cost of firewood used in brick burning. The data will be
collected through measuring the volume of stacked woods for bricks curing at brick making site, field
observation and species identifications, measuring Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) of standing trees in
a sample areas, interviews.
References:
Charles Ehrhart and Michelle Twena (2006) Climate Changes and Poverty in Tanzania: Realitities and
Response options for CARE. Background Report CARE International Povery-Climate Change
Initiative. November 2006.
Shumshanga, C., Omambia A.C., and Gu Y. (2010): Cost of Climate Changes in Tanzania: Impacts and
Adaptations. Journal of American Science 2010; 6(3).
Michelle E. Gadd (2005). Conservation Outside of Parks: Attitudes of Local People in Laikipia, Kenya.
Environmental Conservation 32 (1): 50–63. Foundation for Environmental Conservation.
doi:10:1017/50376892905001918.
USAID (2014). Performance Evaluation of the Scalling Up Conservation and Livelihood Effects in
Northern Tanzania (SCALE – TZ) Project: Final Evaluation Report, October 22, 2014.
Yanda P.Z and Madulu N.F., (2003). Natural Resources Use Patterns and Poverty Alleviation Strategies in
the Highlands and Lowlands of Karatu and Monduli Districts. A Study on Linkages and
Environmental Implications. Research Report No. 03.3, REPOA 2003. Mkuki na Nyota Publishers.
ISBN 9987-686-64-8
2. Project Supervisor: Christian Kiffner, PhD
Project title: Wildlife conservation in human dominated landscapes
In northern Tanzania, rapid human development and ineffective land-use planning lead to frequent
interactions between wildlife and humans. These interactions (e.g. illegal hunting, human-wildlife
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conflict, pathogen transmission, competition for resources) impact both humans and wildlife. We study
this system in a pressure-state-response framework: Based on our long-term monitoring in several
protected areas and specific studies, we assess how human activities affect different aspects of wildlife
populations. For example, we ask how species adapt to variable hunting pressure or human land-use,
and what traits make species resilient to anthropogenic pressures.
To obtain relevant data, we use camera traps and field sampling methods (mainly line transects surveys)
to quantify wildlife and habitat related parameters, behavioral experiments to assess anti-predator
behavior, and social science (structured interviews) to assess livelihood-related variables. We estimate
relevant variables such as density or occupancy using robust analytical methods (distance sampling,
occupancy modeling) and test specific hypotheses using appropriate statistical tests and models. One of
our focuses will be to compare different counting techniques (camera trapping, line distance sampling,
total counts).
References:
1. Brashares, J (2010) Filtering wildlife. Science 329, 402-403
2. Kiffner et al. (2015) Performance of individual species as indicators for large mammal species
richness in Northern Tanzania. Ecol. Indic. 53, 70-77
3. Kiffner et al. (2016) Wildlife species richness and densities in wildlife corridors of Northern Tanzania.
J. Nat. Conserv. 31, 29-37
4. Kiffner et al. (2016) Trends in seasonal population densities of wildlife species in Tarangire National
Park. Afr. J. Ecol. 54, 383-388.
3. Project Supervisor: John Kioko, PhD
Project title: Elephant ecology and road ecology studies
The TME and Ngorongoro Conservation Area are critical to elephant conservation in northern Tanzania,
supporting over 4000 elephants. The elephant population has been subject to remarkable population
changes. In Lake Manyara National Park, elephant population declined from 500 individuals in 1984 to
about 150 in 1988, and then to roughly 36 in 2007. Conversely, the Tarangire National Park’s elephant
population has experienced a very high population growth rate in the recent past, at 7.1% (range 2.0–
16.9%) from 1993–2005. While the population declines in Lake Manyara National Park are partly
associated with ivory poaching, continued insularization of the park may have contributed to the decline
in numbers of elephants and other species. The isolation of Lake Manyara National Park may be
particularly important because of the park’s small size – only about 648 km² – of which 428 km² is
terrestrial. Recently, Manyara Ranch has become an important elephant area within TME. In NCA, little
is known about the elephant population. In order to improve our understanding of elephants the
following studies will be undertaken;
• Elephant-habitat dynamics
• Elephant- human relations
The second topic will be on road ecology. Animal Vehicle Collisions (AVCs) are collisions between a
vehicle and an animal resulting in either death or injury of the animal. Beyond being a major concern for
wildlife conservation, vehicle accidents involving animals pose a serious concern for human safety and
cause severe economic losses. Often, these ecological, safety and economic concerns are neglected
because the transportation sector is viewed as key to overall economic development and growth in a
region. Indeed, there are few attempts to reconcile infrastructure development with wildlife
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conservation in the tropics. Only, limited to a few attempts such as road signs in TME. In view of this,
studies will be undertaken on;
•
•
Extent of vehicle wildlife collisions
The factors influencing vehicle road collisions
We will use Camera traps, vegetation assessment and behavioral study techniques. Researchers will
monitor roadkill on the major roads on daily basis and record the species and kill site characteristics.
Bibliography
WANG, Y., PIAO, Z. J., GUAN, L., WANG, X.Y., KONG, Y.P. AND CHEN, J. 2013. Road mortalities of
vertebrate species on Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, Jilin Province, China. NorthWestern Journal of Zoology 9: 399-409.
DONALDSON, B.M. AND LAFON, N.W. 2008. Testing an integrated PDA-GPS system to collect
standardized animal carcass removal data. FHWA/VTRC 08-CR10. Virginia Transportation
Research Council, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.
CONOVER, M.R., PITT, W.C., KESSLER, K.K., DUBOW, T.J. AND SANBORN, W.A. 1995. Review of human
injuries, illnesses and economic losses caused by wildlife in the United States. Wildlife Society
Bulletin 23: 407-414.
ABE, E.1996.Tusklessness among the Queen Elizabeth National Park elephants, Uganda. Pachyderm
22:AHLERING, M.A., MILLSPAUGH, J.J, WOODS, R.J.WESTERN,D.&EGGERT, L.S.2011.Elevated
levels of stress hormones in male crop-raiding elephants.Anim. Conserv. 14: 124–130.
BARNES, R.F.W. & KAPELA, E.B. 1991. Changes in the Ruaha elephant population caused by poaching.
Afr.J. Ecol. 29: 289–294.
BLANC, J.J., BARNES, R.F.W., CRAIG, G.C., DUBLIN,H.T., THOULESS, C.R., DOUGLAS-HAMILTON, I. & HART,
J.A.2007.African elephant status report 2007. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. BRADSHAW, G.A.,
SCHORE, A.N., BROWN, J.L., POOLE, J.H. & MOSS, C.J. 2005. Elephant breakdown. Nature 433:
807.
KIIRU W. 1995. The current status of human elephant conflict in Kenya. Pachyderm.19:15-19.KIOKO J., C.
KIFFNER, V. NDIBALEMA, AND E. H. C. SEEFELD. 2015. Maasai people and elephants: values and
perceptions. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 1(1):13-19.4.
Learning Objectives
The core skills students will learn in this course are field techniques, analytical methods, communication
skills and critical thinking, as well as team work and time management. The specific objectives of the
course are the following:
1. Understand the process of designing a field research project
2. Conduct field data collection
3. Manage, interpret and analyze data sets
4. Communicate research results to diverse audiences
Assessment
You will present your DR projects in the standard scientific formats of a peer-review style report and a
conference style presentation. You will also be graded on your data management and your positive
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contribution to the class. Comprehensive details of all assignments will be provided separately, see
below for the general descriptions and expectations.
Assessment Item
Value (%)
Project proposal
10
Final report
55
Presentation
20
Data management
5
Directed Research Skills
10
TOTAL
100
Project Proposal: The project proposal has two elements: a Literature Review and a Project Summary.
1. Literature Review
The main objective of the Literature Review is for students to familiarize themselves with previous
research and publications in the area of their chosen Directed Research project. The literature
review should draw upon a literature base (where possible) to firstly review the current status of
research in the field and then to build a setting and justification for research that still remains to be
done. The Literature Review should include:
•
•
A full literature review: A critical evaluation of knowledge in subject area
An exploration of the DR project status within the literature: Highlight knowledge gaps and
how the proposed project fits within the current literature
2. Project Summary
The main objective of the Project Summary is for students to develop a detailed outline (framework)
for their Directed Research. The DR Project Summary must include the following items:
•
•
•
Aims/Hypothesis(es): A list of questions that the student would like to answer as a result of the
research project they will design.
Materials & Methods A detailed description of the methods to be used in their study and why
these methods will be used over other potential methods. This should include sampling design,
as well as the physical data collection methods to be employed.
Predicted Findings& Importance: A list of ‘predicted findings’ and implications for each
Final Report: The final report is written in the style of a peer-review submission to a journal in the
appropriate field. You will have ample opportunity for guidance from your DR supervisors throughout the
DR period and especially during DR data analysis week. The analytical tools for research workshops in the
DR course (and complementary classes in other courses) are designed to prepare you for producing the
Results section and improve the quality of your work.
Presentation: You will present a subset of your DR work in a conference style presentation of 12 min
length with additional time for questions. Unless the scope of your DR project is very small, you should not
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attempt to squeeze in everything from your final report into this presentation. Making sure that you are
within the time limit is a very important skill and so thorough rehearsal is important.
Data Management: It is important to record and store research data in a manner that is useful. You will
need to provide (as applicable) Excel sheets with your research data in a format that is intelligible to
someone else. You may need to provide both raw and manipulated data you used to create figures, tables
and to run statistical tests. You need to annotate your spreadsheets (use text boxes if appropriate) so that
an outsider can understand what the data are. You may be required to provide field notes on your
findings for review.
Directed Research Skills: Your Directed Research Skills will be graded throughout the DR course by your
supervisor. Your final grade will depend upon your attendance to all DR activities, active involvement
and competencies in field data collection, data interpretation and group participation/support.
Grading Scheme
A
95.00 - 100%
B+
86.00 - 89.99%
C+
76.00 - 79.99%
D
60.00 - 69.99%
A-
90.00 - 94.99%
B
83.00 - 85.99%
C
73.00 - 75.99%
F
<60.00%
B-
80.00 - 82.99%
C-
70.00 - 72.99%
General Reminders
Plagiarism: Using the ideas and material of others without giving due credit, is cheating and will not be
tolerated. A grade of zero will be assigned if anyone is caught cheating or aiding another person to cheat
actively or passively (e.g., allowing someone to look at your exam). All assignments unless specifically
stated should be individual pieces of work.
Deadlines: Deadlines for written and oral assignments are instated for several reasons: they are a part
of working life to which students need to become accustomed and promote equity among students.
Deadlines allow faculty ample time to review and return assignments before others are due.
Late assignments will incur a 10% penalty for each day that they are late. No assignment will be
accepted after three days. Assignments will be handed back to students after a one-week grading
period.
Participation: Since we offer a program that is likely more intensive than you might be used to at your
home institution, missing even one lecture can have a proportionally greater effect on your final grade
simply because there is little room to make up for lost time. Participation in all components of the
program is mandatory because your actions can significantly affect the experience you and your
classmates have while at SFS. Therefore, it is important that you are prompt for all land and water based
activities, bring the necessary equipment for field exercises and directed research, and simply get
involved.
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Course Content
DR Coursework Component:
The coursework component of the DR is designed to prepare the students to conduct scientific research.
The lectures are delivered throughout the semester, in conjunction with the topical courses, so that
students are well prepared to work with their faculty mentor on meaningful research.
Code
DR01
DR02
DR03
DR04
DR05
DR06
DR07
DR08
DR09
Lecture Title and Description
DR Course Introduction: Should happen the first few days being at
the center does not need to include Faculty project introductions
Introduction to Science & the Scientific Method: Familiarize students
with the process of science
Introduction to Scientific Writing & Reading: Explore the difference
between primary and secondary sources; expectations and standards
of practice; describe expectations for paper
Qualitative & Quantitative research: Lead discussions on these topics
(not exhaustive, but overviews), introduce collection methods for
each, gather a background on student’s current exposure to these
topics
Research Ethics: Introduce students to the ethical considerations
involved in research (e.g. human subjects protection, data integrity
and management).
Risk & Time Management in DR
Effective Scientific Communication Skills: Students will understand
the importance of practicing scientific communication skills and start
to think about how to address different audiences.
Statistics: A brief introduction to basic statistical theory and use of
statistical software (use of example data is highly encouraged)
Project Development & Proposal: Faculty will lay out expectations of
student proposals and students and faculty will form discussion
groups to further DR proposals
Total Class Contact Hours
Time (hrs) Lecturer
1 JM, JK, CK
1 JK
1.5 JK
2 JK
1 JM
1 BG
3 JM, JK, CK
2 CK
1.5 JM, JK, CK
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DR Research Component:
The rest of the DR course is made up of research time, which includes: data collection; synthesis; and
dissemination.
Research Component
Data Collection: Students work within their DR group to go into the field to collect
data
Data Synthesis: Students work closely with their faculty mentors to analyze their
collected data and write up their findings in a structured scientific paper
Research Dissemination: Students prepare, practice, and then deliver presentations
for both internal SFS and community audiences.
Total
8
Days Allocated
10
5
3
18 days