READING COMPREHENSION
What is Reading Comprehension? It is defined as “the process of simultaneously extracting and
constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (New England
Reading Study Group, 2002: 11). Reading is important for academic development, achievement and
advancement in life. One can read for different purposes- for enjoyment or leisure, for professional
development or academic purposes. In this course we will consider reading for academic purposes.
Reading for academic purposes involves a variety of skills which include:
Anticipation
Skimming
Scanning
Identifying main ideas and supporting details
Understanding textual organization
Identifying the writer’s attitude
Making inferences
Using word analysis strategies
ANTICIPATION:
When you use anticipatory skills, you survey the reading material very quickly and use it to
guess what the author will mention in the text. For instance in the text below, we may expect
the author to discuss the different types of salts found in the sea.
TASK:
Before reading the short text below, guess four key words you would expect to find in it. Guess
what the writer will say in the passage.
Salts found in the Sea
Even though scientists have studied seawater for over a century, they still have incomplete
knowledge of its chemical composition. However, they have been able to isolate the various
dissolved salt constituents and to calculate their proportions. These components include: chloride
(55%); Sodium (30.6%); sulfate (7.7%);’ Magnesium (3.7%); calcium (1.2%); Potassium (1.1%);
Bicarbonate (0.4%); Bromide (0.2%). Finally a number of constituents such as borate, strontium and
fluoride are included.
SKIMMING:
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When you skim, you run through a text rapidly to determine its main ideas, or to acquire
superficial information about the topic. When you want to skim through a study text, look out
for the topic sentences (since they contain the main ideas expressed in paragraphs.)
Pay particular attention to signal words, these give you the direction of an author’s thoughts.
For
instance, to indicate that an author wants to say something in addition to what he said before,
he
may use expressions like: also; besides; in addition; again; furthermore.
SCANNING:
Scanning requires going through a passage rapidly in order to search for specific information.
Task: Read the passage below very quickly and provide answers to the following questions.
1. Which city does the author mention?
2. The air pollution problem mentioned is known as -------------3. The type of pollution mentioned in question 2 consists largely
of agents like-----------
and --------------.
Sulphur dioxide is a main component
The American city of Los Angeles has its own peculiar air pollution problem, known as photochemical
smog. This sort of smog differs from more common forms of smog in that it consists largely of
oxidizing agents such as ozone and nitrogen oxides, whereas the main component of industrial smog
is sulphur dioxide.
Adapted from: Bolitho, A.R. and Sandler, P.L. (1980) Study English for Science
IDENTIFYING MAIN IDEAS:
Paragraphs help you identify the main ideas in a text. The main idea of a paragraph is usually
expressed as a single statement that summarizes the whole idea in the paragraph. This single
statement is called the topic sentence and it can be placed at the beginning, middle or end of
the paragraph.
The example below presents the topic sentence in the initial position
Soil physicists have characterized the drying of a soil in three stages. They are: the wet stage, where
the evaporation is solely determined by the meteorological conditions; an intermediate or drying
stage, where the soil occurs in the wet stage early in the day, but then dries off because there is not a
sufficient amount of water in the soil to meet the evaporation rate; and the dry stage, where
evaporation is solely determined by the molecular transfer properties of water within the soil. There
is a striking change in the evaporation rate as the soil dries during the transition from the wet stages
to the drying stage.
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Trimble, L. (1985) English for Science and Technology: A discourse approach. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, p. 47.
In the paragraph just considered, the topic sentence is at the beginning. It is supported by three
statements which further explain or expand the main idea.
IDENTIFYING DETAILS:
Details are important as they help to support the claims made in the topic sentence.
Supporting details include techniques such as: examples, illustrations, repetition, definition etc.
To understand the relations within a text, readers need to recognize the use of connectives such
as:
because, yet, still, although, since, etc.
A list of connectives and their functions is provided below.
CONNECTIVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Function
Examples
Addition
Also, again, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, above all
Listing
First, furthermore, finally, above all
Transition
Now, with reference to
Summary
To conclude, to sum up, briefly, then, in conclusion, therefore, in
short, to recapitulate
Consequence
So, therefore, as a result, consequently, now, then, because, thus,
hence
Referring to previous i.e., that is, that is to say, namely, in other words, as follows, for
sentences
example, especially, including, mainly
Inference
In other words, that implies, in other words, so, then
Contrast
Then, conversely, on the contrary, in contrast, in comparison, on the
other hand
Concession
Besides, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, although
Sequence
Then, first, at once, next
Exemplifying
Thus, to illustrate, for example e.g. Etc.
Focusing
Let us consider, we now turn to, in this chapter we shall …, I shall
begin by etc.
IDENTIFYING TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORTING DETAILS
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Task: Read the following passage and highlight the topic sentence. Underline the supporting
details and indicate their functions.
Volcanic Activity and Climatic Change
One probable cause of short-term climatic change is volcanic activity. Violent volcanic outbursts
shoot vast cloud dust and gases high into the upper atmosphere. Once there, the sulphur –
containing gases react to form tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. Together with minute silicate dust
particles, they are dispersed by the upper winds all over the earth. Such volcanic particles in the
upper atmosphere often remain suspended for years. They therefore cool the earth by reducing the
intensity of sunlight which reaches the surface. For example, the Tambora Volcano (in Indonesia)
which erupted in 1815 was one of the greatest volcanic explosions in centuries. It was surely a
coincidence that the summer of 1816 in Europe and North America was one of the coldest and
wettest.
Adapted from: Williams R. (1982) Panaroma: An Advanced Course of English for Study
and Examination. Essex: Longman Group Ltd. P. 93.
UNDERSTANDING TEXTUAL ORGANISATION
Read the following paragraph and note its structure.
Three factors together contribute to caries. These are: infection; substrate and resistance of the
teeth. When a specific species of viridans streptococci, Streptococcus muans, metabolises sugars to
lactic acid and polymerises sugars, it leads to infection. Most sugars such as sucrose, glucose,
fructose and lactose serve as substrate and consumption of sugary foods favours the development of
caries. Finally, caries is more likely in fissures. In elder people the “mature” enamel is more resistant.
Adapted from: Truswell, A.S. (1992) ABC of Nutrition. London: British Medical Journal, p. 10
IDENTIFYING TEXTUAL ORGANISATION
The writer claims that three factors contribute to dental caries:
Infection
Substrate
Resistance of the teeth
1. Streptococcus mutans causes infection
2. Consumption of sugary foods favours the
development of caries
3. Caries is linked with fissures
Structure of the text
The first sentence is the topic sentence (TS)
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Three factors together contribute to caries=topic sentence
The TS is developed by:
the major supporting point (MSP)
These are: infection; substrate and resistance of the teeth= major
supporting point
The MSP is developed by the minor supporting points
1. When a specific species of viridans streptococci, Streptococcus muans, metabolises sugars to lactic
acid and polymerises sugars, it leads to infection.
2. Most sugars such as sucrose, glucose, fructose and lactose serve as substrate and consumption of
sugary foods favours the development of caries.
3. Finally, caries is more likely in fissures. In elder people the “mature” enamel is more resistant.
IDENTIFYING AN AUTHOR’S ATTITUDE/MOOD
To identify an author’s mood:
Look out for words that describe and modify events, issues and people. Such words include
adjectives and adverbs. Find out if these words have negative or positive connotations?
Look out for the author’s tone and the way he expresses his opinion.
IDENTIFY THE AUTHOR’S MOOD IN THE TEXT BELOW.
Pollution spoils our environment in many ways, the air we breathe, for instance, is constantly
polluted by smoke and by chemicals such as carbon monoxide in the exhaust fumes of cars and other
kinds of motor vehicles. For wildlife, however, there are even greater dangers in the pollution of
water – of rivers, for example, or lakes and seas. A good illustration of this is the oil released from
tankers at sea. It kills all kinds of sea animals, including birds, whose feathers become covered with
oil so they cannot fly, as well as fish and other forms of marine life. Other causes of water pollution
include power stations, which release warm waters into rivers. This kills the fish and plants which live
there. These are only a few examples; there are many more.
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Nuttal, C. (1982) Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Oxford: Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd. P. 218.
TASK
Now, do the exercise below to find out the author’s attitude to pollution.
Go back to the text and list words or phrases which describe or indicate the author’s
feelings about pollution.
The list is started for you.
Words/Phrases
1. Pollution Spoils
Author’s \Attitude
Negative feeling
2.
3.
4.
5
MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT AN AUTHOR’S ATTITUDE
Making inferences about an author’s attitude is a useful aid to comprehension and fast reading.
When you make inferences you read between the lines to consider what is implied.
Task 8: In the short passage below, see if you can make inferences about the author’s attitude
to the Director General of National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control.
Instilling a culture of hard work
One of Nigeria’s most innovative corporate strategists that drive the economy today, no doubt, is
Prof. Dora Akunyili, the Director General Chief Executive of the National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control (NAFDAC). Since she was appointed in April 2001 to face the devastating
challenges of fake and counterfeit drugs and foods in Nigeria, merchants of killer drugs and foods in
the country have never ceased counting their losses.
Totally clamping down on the purveyors of fake drugs and unwholesome products, the Agency
embarks on raids on depots of these deadly products, confiscating and destroying them. Indeed, Prof.
Akunyili has introduced a new dimension to a hitherto difficult terrain. This goes to lend credence to
the feminist chest-thumping that what a man can do, a woman can do better.
Today, the culture of transparency, accountability, hard work and abhorrence of corruption has been
institutionalized in NAFDAC institutionalized in NAFAC under Prof. Akunyili. So inspiring is the
management style of the agency that it is now being emulated by other government agencies in the
country.
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