International Journal of Water
Resources Development
Historical development of technologies
for water resources management and
rainwater harvesting in the Hellenic
civilizations
a
b
c
d
G. Antoniou , N. Kathijotes , D.S. Spyridakis & A.N. Angelakis
a
Antoniou Architects, Athens, Greece
b
Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus
University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
c
Department of Education, Columbia University, New York, NY,
USA
d
Institute of Iraklio, National Foundation of Agricultural
Research, Iraklion, Greece
Published online: 17 Apr 2014.
International Journal of Water Resources Development, 2014
Vol. 30, No. 4, 680–693, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2014.900401
Historical development of technologies for water resources
management and rainwater harvesting in the Hellenic civilizations
G. Antonioua, N. Kathijotesb*, D.S. Spyridakisc and A.N. Angelakisd
a
Antoniou Architects, Athens, Greece; bCyprus University of Technology, Department of Civil
Engineering and Geomatics, Limassol, Cyprus; cColumbia University, Department of Education,
New York, NY, USA; dInstitute of Iraklio, National Foundation of Agricultural Research, Iraklion,
Greece
(Received 29 March 2013; accepted 27 February 2014)
The shortage of water in ancient Greek civilizations necessitated various collection
methods and storage cisterns. In fact, rainwater harvesting dates back to Minoan times,
ca. 3200– 1100 BC. Since then, several types of cisterns have evolved, while a
significant development appears to have occurred throughout Hellas during the
Hellenistic period. In addition to the Hellenistic period, the succeeding Roman,
Byzantine, Venetian and Ottoman periods are discussed. Within this context, a few
examples relating to characteristics of Hellenistic cisterns, conveying illustrations of
the development of technology during those historical periods, are included.
Keywords: rainwater harvesting; cisterns; reservoirs; Hellenic civilization
Introduction
‘Rainwater harvesting’ is defined in this article as the collection of atmospheric
precipitation, usually collected and stored in artificial reservoirs known as cisterns. The
collected water is used for household purposes such as bathing, washing, etc., as well as
irrigation and other urban uses. Rainwater, appropriately treated, is used in dwellings,
offices, housing estates, industry, horticulture, gardens, etc. However, its intended specific
use dictates the level of treatment it requires. With each type of usage, it is essential that
appropriate safeguards be taken to prevent cross-contamination of potable water supplies,
damage to internal fixtures and harm to the environment (Angelakis, Dialynas, &
Despotakis, 2012). The design and development of means for the collection of water
relates to emerging technology driven by the need for water conservation and water costs
(Kathijotes, Kalcheva, Torma, Vilcek, & Dimitrov, 2009). It is of vital importance when
water is scarce. In many cases, the possibility exists of scarce water being expensive and
not necessarily beneficial to the environment. It is essential, however, that any necessary
applications regarding this type of water are properly controlled to prevent possible health
hazards to the public (Angelakis et al., 2012; Kathijotes, 2012).
In early civilizations, people in desert and semi-arid regions have relied on collecting
(harvesting) rainwater from land surfaces and storing it in cisterns. However, cisterns were
not used exclusively to store rainwater drainage but also to store water from aqueducts. In
terms of form, cisterns were holes with irregular shapes dug out of sand and loose rock and
lined with waterproof plaster (stucco), resulting in sophisticated structures (Gorokhovich,
Mays, & Lee, 2011). It is noteworthy that rainwater harvesting has been practised since
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
q 2014 Taylor & Francis
International Journal of Water Resources Development
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Minoan times, ca. 3200– 1100 BC (Angelakis & Koutsoyiannis, 2003). Minoan Phaistos,
however, was unlike Knossos, Zakros and other Minoan settlements in that it depended
directly on precipitation for its water supply.
The ancient Hellenes differed from earlier Mesopotamian and Egyptian people not
only in cultural and behavioural terms but also with respect to infrastructural practices
related to water. Hellas had to manage its own limited resources, unlike Mesopotamia and
Egypt, which relied on the exploitation of large rivers like the Tigris, Euphrates and Nile.
For various reasons, Hellenes avoided the establishment of large cities close to any of the
smaller rivers and lakes of the time. From a cultural point of view, it might be assumed that
Hellenes preferred a lifestyle in the comfort of a dry environment. Another assumption and
probable reason for the development of cities away from water supplies was the protection
of people from water-borne diseases, or from floods. However, water scarcity and the
distance from major bodies of water led to the development of advanced hydraulic,
transportation and sustainable water harvesting systems.
In early civilizations there was also a thriving culture in the Indus River valley (at
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa) (ca. 3300 – 1300 BC), which developed advanced,
comfortable and hygienic lifestyles, including water cisterns comparable only to their
modern counterparts. These cisterns were re-established in Europe and North America a
century and a half ago. The amazing evolution and development of these hydraulic works
can be traced from the Minoan palaces and houses of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa to the
cities of the Hellenistic period. Similar public and private facilities were also in use during
the Roman period.
The scope of this article is to present chronologically the main achievements in
rainwater harvesting in Hellas and the Hellenic region of the Mediterranean: these include
cistern development and conveyance technologies extending from earliest times to the
present. Emphasis is naturally given to the periods with the greater achievements.
The Minoan civilization (ca. 3200 –1100 BC)
In Minoan Crete, the technology relating to the storage of surface and stormwater was
highly developed. This technological development also related to collecting, transporting
and using water. Rainwater was collected and transferred into cisterns from roofs and
yards of buildings, a technique still practised today in rural areas of the island.
In the palace of Phaistos, no wells or springs have been found. Here, special care was
given to securing clean surfaces to maintain the purity and hygiene of collected water.
Water supply systems were developed in most Minoan palaces. These systems involved
various aspects of water resources engineering, including the collection, storage, use and
exploitation of rainwater, wells, groundwater, aqueducts, transportation systems and even
recreational water facilities. A clear view of surfaces used for collecting overflowing water
in the palace of Phaistos is shown in Figure 1, left. Figure 1, right, displays the coarse
sandy filters used to filter water before storage in the cisterns. This water was mainly used
for washing clothes and for other cleaning tasks (Angelakis & Spyridakis, 1996).
Minoans showed great interest in water collection systems, developing remarkable
technologies for collecting and transporting water to settlements. To prepare for the torrid
summers, rainwater was collected from roofs of buildings and larger court areas.
Hydraulic structures associated with the collection of rainwater are found in Knossos,
Phaistos, Tylissos, Aghia Triadha, Chamaizi, Myrtos, Pyrgos and Zakros. These include
large stone conduits with branches used to supply collected water to cisterns of the kind
found in Knossos. Terra-cotta pipes were also used to transport rainwater to cisterns.
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Figure 1. Phaistos palace. Left, open yard; right, special cistern with sand filter. Used with
permission of A. N. Angelakis.
The famous Minoan palace of Knossos provides a good sample relative to the
investigation and understanding of the methods of water supply in use during this period.
In the first stage of the middle Minoan period (ca.1900-1700 BC), several wells were used
to obtain drinking water. At least six of these wells have been reported (Evans, 1921 –
1935). However, the residents of the palace did not depend on these wells alone. There are
indications that the palace of Minos at Knossos depended on spring water from
Mavrokolymbos, about 450 m south of the palace, and later on the springs of Fundana and
Mt. Juctas, 10 km and 15 km away, respectively. Water supply in the palace was provided
through a network of terra-cotta pipes beneath the palace floors. It is evident from these
findings that Minoan engineers had a practical knowledge of basic hydraulic principles
which enabled them to transport water across relatively long distances in a mountainous
terrain. From the period of the Minoan palaces (middle-late Minoan period), four cisterns
have been identified, at Myrtos, Pyrgos, Archanes and Zakro. At Myrtos and Pyrgos, two
cisterns have been found: one at the top of the hill where the settlement lies, and the other
on its slope (Cadogan, 2007). The latter is larger, with a diameter of 5.3 m and a depth of
more than 3 m. Both cisterns, dating back to the middle Minoan period (ca. 1700 BC),
have a capacity of more than 80 m3. This time frame corresponds with the last phase of the
first Minoan palaces, which also date from ca. 1900 –1700 BC. In Myrtos and Pyrgos,
terra-cotta pipe of rectangular shape (Figure 2, left) supplied the nearby cistern system
Figure 2. Minoan rainwater collection. Left, collection pipe from Myrtos and Pyrgos, near the city
of Ierapetra; right, water cistern at the house complex in the vicinity of the village of Chamaizi, near
the town of Sitia, in eastern Crete. Used with permission of A. N. Angelakis.
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with stormwater collected from the rooftops (Cadogan, 2007). The cistern at Chamaize
(Figure 2, right), located in a pre-palatial housing complex, dates from the early-middle
Minoan period, in the closing years of the third and the dawning of the second millennium
BC. It is a small-scale cistern, with its rooms clustered around a small open court and a
deep circular rock-cut cistern which was 3.5 m deep and 1.5 m in diameter. It was also
lined with masonry in its upper part (Davaras, 1976).
Along a stairway in Knossos, a small step channel has also been found, consisting of a
series of parabolic-shaped step chutes used to transport rainwater from terraces to a
sedimentation (desalting) basin. The same components of the harvesting system for
rainwater, e.g. cisterns, channels and sedimentation tanks, are also found in other
settlements (Angelakis & Spyridakis, 1996; Gorokhovich et al., 2011).
In the Zakros palace, on the side of the central court, below ground level, a circular
cistern was found (Platon, 1974). It is 7 m in diameter and has steps constructed for
purposes of cleaning and drawing water. A screen or parapet projected from the floor
supports a row of at least five columns set in a circle. The area above the cistern is
uncovered. This installation is characterized as unique to Minoan architecture and
belongs to the late period (ca. 1500 BC) (Angelakis & Spyridakis, 1996; Evans, 1921 –
1935). Their possible use as swimming pools or aquaria has also been proposed
(Alexiou, 1964).
Two similar cisterns have been found at Archanes-Tourkoyeitonia (Sakellarakis &
Sakellarakis, 1997) and Zakro (Platon, 1974). Unlike the cisterns of Myrtos and Pyrgos,
they belong to a later period, constructed after the catastrophic earthquakes of ca. 1700
BC. Both belong to the middle late period (ca. 1500 BC) and are of similar cylindrical
shape, with a diameter of about 5 m, depth of 2.5 m and a total volume of about 30 m3.
They were built of limestone ashlar masonry and were probably concealed. Both have
steps that facilitated access for water supply. Another common feature is the enclosure of
the spring, whereby the water came from the lower levels, in a manner recalling the
traditional Majahir cisterns found in Syria.
In Delos, another island of the Cyclades, important remains of this period have been
found, proving that its water supply largely depended on rainwater collected and stored in
cisterns. Most houses on the island had underground cisterns in their yards for stormwater
storage.
On mainland Hellas, during the Mycenaean period (1600 – 1100 BC), massive
hydraulic works were built, including polders, dams, and artificial reservoirs for
floodwater retention and storage. They also protected agricultural land and urban areas
from the destructive action of streams (Koutsoyiannis & Angelakis, 2004).
Historic times
The Classical (478 –323 BC) and Hellenistic periods (323 – 30 BC)
The Hellenistic period (323 – 30 BC) is characterized by significant progress in
mathematics (particularly geometry), physics and technology. The well-known helix
water pump, invented by Archimedes (287 – 212 BC), is an example of how geometry,
combined with the understanding of physics (gravity and hydraulics), promoted further
technological advances. Significant developments were made in hydraulics, which
allowed the invention of advanced hydraulic and pneumatic instruments and devices (such
as pumps, hydraulic clocks, musical instruments, steam boilers and a reactive motor). All
of these developments reflect a good understanding of the combined action of air and
water pressure, and particularly the function of the siphon and the inverted siphon.
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There are indications that the flow of water under pressure was known to the
Minoans much earlier than this period. However, the Hellenistic Age seems to be the
first time in history when pressure flow was applied on a large technological scale for
water conveyance. A characteristic example is the water supply system of the citadel at
Pergamon in western Anatolia (now Turkey). The first settlement of the town was on
top of a high hill. Its water needs were met by rainwater stored in a system of cisterns
(ensuring secure water supply in the event of war) and by a small spring at the foot of
the hill. By 1993, 149 such cisterns had been found, capable of supporting a population
of about 7900 inhabitants (Garbrecht & Garbrecht, 2005). As the city expanded, three
large aqueducts were installed to transfer water from the mountains. An inverted siphon
more than 3 km long, with a maximum pressure head of about 180 m, made of metal
(lead), and anchored with a large stone construction, was used to transport water
(Garbrecht, Brinker, Fahlbusch, Hetch, & Thies, 2001). This is considered a milestone
in hydraulic engineering.
There did not exist any springs or deep wells inside the fortified settlements and
sites of Classical or Hellenistic Crete, the smaller Aegean islands and other waterless
regions of the mainland, mainly their acropoleis. Cisterns were constructed to collect
rainwater during the rainy season and to ensure water supply for the inhabitants,
especially in case of a siege. The Hellenes, during the historic periods, improved on
the cistern technology of the Minoans and Mycenaeans by building cisterns of
rectangular cross-section as well as circular (e.g. Lato, Dreros, Santorini, Amorgos,
and Delos). In castle areas cisterns were also totally or partly carved into rocks, as on
the island of Rho (Antoniou, 2012). Several small-scale residential rainwater cisterns
have survived, such as those in Santorini, Delos, Aegina (Figure 3), Amorgos and
Polyrrhenia; these were carved into rocks and were mainly pear-shaped. At least one
layer of hydraulic plaster was applied to prevent water loss from leakage through the
bottom and walls of the cisterns. The estimated capacity of such cisterns is about
10 m3.
In addition to these small-scale cisterns, much larger ones were excavated in rocky
fortresses. Several examples show regular and well-designed shapes similar to the great
rainwater cistern of the Theatre of Delos (Fraisse & Moretti, 2007). In the ancient
Cretan city of Eleutherna, a cistern of about 1000 m3 was constructed during that time.
Other examples of rainwater cisterns of that period are the slab-covered cistern of the
Sanctuary of Heraion in Loutraki and the public open-air rainwater cistern in the
Hellenistic town of Orraon (Antoniou, Xarchakou, & Angelakis, 2006) (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Left, rural rainwater cisterns in the Mpourdechtis area; right, the main cistern (possibly
covered originally) at Elanion sanctuary, Aegina. Used with permission of G. Antoniou.
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Figure 4. Left, the slab-covered cistern of the sanctuary of Heraion at Loutraki Attika; right, openair public cistern at Orrao. Used with permission of G. Antoniou.
Exploitation of rainwater in Santorini (Thera)
On the island of Thera, also known as Santorini, impressive works were accomplished
in ancient times. These included water supply by harvesting rainwater and/or spring
water. As previously noted, most of the Aegean islands are characterized by poor
water resources; this includes Santorini. The inhabitants were thus forced to harvest
rainwater and develop extensive collection and storage systems (Figure 5). At first, the
collection was done on the flat roofs of buildings; subsequently, with the construction
of proper drains or channels, water was channelled to cisterns. The large number of
cisterns of various sizes (55 found so far) is an indication that rainwater collection was
done on an individual basis and depended on the dwelling’s size. This method is
expected since the town had an extensive underground collection network built on
sloping terrain and at different levels (Bitis, 2013). It is important to note that the
existence of a cistern has no bearing on the use of the building constructed above it;
these cisterns are found under both private and public buildings, but also under
temples and even under the theatre. The quality of craftsmanship of these cisterns is
admirable. Its brilliant characteristic is the quality of the plaster used for coating the
interior. Theran soil was used as a component of the plaster, and its high content of
silicon dioxide gave the plaster high impermeability. It is not accidental that the
cisterns which preserve their coating until today have maintained their capacity to
store water (Bitis, 2013).
Figure 5. Collection and storage of rainwater in Santorini. Left, structure for the collection of
spring water; right, inner view of an ancient cistern. Reprinted from Bitis (2013).
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The Roman period (ca. 67 BC to 330 AD)
The Romans constructed great water supply systems which included many magnificent
structures. They normally made extensive use of cisterns, some of which are discussed
below. In the Roman town of Pompeii, the water distribution system included both
aqueduct and well water. The roofs of houses also collected rainwater that flowed through
terra-cotta pipes down to cisterns where water was stored for domestic use. The aqueduct
and groundwater were once contaminated by volcanic activity, thus requiring cisterns for
drinking water (Crouch, 1993).
Three of the great dams built by the Romans in the Spanish city of Aragon are, on
account of their dimensions, among the most important projects of the time (Arenillas,
2007). The Piscina Mirabilis is one of the largest Roman cisterns (capacity 12,600 m3).
The cistern was supplied by water from the Augustan and Serino aqueducts, from Serino to
Miseno. The Serino aqueduct, which was 96 km long, with seven branches, supplied many
towns, including Pompeii, Herculaneum, Acerra, Atella and Nola. The Acquaro-Pelosi
spring from Serino to Piscina Mirabilis has a total elevation drop of 366 m (0.38) from the
source. This large cistern is 72 m by 27 m in plan and 15 m in depth (Hodge, 2002).
The advanced water technologies developed in Minoan and Hellenistic Crete were
expanded and improved during the Roman hegemony in the Hellenistic world. The
achievements of this era, which met the hygienic and functional requirements of ancient
cities, were so advanced that they can only be compared to the modern urban water
systems developed in Europe and North America in the second half of the nineteenth
century (Mays, 2007). However, it should be noted that the hydraulic technologies,
including water cisterns, developed in subsequent years were, in essence, similar to those
originally developed by the Minoans and Mycenaeans (De Feo & Napoli, 2007).
During the Roman period, a number of major hydraulic projects were undertaken to
ensure fresh water supplies and hygienic living conditions. In addition to aqueducts,
several cisterns have been found in Dictynna, Lappa, Rhizenia, Elyros and Aptera in Crete
(Figure 6). Aptera, located south of Souda Bay, near Chania, is regarded as one of the most
significant townships on the island of Crete during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The
most prominent structures in terms of hydraulics and architecture are two marvellous
cisterns, the public baths, and the ‘thermae’ (facilities for bathing). There are two cisterns
in the town: an L-shaped cistern of 3050 m3 and a rectangular tri-aisle of 2900 m3, both
functionally connected to the nearby thermae. The roofed cisterns, with a total water
storage capacity of about 6000 m3, were mainly used to supply water to the thermae
Figure 6. Cisterns of historical times. Left, Hellenistic Eleutherna; right, remains in Aptera. Used
with permission of A. N. Angelakis.
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(Gikas, Christodulakos, Gikas, & Angelakis, 2009). Thermae have also been found in
other towns of Roman Crete, e.g. Kissamos, Hierapytna, and the island of Lefki.
The Hellenistic people lacked Roman engineering skills, especially in the use of arches
and the building of aqueduct bridges. Hellenistic aqueducts generally followed land
contours, without using any major engineering structures. One exception was the siphon,
which was used by the Hellenes to transport water across valleys. Siphons were
established at Ephesus, Methymna, Laodicea, Pergamon and other locations. However,
due to difficulties in determining their construction dates, it has been assumed that they
were constructed during the early Roman or late Hellenistic periods. These siphons
obviously provided models for subsequent Roman works. In addition, it should be noted
that the Hellenistic pipelines were built of stone or terra-cotta while Roman pipelines were
made of lead.
Post-antiquity and medieval times
After the decline of the Roman Empire, water supply and sewage systems underwent
fundamental changes. Medieval cities, castles and monasteries in Western Europe had
their own wells, fountains or cisterns (Juuti, Katko, & Vuorinen, 2007). However, for a
few centuries the eastern part of the empire retained the relevant Roman constructional
tradition, which sustained the water supply system of Constantinople. During these
centuries, the Roman tradition was partly eclipsed, through some of its techniques
survived and were incorporated into Ottoman building practices and further improved by
the adoption of pointed arches and other innovative methods of that era.
The Byzantine period (ca. 330 – 1204 AD)
The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire, with Constantinople as the capital, are
terms used to describe the Hellenic-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages. The
surviving relevant Roman tradition was transmitted and applied to the water supply system
of part of the capital (Çec en, 1992). That network not only fed the covered cisterns with
running water through aqueducts (Figure 7) but also fed open-air cisterns such as the
Xerokipion (dry garden) and the Aetius cistern (Bogdanović, 2008; Cinic , 2003). During
the millennial existence of the empire, its influence spread widely into North Africa and
the Near East. In fact, several Byzantine cisterns have been found in various parts of Hellas
(e.g. Mistra, Leontari Arkadias, Monemvasia, Crete, and Athens) and even the small
remote island of Amorgos.
Figure 7. Byzantine cisterns in Constantinople. Left, inner view of Basilica cistern; right, an old
engraving of Philoxenus cistern. Used with permission of M. Nikiforakis.
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Figure 8. Left, the double-domed cistern at Agia Sofia at the ; right, two of the great public
rainwater cisterns in the same town, with well-defined runoff surface. Used with permission of
G. Antoniou.
The Venetian period (ca. 1204– 1668 AD)
During the Venetian, Frankish and Order of St John presences in Hellenic territories, the
harvesting of rainwater was improved through advanced techniques introduced by the new
Western rulers of the region. The extensive and well-defined runoff surfaces of the cisterns
at Monemvasia date from the post-Byzantine period (Figure 8) and demonstrate
characteristics of the new style. They stand along other constructions such as the doublevaulted rainwater cistern under the southern extension of the Byzantine church of Hagia
Sophia and follow a Byzantine tradition of cisterns under churches. The improved
technological skills of that period permitted the construction of well-articulated cisterns
even on remote islands such as the aforementioned Amorgos (Figure 9, left).
During the Venetian period in Crete, many water cisterns and fountains were
constructed in the towns and countryside. In several densely populated cities and villages
rich in water resources (e.g. in the Pediada region), significant water supply systems
including cisterns and fountains were constructed (Panagiotakis, 2006). In general,
Venetian accomplishments in hydraulics are worth noting, especially the construction and
Figure 9. Cisterns of the Venetian period. Left, the so-called Kato Lakkos at Chora Amorgos; right,
at Agios Pavlos in western Crete. Used with permission of G. Antoniou and A. N. Angelakis,
respectively.
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operation of aqueducts, cisterns, wells, fountains, baths, toilets and harbours. Many of
these technologies were used in the majestic castles constructed during this period. Thus,
several cisterns have been found at Venetian Rethymnon, on the island of Gramboussa,
and at the Viannos Vigla castle. Smaller cisterns of the type found in the villages of
Gavalochori, Agios Pavlos (Figure 9, right) and Paleloni have also been located in several
other villages and in the area of Vamos, in the district of Chania. Later evidence from the
Venetian period suggests the existence of more than 500 cisterns in the city of Iraklion
after ca. 1500 AD (Spanakis, 1981). All these cisterns were used in collecting surface
water from rainwater.
The Ottoman period (ca. 1669– 1898 AD)
Water was related to Islamic worship; thus, during the Ottoman period there was a water
tap in every mosque. Hammams, presently referred to as Turkish steam baths, played an
important role in Ottoman culture and served as places of social gathering, ritual
cleansing, architectural structures, institutes, etc. (Mays, Sklivaniotis, & Angelakis, 2012).
According to the Koran, the cleansing of the body symbolizes the cleansing of the soul.
The hammam is an extremely old Ottoman institution, established in all the regions of the
Ottoman Empire. Following a very old Muslim tradition and practice, water supply to
hammams and fountains was naturally the main hydraulic development during the
Ottoman period.
Due to the centralized water systems of this period, the use of cisterns in
Constantinople decreased, and eventually was confined to remote areas. Circular cisterns,
in contrast to the rectangular Byzantine cisterns, now appeared in rural areas. A large
number of these cisterns, found in south-west Anatolia and dating from the sixteenth
century, served the military logistic purposes of the Ottoman army. They are about 7 m in
diameter, with a domed roof of a height about one-third of the diameter, on a
superstructure, and 1 to 2 m high. The substructure is a few metres in depth, with stairs
descending to the bottom. Most of them are still used to supply water to livestock (Öziş,
1987).
Cisterns from this period were circular and domed. They were constructed primarily in
the sixteenth century (Öziş, 1987) in several Mediterranean countries occupied by
Ottomans, including Hellas. Some of these are still used to supply water to livestock (Mays
et al., 2012).
In Hellenic-speaking areas where traditional ways persisted, several cisterns of the
above type were constructed. Characteristic styles could be the large cistern at the upper
castle of Myteline (Figure 10, left) and a smaller one at Palaiokastro of Megisti (Figure 10,
right), which however could well be older.
The present day
The rapid growth of urban population demands a corresponding increase in water
resources, which is difficult to obtain in a relatively dry environment.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, the independent Hellenic state had been
established and modern water technologies had been adopted in the country and the world.
These were based on past technologies but augmented with such innovations as deep
wells, pumps, pipes, and so on. At that time the growth of population required increased
agricultural production. In many cases steep terrain increased the scale and cost of
required hydraulic projects (Koutsoyiannis & Angelakis, 2004). Similarly, water supply in
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Figure 10. Left, the great cistern at the upper castle of Mytilene, which supplied the Ottoman
fortress and its inhabitants; right, domed rainwater cistern at Palaiokastro at Megisti, partially hewn
out of the rock hill. Used with permission of G. Antoniou.
urban areas was facing problems due to population increase. Thus, the collection, storage
and use of rainwater was commonly practised in urban areas of Hellas until half-way
through the last century (Antoniou, 2009). However, the fundamental principles applied in
collecting and using rainwater in urban areas were similar to those developed in ancient
times (Figure 11).
In addition, these practices were newer paradigms of modern materials and techniques
applicable to ancient methods of rainwater harvesting. Some examples are the improved
rainwater runoff surfaces at Amorgos (Figure 12, left) and the concrete paved runoff areas
supplying concrete tanks at Ithaki (Figure 12, right), an island in the rainy Ionian Sea but
poor in water resources (Antoniou, 2009).
Discussion
Hellenistic technological developments related to water management principles and
practices are not as well-known as the humanistic, political and scientific achievements of
the Hellenistic civilizations. In Crete and the Aegean Islands, the first evidence of the use
of cisterns for water supply in Hellenistic settlements is traced to the Minoan era.
However, that technology was further developed through the centuries, reaching its peak
in the Classical and Hellenistic periods. The achievements of the Hellenes in dealing with
Figure 11. Left, open-air public cistern; right, covered underground cistern outside a house of the
last century in eastern Crete. Used with permission of A. N. Angelakis.
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Figure 12. Left, recent rainwater cistern of nineteenth century at Chora on Amorgos; right,
concrete paved runoff area supplying two concrete tanks of twentieth century at Stavros Ithaki. Used
with permission of G. Antoniou.
cisterns and the functional requirements of water collection and distribution systems can
only be compared to modern urban water systems which were re-established in Europe and
North America from the second half of the nineteenth century AD (Angelakis &
Koutsoyiannis, 2003) to the present day. Thus, with a few exceptions, the fundamental
principles fuelling the present-day progress of the technological development of water
cisterns are clearly not a recent discovery but an extension and refinement of practices and
principles of the past. A brief timeline tracing the historical development of water cisterns
used for the storage of rainwater through the Hellenistic civilizations is given in Table 1.
In Ancient Greece, public works relating to stormwater management are characterized
by simplicity, robustness of operation, and absence of complex controls. Stormwater
management systems based on these practices and approaches could be useful in
effectively meeting today’s challenges with the use of modern equipment.
Finally, it is apparent that ideas, technologies and practices developed during the
various epochs of Hellenistic civilization have exerted some influence on our world.
Rainwater harvesting systems, as developed in ancient Greece, have been developed in
many arid and semi-arid region of the world where alternative sources of water are not
available and groundwater pumping is not possible. These systems have two main
characteristics. Firstly, they are extremely flexible, showing ease of integration with other
water sources, demonstrated in widespread adoption by diverse cultural groups in various
parts of the world. Secondly, they are remarkably enduring. On several Hellenic islands
such water supply systems were in use across millennia. Today, 1.1 billion people lack
access to safe drinking water, 2.6 billion people lack adequate sanitation, and 1.8 million
people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases, 90% of them children under 5. This
Table 1. Timeline of historical development of cisterns used for rainwater storage.
Volume (m3) Description
Period
Shape
Minoan
Classical and
Hellenistic
Roman
Byzantine
Venetian
Ottoman
Present
Cylindrical
, 100
Mostly rectangular 200– 1000
Sophisticated collection systems implemented
Covered cistern of rectangular shape developed
Various
. 1000
Rectangular
. 1000
Mostly rectangular . 1000
Circular, domed
, 1000
Various
Various sizes
Rectangular-aisle cisterns developed
Similar to Roman
Usually underground cisterns in castles
Rather small cisterns
Public cisterns, usually very large
692
G. Antoniou et al.
situation is no longer acceptable, and there is a huge need for sustainable and costeffective water supply and sanitation facilities, particularly in cities of the developing
world (Bond, Roma, Foxon, Templeton, & Buckley, 2013). Additionally, a list of 182
floods (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deadliest_floods), consisting of the deadliest
occurrences worldwide with a minimum of 50 deaths, indicates an increase of floods
resulting from expanding urbanization and climatic variability. Huge damages have been
reported across the globe, including in the USA (King, 2013). The annual costs of direct
flood damage from 1905 to 2012 ranged from USD 39 million to USD 29,246 million (http
://www.nws.noaa.gov/hic/). Thus, the application of selected ancient water techniques in
managing the needs of the developing world should be considered.
Conclusions
While the humanistic legacy of Hellenism as one of the cornerstones of modern
civilization is universally recognized, its accomplishments in some technical fields, such
as management of water resources, are hardly recognized, although they can be useful as
models for solving today’s water-related challenges. Sound diachronic Minoan and
Hellenistic Age engineering principles and practices, manifested in Greek archaeological
ruins, were employed in addressing, inter alia, cost-effective decentralized water
management systems needed in water-scarce areas; providing sustainable water supply for
cities by means of rainwater harvesting; and the use of cisterns not only for storing water
but also for controlling floods, as this synoptic examination of ancient practices suggests.
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