Urban growth in Tianjin, 1993–2003
Liu Yun
September, 2004
Urban growth in Tianjin, 1993–2003
by
Liu Yun
Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in …………………………
(fill in the name of the course)
Thesis Assessment Board
Prof. Dr. D. Webster (Chairman)
Prof. Dr. H.F.L. Ottens (external examiner, University Utrecht)
Prof. (Douglas) Webster (First ITC supervisor)
MSc. R.V. (Richard) Sliuzas (Second ITC supervisor)
Mrs Du-Ningrui Msc (SUS supervisor)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION
ENSCHEDE, THE NETHERLANDS
I certify that although I may have conferred with others in preparing for this assignment, and drawn
upon a range of sources cited in this work, the content of this thesis report is my original work.
Signed ……… Liu Yun …………….
Disclaimer
This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the International
Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation. All views and opinions expressed
therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily represent those of
the institute.
Abstract
Chinese cities have experienced a period of rapid urban expansion since the socialist market economic
was approved in 1993. The urbanization level increased from 28% in 1993 to 40% in year 2003. As a
metropolitan with the third largest population in China, Tianjin city also has made the rapid urban
growth under this macro background. Here Tianjin is chosen as the case city to know what is going on
about urban development in Chinese big. Furthermore, since the urban growth is inseparable from the
urban development policies set by local government such as the master plan, Tianjin’s master plan
made in 1995 and the deviation between the real situation and master plan were discussed in this thesis.
In this thesis, the first section is to image the urban physical growth during the period 1993-2003. It is
the foundation to know the actual change in study period. Subsequently, the growth analysis is made
respectively on both socio-economic and physical aspect. Lastly, awareness of the local policy on urban physical growth and a mainly qualitative evaluation of it are made.
This study uses Landsat TM, Spot, Aster images and the techniques of GIS and Remote Sensing image interpretation and change detection to review the spatial-temporal urban expansion in Tianjin
from 1993 to 2003. The image from 1993, 2000 and 2003 are used to derive information on urban
land use in study area. Both visual interpretation and supervised classification are used separately to
extract land cover in different images. The method of post-classification was used to detect the physical changes during 10 years. The combined use of GIS and RS describes the overall physical changes
of the study area. It shows that both Tianjin city proper and other city areas such as Tanggu all expand
at a high speed.
The socio-economic development is realized at the metropolitan level, as well as district level, mainly
by the increase of population, GDP/per capita GDP, industrial structure and FDI basing on the available data.. While the urban physical growth analysis is done from the perspective of district level,
transportation influence, physical form and land use efficiency respectively. Concretely, the growth
occurred in each district, orientation, as well as along each main road and corridor is analyzed to understand its temporal-spatial allocation in study area. A further analysis is done joining these two aspects such as the land use efficiency and this partially reveals that there exists some extent of rationality of the real distribution of the new urban land, and also reveals the disadvantage of the actual
change.
The local urban development policy can be concluded into five aspects respectively relating to the city
proper, distribution of industrial land, coastal new districts, peripheral urban conglomeration near city
proper and the physical form of the urban system. The assessment of the policy is made by the comparison of the actual change and what the policy expects on each aspect. Basically, the real situation
corresponds with the policy expectation, suggesting that the policy effectively lead to the real development of urban growth especially on economy. But there is also strong challenge to realize the expectation of the urban physical form in study area because the actual growth is so fast that the occurrence in some places contradicts official physical plans inevitably. For example, the current pattern of
growth in the middle zone between city proper and Tanggu city area/ Dagang city area directly con-
tradicts the official policy, which advocates controlling the physical development except a few spots,
and especially keeping interval between each main urban development spot along the line from city
proper to Tanggu city area.
Acknowledgements
Now the thesis is ready for my Master Degree in the International Institute for Geo-information Science and the Earth Observation (ITC) in the Netherlands. It’s time to express my deepest gratitude to
all the people who have supported and helped me in the completion of this research work.
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Mr. Webster Douglas and
Mr. Richard Sliuzas, Especially to Mr. Richard for his effective guidance, supervision, encouragement
and support. He was always patient with me and gave me construction suggestions. He taught me how
to formalize ideas and thesis. I am very grateful for his invaluable comments on the structure and content of this thesis, which has considerably improved its quality and readability.
I also want to thank my SUS supervisor, Mr. Huang-Zhengdong and Xiao-Yinghui, especially thank
for their patient instructions before mid-term assessment. They supervised me to organize the framework of this thesis and process the image data. Furthermore, thanks to Mrs Du-Ningrui and Mr.
Cheng-Jianquan for their great help in doing this research, their professional comments gave me a lot
of help during the course of thesis writing.
Thanks to all members of staff involved in the UPLA programme.
I also want to show special thanks to the SUS of Wuhan University for the opportunity to pursue this
master programme. I thank my supervisor in China, Mrs. Zhou-Jie, for her kindness and great support.
I appreciate with great joy all the Chinese people and all the friends in ITC. They have given me numerous helps, happiness and beautiful memories in the Six months in ITC. I am grateful for everything together with you. Best wishes for you and your family.
Also I want to thank all my dearest classmates and friends for their great company both in Wuhan and
in ITC in this six months journey.
Special thanks and deeply gratitude are to my dear mother, my elder sisters and their families for their
constant support, understanding and love. Also thanks to my nephew, I wish my work could encourage him to study hard.
Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my dear parents. I can’t finish my thesis at all without their love.
Table of contents
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
1.
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Background and problem statement
1.1.1.
Urban definition and city administrative hierarchy in China
1.1.2.
The general situation of the land use in Chinese cities today
1.1.3.
The significance of study the urban growth
1
2
2
3
1.2.
Research aim and objectives
1.2.1.
Research aim and main objectives
1.2.2.
Sub-objectives
4
4
4
1.3.
Research questions
4
1.4.
Case study Tianjin, China
4
1.5.
Research methodology
1.5.1.
Key definitions
1.5.2.
Data availability
1.5.3.
Data processing and analysis
7
7
7
8
1.6.
Workflow
9
1.7.
Structure of the Thesis
9
2.
PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION
11
2.1.
Types of urbanized regions
2.1.1.
The city-region
2.1.2.
Conurbation
2.1.3.
The urban field
2.1.4.
Megalopolis
2.1.5.
Ecumenopolis
11
11
11
11
11
12
2.2.
Key Features of the Urban System in modern China
2.2.1.
Low Urban Concentration
2.2.2.
The Hukou System.
2.2.3.
Transformation of the Urban System in China
2.2.4.
Urban Specialization and Manufacturing Agglomeration
2.2.5.
Governance
12
12
12
14
14
15
2.3.
Housing and land markets in China
2.3.1.
Establishment of housing market
2.3.2.
Establishment of land market
2.3.3.
Impacts on urban growth
15
15
16
17
2.4.
Urbanization and urban policy since 1978
2.4.1.
Urbanization since 1978 in China
18
18
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
3.
Urban policy since 1978
Current strategy for urban development
IMAGE DATA PROCESSING AND METHODOLOGY
19
22
24
3.1.
Introduction of the development of Satellite RS Technology
3.1.1.
Landsat
3.1.2.
Spot
3.1.3.
Aster
24
24
24
25
3.2.
Description of the three images
25
3.3.
Image processing work flow
26
3.4.
Geometric correction of the images
3.4.1.
Introduction to geometric correction
3.4.2.
Steps of geometric correction
26
26
27
3.5.
28
Definition of the boundary of the study area.
3.6.
Land cover classification
3.6.1.
Introduction to image classification
3.6.2.
Image classification in this thesis
3.6.3.
Visual interpretation
3.6.4.
Verification of Classification Accuracy
3.6.5.
Concluding remarks on the comparison of visual interpretation and supervised classification
28
28
31
34
36
37
3.7.
Urban area change detection of the cities in the study area
3.7.1.
Introduction to change detection
3.7.2.
Post classification change detection
37
37
38
3.8.
39
4.
Summary
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN:
40
4.1.
Urban growth in Tianjin from the socio-economic perspective
4.1.1.
Socio-economic growth of metropolitan
4.1.2.
Socio-economic growth in each district of study area
40
40
43
4.2.
Urban growth in Tianjin from the physical change perspective
4.2.1.
District level analysis of urban growth
4.2.2.
Analysis of urban growth from the perspective of transportation
4.2.3.
Form analysis of urban growth
45
45
50
53
4.3.
61
Urban land use efficiency
4.4.
Master plan and local urban policy
4.4.1.
Urban master planning
4.4.2.
Local urban policy
4.4.3.
Comparing policies and actual urban physical growth
62
62
63
65
4.5.
68
5.
Summary
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1.
Conclusion
5.1.1.
Urban growth
70
70
70
5.1.2.
5.1.3.
5.2.
The local urban policy and its effectiveness on urban growth
The use of remote sensing image
Recommendations
References
Appendices
Appendix 1 Developed level of Tianjin
Appendix 2 Population and population density of Tianjin
Appendix 3 Supervised and unsupervised classification
Appendix 4 Amount of the FDI in 2002 in Tianjin metropolitan
Appendix 5 Proportion of coastal districts on main indicators
Appendix 6 Amount of the new urban area per district of two periods
Appendix 7 Mater plan (1995-2010) of the Tianjin municipality region
Appendix 8 Mater plan (1995-2010) of the city proper and peripheral urban conglomerations
Appendix 9 Thefreight traffic in Tianjin from 1978-2002
71
71
72
74
77
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
81
82
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Three macro-region, open cities and SEZs in China
Figure 1-2 Location of Tianjin
Figure 1-3 Region under the administration of Tianjin
Figure 1-4 Six Central Districts
Figure 1-5 Workflow
Figure 3-1 The available image data
Figure 3-2 Flow chart of image processing
Figure 3-3 The boundary of the study area
Figure 3-4 Supervised and unsupervised classification
Figure 3-5 The image classification process
Figure 3-6 Colour images of RS
Figure 3-7 Land cover map by supervised classification (1993)
Figure 3-8 Land cover map by supervised classification (2000)
Figure 3-9 Land cover map by supervised classification (2003)
Figure 3-10 Flow chart of the visual interpretation procedure (Wu, 1998)
Figure 3-11 Urban area in Tianjin (results of visual interpretation)
Figure 3-12 Urban area changes by post-classification
Figure 4-1 Growth of population
Figure 4-2 The GDP/ Per capita GDP of Tianjin from 1993-2003
Figure 4-3 Change of the different sectors of GDP from 1993-2003
Figure 4-4 Change of FDI from 1993-2003
Figure 4-5 Growth in Tianjin from 1993-2003
Figure 4-6 Population growth in study area from 1993-2003
Figure 4-7 Population growth in study area from 1993-2003 (unit: 10thousand)
Figure 4-8 GDP growth per district
Figure 4-9 Per capita GDP growth per district
Figure 4-10 Urban area increase in Tianjin
Figure 4-11 The new urban area from 1993-2003
Figure 4-12 Amount of urban area per district (sq km)
Figure 4-13 Increase extent of urban area per district
Figure 4-14 Change of the position according to the share of urban area per district
Figure 4-15 The share of urban area per district
Figure 4-16 Urban area change from the perspective of three parts
Figure 4-17 Annual rate of the urban area increase per district
Figure 4-18 the main roads
Figure 4-19 proportion of new urban area along each main road from 1993-2003
Figure 4-20 amount and relative proportion of new urban area along each main road
Figure 4-21 the zone partition according to orientation
Figure 4-22 amount of new urban area per zone
Figure 4-23 proportion in total new urban area per zone
Figure 4-24 spatial pattern of urban growth-1
Figure 4-25 spatial pattern of urban growth-2
Figure 4-26 the GDP structure of Tianjin from 1993-2003
Figure 4-27 types of urban regions with stylised functional inter-relationships
Figure 4-28 indicative image of the corridors
Figure 4-29 urban growth within each corridor
Figure 4-30 Master Plan (1984-2000)
Figure 4-31 the urban area of official expectation in 2010
Figure 4-32 indicative image of urban physical development policy
Figure 4-33 actual urban physical growth and expectation of local urban development policy
Figure 4-34 amount of industrial enterprise
Figure 4-35 growth of industrial product
List of Tables
Table 1-1: Population and population density of Tianjin
Table 1-2: available satellite image data
Table 1-3: socio-economic data
Table 2-1: Urbanization levels in China, 1949-2003
Table 3-1: The source images
Table 3-2: Appearance features of the pixels on the pseudo colour image
Table 3-3: Area of urban with the method of Visual Interpretation in the study area
Table 3-4: the area of urban growth
Table 4-1 the socio-economic development from 1993-2003
Table 4-2 Count of new urban area per district
Table 4-3 Count of new urban area along main roads
Table 4-4 Count of new urban area per zone on different orientation
Table 4-5 Count of urban area per corridor
Table 4-6 Count of new urban area per corridor
Table 4-7 transportation lines along each corridor
Table 4-8 ratio of change in urban land to change in population and gross domestic product
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
1. Introduction
1.1.
Background and problem statement
Profiting from the open-door policy and economic reform which began in 1979, China has made great
progress in many social-economic fields. Many cities especially metropolitans areas, have made rapid
and comprehensive developing since then. Now, almost every city has a several-times urban land
scale comparing with in 1979. Although the history of urban policy in China has resulted in an urbanization process where cities are significantly undersized and agglomeration economies not fully
exploited, China has a de facto urban population of 500-600 million, the largest urban population and
system of cities in the world today.
But another problem becomes more and more serious: cities tend to be over-capitalized relative to the
rural sector and there is nationally a high degree of individual and regional income inequality. Coastal
cities and regions have been favoured at the expense of the hinterlands (Henderson, 2002). This results in wide gap between different regions. According the compendium of tenth five-year plan issued
by Chinese construction bureau, until the end of 1999, the urbanization level of eastern region, central
region and western region was respectively 37%, 30% and 24% (see Figure 1-1). At the same time,
the gap between the later two and the former one keeps enlarging. Since the structures of the economy are very different in the three zones, this implies the different socio economic situation will impact the urban growth greatly, and in different cities, there must be some different drivers for their
growth.
Figure 1-1: Three macro-region, open cities and SEZs in China
1
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
1.1.1.
Urban definition and city administrative hierarchy in China
To have some sense of the geography of urban China and vocabulary of the urban sector, we should
know some key city definitions of China.
One of them is the urban definition in official statistics in China. There is a strict standard for assessing whether a settlement could be a city or not in China. If a settlement meets the demands as below:
(1) Politics: it is the site that the relevant-level government locates; (2) Population: at least 2000 people employ themselves in non-agricultural work if the total population is less than 20000; at least 10%
people employ themselves in non-agricultural work if the total population is more than 20000 (3)
GDP: more than 0.2 billion Yuan one year, it could be determined as a township by relative department of the country and become a portion of the city system.
Another is the administrative hierarchy. At the top are cities with the administrative powers of a province (Zhi Xia Shi): Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Chongqing, -- followed by prefecture level cities
(Di Ji Shi) of which there are about 225. Provincial and prefecture level cities administer large land
areas, comprised of urban districts forming the city proper and huge extra-urban areas, or rural counties. The definitions of city proper are updated regularly to roughly comprise the contiguous urbanized
area of the prefecture, surrounding the nuclear city -- a good definition of the metropolitan area, by
international standards. Below prefecture level cities are county-level cities (Xian Ji Shi) -- either traditional county cities or townships that have evolved into cities. These county-level cities can also
administer large rural areas, but there is generally no breakdown between the urban and ex-urban portions, making it difficult to count de facto urban populations (Henderson, 2002). Due to this, the statistic data of a top hierarchy city such as Beijing should be more credible than that of a province because of the much less lower level cities under its administration. Basing on this administrative hierarchy, the administrative scope of one higher-level city usually contains several lower-level cities,
districts and towns.
1.1.2.
The general situation of the land use in Chinese cities today
Now, urban construction consists of two main parts in most cities in China. One part is the adjustment
of the land-use function in interior urban area, especially in the urban central district. Since China
started land reform in 1987, more and more people realize that much greater value should be generated through the proper land use, especially after the beginning of the socialist market economy in
1993. Under the reference of the market economic rules, the main functions of the land use are converted into those which could give rise to much higher value gradually in urban central district, and
the process of urban renewal in central city areas goes on today. For example, more and more commerce land has taken the place of manufacture/warehouse land which was developed in the period of
planned economy in urban central district. The other part usually includes two aspects: the rapid expansion of the land in urban fringe and the construction of development zone separating from old urban proper, such as high-tech industrial development zone. That means the edge of the urban area is
always dynamic and the size of the urban area keeps enlarging rapidly. Because of high development
speed, urban managers usually are late to react to the problems appearing in the expansion zone, this
may result in some negative influences for the general development of the city. For example, in some
cities, many neighbourhood units were founded in the urban fringe zone and most of them have beautiful inner environment and rational price so that they can attract the people who used to live in the
2
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
old urban areas. Those people got much better living environment, but usually the pressure of the traffic between urban fringe zone and city centre is greatly increased owing to poor public transportation
or road net. At least on the face of it, massive construction around the edge of urban built-up area is
one of reasons why urban transportation in large cities deteriorates.
Of the two main parts mentioned above, the latter is often attached more importance by many cities.
There are several main reasons as follows: (1) less building demolition and compensation by suitable
site selection; (2) less restrictions for development, it can present modern scene fast; (3) more favourable policies for developers and corporations, it is easy to get investment; (4) people usually take development zone as an effective way for competition with other cities. Although urban governments
must invest enough to the development zone in advance, they still are glad to do and make this important achievement for them. As a result, there are now many development zones in different levels in
Chinese cities. Obviously, not every city has enough suitable conditions to construct development
zone, some development zones are untenable now, and they occupied many agricultural lands uneconomically. So, the policy on the expropriation of non-urban land became more and more firm, as
China’s central government wants that the land not only meets the need of urban growth, but also
makes as less negative influence for agriculture and other non-urban activities as it can.
1.1.3.
The significance of study the urban growth
In many Chinese cities, a complex interplay of government and private, local, national, and increasingly transnational forces have influenced urban growth. Responding to changes in local, national, and
international economic drivers, each city is redefining its economic roles and functions, with direct
consequences for the city’s physical form (Schneider, Seto and Webster, 2003). On the other side, it is
also difficult to manage urban construction because of the fast development; this means we must think
seriously how we can give the effective administration to the cities.
Although almost all the cities have the same macro-factors on urban growth such as economical development, population migration, the same factors could impact urban growth by different way and to
different extent. In some cities, the natural situation is the most important driver for urban growth, but
that of other cities maybe is social and historical factors. So, it is very important to study what are the
main detail drivers of urban growth in a city. The first thing to do is to find out the general directions
of urban growth and what are the corresponding drivers, to make proper decision to manage the urban
development. This task is not easy to complete, we must realize the characters of the urban area
growth through serious study at first.
Remote sensing has been recognized as powerful and effective tools in urban land feature characterization and dynamic change detection. It is an efficient way to study the urban problems in metropolitan area like Tianjin city proper and its extended urban region. In this research the author uses various
satellite images to acquire the urban growth information and carry out a spatial-temporal research on
the city’s changes.
3
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
1.2.
1.2.1.
Research aim and objectives
Research aim and main objectives
The main objective is to find out how the urban area form changes and provide a quantitative evaluation of the evolution of urban area form and the socio economic development in Tianjin city proper
and the extended urban region. The research seeks to describe and evaluate the effectives of local urban policy in the context of urban growth and socio economic development.
1.2.2.
Sub-objectives
·To produce the maps of the urban area form in Tianjin for three time points from satellite images;
·To produce the maps, which present the change of urban growth in Tianjin from 1993-2003;
·To analyze and understand the characters of the urban growth in Tianjin;
·To know the socio economic changes in Tianjin;
·To advise decision-makers on the possible future urban development.
1.3.
Research questions
How to use techniques of RS to derive urban growth information from Landsat TM , Spot and Aster
images?
How does the form of the urban area change in Tianjin from 1993-2003?
How do the population, production fields, GDP/per capita GDP, FDI and other social-economic
factors change in the period of 1993-2000 in Tianjin?
What are the main characteristics and trends of the urban growth in Tianjin from 1993-2003?
What could be the main drivers that impact the change of the urban area form?
How about the local urban policy of Tianjin city?
Does the master planning correspond with the trend of the urban growth in the past?
1.4.
Case study Tianjin, China
In this thesis, Tianjin city, China is chosen as the case study city. Tianjin, one of the four municipalities directly under the Central Government in China, is the biggest open coastal city in northern China
and the economy centre of the encircle Bohai Sea zone. Tianjin is situated in the Northeast part of the
North China’s plain, with the Beijing city on the northwest and Bohai Sea on the east (see Figure 1-2).
According to the research of the Development Study Center of State Council, it belongs to the middeveloped area in China, just like Beijing and Shanghai (appendix 1). Now, Tianjin is making efforts
to become a modern port and an important economy centre in northern China.
Administrative Situation: Tianjin is a great metropolitan city covering a total area of 11,920 square
kilometres. It has 15 districts and 3 counties (see Figure 1-3). The 15 districts can be divided into
three parts: (1) Six central districts: locate in Tianjin city proper, include Heping, Hedong, Hexi,
Nankai, Hebei and Hongqiao.(see Figure 1-4) They together cover an area of 168 square kilometres,
which makes up 1.4% of the total area; (2) Three coastal districts: on the verge of Bohai Sea, include
Tanggu, Hangu and Dagang. They together cover an area of 2257 square kilometres, which makes up
18.9% of the total area; (3) Other six districts: Dongli, Xiqing, Jinnan, Beichen, Wuqing and Baodi,
they together cover an area of 4934 square kilometres, which makes up 41.4% of the total area; The 3
4
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
counties are Ninghe, Jinghai and Ji Xian, they together cover an area of 4562 square kilometres,
which makes up 38.3% of the total area.
Figure 1-2: Location of Tianjin
Social Economic Situation: The permanent population of Tianjin was 10.06 million in 2002, and as a
part of the total, there were 7.50 million people living in the districts under city administration (see
appendix 2). As one biggest city in China, Tianjin has a relative advanced economy comparing with
the average level of Chinese cities. Until the end of 2002, the GDP was 205116 million yuan and the
Per Capita GDP was 22380 yuan (about 2730 US$). Morever, GDP has grown rapidly in the past 20
years.
A part of the urban administrative region will be taken as study area in this study, which includes 13
districts. They are six central districts, three coastal districts above mentioned and Beichen District,
Xiqing District, Dongli District and Jinnan District. The boundary of study area is defined during the
image data processing and described in chapter 3.
5
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 1-3: Region under the administration of Tianjin
Figure 1-4: Six Central Districts
6
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
1.5.
1.5.1.
Research methodology
Key definitions
Urban land: Delineating the boundary of urban area first requires selecting a definition of urban land.
Urban land can be broadly divided into functional and physical definitions. "Urban" in functional
terms relates to activities such as industrial, residential, agricultural, etc. However, there are often
problems determining which activities should be adopted as urban. Similarly, "urban" can be defined
in physical terms, relating either to population density or to land cover, where any developed land is
considered urban regardless of its function. There are also variations in the intensity of land uses that
influence the definition of urban area, such as high or low housing density. (Bell, Acevedo and Buchanan, 2003)
So, the urban area implies the area developed by different kinds of urban construction activities; it
contains all the lands which undertake mainly urban function such as residence, commerce, finance,
etc. Generally, it includes not only the continuous built-up area for most of urban residents’ activities,
but also the land which is located in suburbs but developed to meet the need of city, such as airport,
wastewater disposal etc. Furthermore, to a city with different administrative hierarchy such as main
city, county, district and town, the urban area of it probably consists of city proper, county town, district town and the relevant townships.
City proper: City proper is defined as a locality with legally fixed boundaries and an administratively
recognized urban status that is usually characterized by some form of local government. In this thesis,
the city proper implies the main built-up area which relates to the six central districts and their four
outer surrounding districts.
1.5.2.
Data availability
The data includes spatial data and non-spatial data. In this thesis, the former includes different remote
sensing images (see Table 1-2) and the land-use maps of 1995 and 2002; the later is mainly socialeconomic data (see Table 1-3).
We can get much valuable information from these data to understand the temporal and spatial changes
of Tianjin urban area. But we must notice maybe these data are not free of discrepancy and errors, we
should make sure that the data we use are precise by crosschecking with other information.
Table 1-2: Available satellite image data
Sensor mode
Multi Spectral
Panchromatic (pan)
Multi Spectral
Sensor
Platform
TM
HRV
VNIR
7
Landsat-5
SPOT
Aster
Date
15/ 06/ 1993
2000
16/ 10/ 2003
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Table 1-3: Socio-economic data
Main data
Data resource
Issue department
The systematic statistical data
about Tianjin
Urban development in China
History of the development of urban planning until 1984 in Tianjin
Yearbooks of
-Tianjin statistics
-China cities’ statistics
Record publications on Tianjin’s urban planning history
Tianjin Urban Planning Institute
General information of the history
of the land market development in
1995-2002
Other officially released data on
urban development.
1995-2002 publications of
Tianjin real estate market
Tianjin Urban Planning Institute
Relative publications
Authoritative research organization
1.5.3.
Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau
Data processing and analysis
To achieve the research objectives, the study will focus on four aspects:
(1) Land cover classifications mainly by visual interpretation, and monitoring the urban area of the
study area respectively in 1993, 2000 and 2003.
(2) Land cover change detection by post-classification basing on the land cover classification results
drawn by visual interpretation.
(3) Analyze the urban growth in study area from both the perspective of physical change and socioeconomical change.
(4) Give qualitative assessment on local urban development policy by comparing the actual urban
physical change with it.
So, this study has been divided into three main phases:
(1) Data collection and literature review
The Landsat/Spot/Aster panchromatic and multi-spectral images were collected from the image laboratory of ITC and Spot images from Chinese Land Surveying and Planning Institute for the study of
spatial-temporal analysis of urban growth in the extended urban region of Tianjin. Some planar maps
about the extended urban region were obtained from the Tianjin Urban Planning Institute and they are
helpful to determine the information from the remote sense images. Some data such as GDP and
Population are collected mainly from the Tianjin statistical yearbook and China statistical yearbook.
Furthermore, the theories, methods and problems related to this study will be realized by literature
review.
(2) Data processing
Most of this part are land cover classification and change detection.
Land cover classification.
Generation of colour images of 1993, 2000, 2003.
Georeferencing and resampling the three images with the method of image to image with the image
in year 2003.
Definition of the exact boundary of the study area and create the sub-image of the study area.
Land cover classification with the main method of visual interpretation.
Change detection
8
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Change detection with the method of “post classification change detection”.
Detect urban area changes between year 1993 and 2000 in the study area both in quantitative and
qualitative with the techniques of RS and GIS.
Detect urban area changes between year 2000 and 2003 in the study area both in quantitative and
qualitative with the techniques of RS and GIS.
(3) Analysis of the urban growth and evaluation of the contemporary local urban policy of Tianjin
city.
Analyze the urban growth of metropolitan and districts respectively.
Compare the physical urban growth and the contemporary socio-economic change in district level.
Compare the actual urban growth and the expectation of contemporary local urban policy.
1.6.
Workflow
Bases on the methodology above mentioned, this research will be designed as follow (see Figure1-5).
1.7.
Structure of the Thesis
Abstract
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
Chapter 1 Introduction: states the research problems, objectives and questions as well as study area,
research methodology and a workflow.
Chapter 2 Patterns of urbanization in China: presents a literature review about the theories of urban
growth and the outcome of the research related urban growth.
Chapter 3 Image data processing and methodology: make classification of lands, determine them from
the remote sense images and detect the change of them.
Chapter 4 Urban growth in Tianjin: describes the urban growth from the perspective of socioeconomic and physical change respectively. Assesses the local urban policy and summerize the main
finding..
Chapter 5 Conclusions and recommendations
References
Appendices
9
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Research problem statement
Research conception and objectives (chapter 1)
Literature review (chapter 2)
Types of
urbanized
regions
Socio- economic
growth
(chapter 4-1)
Population
GDP/ Per
capita GDP
FDI
Economic
structure
Other aspects
Key Features of
the Urban System in modern
China
Housing and
land markets in
China
Urbanization and
urban policy
since 1978
Case Study (chapter 3)
Background of the relative technology used
Image processing
Urban area images of different
date
Local urban development
policy (chapter 4-3)
Analysis integrating two aspects
Urban land use efficiency
Mainly qualitative assessment of
the local policy
Conclusions and recommendations (chapter 5)
Figure 1-5: Workflow
10
Urban
physical
growth
(chapter 4-2)
Change in
different periods
District-level
change
Transportation
influence
Spatial form
of new urban area
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
2. Patterns of urbanization
This section reviews the theories about types of urbanized region, the key features of the urban system
in modern China, the development of housing and land markets in China and their impact on urban
growth, as well as the urbanization and urban policy since the 1978.
2.1.
Types of urbanized regions
The increasing scale of urbanization, urban growth and development of national urban systems has
given rise to a number of different forms of urbanized regions:
2.1.1.
The city-region
This is an area focused on the major employment centre in a region and encompassing the surrounding areas, for which it acts as the primary high-order service centre. The functional relationship between a city and its region was a key feature of central place theory. The city-region remains an appropriate description of monocentred urban areas of up to a million people found in the less densely
populated parts of even the most highly urbanized countries. Variants employed for statistical purposes include functional urban regions (FURs) and standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs)
(Pacione, 2002).
2.1.2.
Conurbation
This is the term coined in 1915 by Geddes to describe a built-up area created by the coalescence of
once separate urban settlements. With improvements in transportation and communications the functional influence of the conurbation has spread beyond the limits of the built-up area, so the term is
now widely used in the UK and elsewhere to describe multi-nodal functional urban units. The functional relationships within a conurbation differ from those of a city-region; in essence, while there is a
degree of dominance by the largest city, the other urban places also have their own functional linkages
(Pacione, 2002).
2.1.3.
The urban field
This is a unit, similar to the conurbation, used in the USA. An urban field is generally regarded as a
core urban area and hinterland of population at least 300,000, with an outer limit of two hours’ driving time. Defined in this manner, urban fields range in population size from 500,000 to 20 million and
cover one-third of the USA and 90 per cent of the national population. Urban fields are more spatially
extensive than European conurbations since they are based on higher levels of personal mobility, but
the concept may become increasingly relevant for understanding the functional reality of urbanized
regions outside the USA as similar levels of mobility are achieved through improvements in transport
and communications (Pacione, 2002).
2.1.4.
Megalopolis
This is the term introduced by Gottmann in 1961 to describe the urbanized areas of the northeastern
seaboard of the USA encompassing a population of 40 million oriented around the major cities of
Boston and Washington. DC. Gottmann subsequently defined a megalopolitan urban system as an urban unit with a minimum population of 25 million. The central importance of transactional activities
(in terms of international trade, technology and culture) would indicate a location at a major interna11
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
tional ‘breakpoint’ (such as a port-city). A megalopolis would typically have a polynuclear form but
with sufficient internal physical distinctiveness for each constituent city to be considered an urban
system in its own right. The cohesiveness of the megalopolitan system depends on the existence of
high-quality communications and transportation facilities. This megalopolitan phenomenon was identified initially in six zones: the archetype model of the north-eastern USA, the Great Lakes area extending from Chicago to Detroit, the Tokaido area of Japan centred on Tokyo-Yokohama and extending west to include Osaka-Kobe, the central belt of England running from London to Merseyside, the
North-West European megalopolis focused on Amsterdam-Paris-Ruhr, and the area around Shanghai.
Since then, twenty-six growth areas of the USA have exhibited megalopolitan patterns, while similar
trends are evident in Brazil and in Europe (Pacione, 2002).
2.1.5.
Ecumenopolis
This is the term employed by Doxiades in 1968 to describe a projected urbanized world or universal
city by the end of the twenty-first century. Although highly speculative, the ecumenopolis concept
does focus attention on the potential consequence of unrestrained urban growth and underlines the
importance that is currently being attached to the concept of sustainable urban development (Pacione,
2002).
2.2.
2.2.1.
Key Features of the Urban System in modern China
Low Urban Concentration
Chinese cities are relatively small and equal sized, compared to most countries. The UN puts the
population of Shanghai metro area, the largest city, at 12.3m in 2000, although its city proper is only
listed at 10.7m in 1998 (with little growth). In either case this is well below the populations of the 10
largest metro areas in the world. More critically is that China only has 9 metro areas with populations
over 3 million while it has another 125 or so metro areas with populations from 1-3 million; -- a ratio
of .072, compared to worldwide ratio for the same size categories of .27 (Henderson 2002).
2.2.2.
The Hukou System.
In China, the geographic-urban dispersion of population and the high spatial inequality is maintained
by strong migration restrictions, under the Hukou system. Migration restrictions play such a strong
role in the society and economy that it is critical to describe them. The Hukou system in China is similar to an internal passport system (Chan, 1994). A person'
s local "citizenship" and residence is initially defined for a child as a birth right, traditionally by the mother'
s place of legal residence. The
entitlements and details of the system differ for urban and rural residents. Legal residence in a city
entitles one to local access to permanent jobs, regular housing, public schooling, and public health
care (where almost all health care is public) in that city. Until the early 1990'
s, it also entitled urban
people to "grain rations" -- rations of essentials such as grain and kerosene.
Legal residence in a village or rural township entitles residents to land for farming, township housing,
and job opportunities in rural industrial enterprises, and access to local health and schooling facilities
in their town. Residents also have some degree of "ownership" in local enterprises; although distributed profits all go to the local public budget, which may be used to finance township housing and in-
12
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
frastructure. Again, until recent years, legal residence in a township also entitled a "peasant" to some
share in locally produced (or allocated from the outside) grain and other essentials.
How does a person change their local citizenship? There are several common mechanisms. First is
education. A smart rural youth may persist through the competitive county system to get a place in a
college. Upon college graduation, the rural youth will be hired into an urban job, with an urban Hukou. Second, the state at times can open the gates, permitting factories to hire permanent workers from
rural areas, permitting family reunification, or permitting legal migration from rural areas to nearby
small cities. However the official changes in residence or Hukou status average about 18 million (in
under 1.3% of the population) a year over the last 20 years with little annual variation (Chan, 2000).
People can migrate to an area without local Hukou, or an official change of residence/"citizenship",
either illegally ("unregistered") or legally as a temporary worker or as a "permanent resident" on a
long-term permit. For example, a rural person may be hired as a "contract worker" in industry or services, for a term of three years. Or a rural person may get permission to work temporarily in another
local rural area in construction, food services, domestic services and the like. People may move illegally, without registering in the new location, and work in the informal sector for low pay, under poor
conditions, with risk of deportation. Despite these possibilities and despite some recent relaxations of
restrictions in particular provinces, the restrictions in migration remain tight.
Temporary migrants to larger cities typically have no, or very high priced access to health care and
schooling facilities and regular, "legal" housing. In fact cities have strict national guidelines on conversion of agriculture to urban land; and institutional difficulties in housing markets in expanding
supply makes it particularly difficult for migrants to find decent housing. All this means living and
social conditions for migrants and their families are extremely difficult, since children face no or very
high priced access to schooling and health care. But there are other restrictions. Legal temporary migration requires getting a permit from the city of in-migration and cities can impose various hurdles to
getting a permit -- permission from the home location, proof of a guaranteed job and specific housing,
and the like. Cities also publish job lists, citing jobs for which migrants are not eligible; in 2000, Beijing listed over 100 occupants as non-eligible ones. Migrants may still have to pay taxes to their rural
home village for services they do not consume and on land left fallow. Finally migrants face direct
fees (Cai, 2000). There is a license fee to work outside the home township paid to the township that
can be equivalent to several months'wages. At the destination there can be fees for city management,
for being a "foreign" worker, for city construction, for crime fighting, for temporary residence, and
even for family planning if the migrant is female. All these restrictions sharply reduce the benefits and
raise the costs of migration, particularly into large cities. Migration is limited and most migration is
short-term, or "return" migration. Overall the Hukou system holds 100'
s of millions of people in locations where they are not exploiting their earning potential.
Today, this system is fluctuated by the farmers'frenzied hunt for work in cities and the competition of
person with ability between cities. Some provinces and cities such as Ningbo have abolished the restriction of Hukou conditionally and more provinces and cities are preparing to break this system.
Maybe the free migration in China will realize in the near future.
13
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
2.2.3.
Transformation of the Urban System in China
The urban system since 1950 has faced repeated system-wide political and economic shocks, inducing
enormous transformations. Here we focus on the 1990'
s. We can find in some cases in 1990s, cities
contained significant rural agricultural populations that during the decade moved into non-agricultural
employment. Second and more critically, population numbers may exclude certain types of immigrants while employment Figures better reflect them. In particular are shorter-term or longer-term migrants working in the city, who either live in the city but are not counted in population enumeration or
who can'
t obtain housing within the city and reside just beyond the boundaries of urban districts (in
often "illegal" rural housing). As a result, it is often better to measure size in terms of non-agricultural
employment. Real output per worker grew at an incredible rate during the period; for all cities, the
average annual rate was about 7.8% a year. Secondly, over time the manufacturing to service ratio
declines. The decline involves some redefinition of manufacturing activity as service activity around
1993-1994 (Henderson 2002).
Looking across the urban system, prefecture-level and above cities are larger and have much greater
human capital. Among county-level cities, there are many new cities, which are larger than traditional
county cities, have more industry, and are nearer the coast. These cities reflect rapid urbanization and
industrialization of former rural towns and townships.
The period 1990-1996 is one of rapid industrial reforms, removing some of the props under stateowned industry and exposing them to increasing competition. Mostly heavily hit were interior and
northern heavy industry cities, especially under the reforms in 1993-94. These reforms moved most
planning functions to a market basis and represent a break point in terms of how outputs are evaluated. Along with the rapid growth of business and financial service activity, the result, in this very
short period of time, is to dramatically shake up the urban system.
2.2.4.
Urban Specialization and Manufacturing Agglomeration
The urban economics literature suggests that efficiency in urban production particularly for medium
size cities involves relative and even absolute local specialization in production. For many standardized manufacturing activities, localized external economies within the own industry are prevalent. Industry-specific agglomeration and hence local specialization is key to industrial efficiency (Eberts and
Millen, 1999) for a review of theory and evidence. For China an issue is whether local scale externalities are not being fully exploited both because local industrial bases are too diffuse and producers
within a city are too spatially dispersed, reducing inter-firm information spillovers.
There was no coherent national economic plan before 1978, based on national input-output Tables
(World Bank, 1981). In fact no national input-output Table used by Chinese planners existed until the
mid-1980'
s. Planning was done at the provincial level, with provinces tending to autarky, apart from
national ministries governing mining, energy, and transportation. As a result, inter-provincial and
even inter-prefecture trade was low. Bigger cities tended to try to produce the entire range of manufactured products. By the mid-1980'
s, after the economic reforms starting in 1978, (Henderson 1988,
Chapter 11) it presents a picture of bigger cities with extremely diversified industrial bases but some
degree of relative specialization, but nothing like the specialization seen in cities in countries like
USA, Brazil, or India. That pattern appears to persist well into the 1990'
s. For example, Ningbo, a city
14
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
of only 1.2m people in coastal Zhejiang, based on international 3-digit SIC classifications, still produces in 68 or 70 possible manufacturing categories in textiles, apparel, leather, chemical, plastics,
machinery, electronics and instruments sectors, as well as most food, wood, and metals products
(from 1998 Ningho Statistical Yearbook). There is some degree of concentration in textiles, apparel,
petroleum and electrical equipment (each over 10% of local manufacturing GDP), but that itself is
diffuse. Such detailed city data are hard to get on a widespread basis, so it is hard to say how the degree of specialization at the city level has been increasing over time. But more aggregate data suggest
increasing specialization. (Fujita and Hu, 2001) in examining provincial level data, find strong evidence of increasing agglomeration from 1985-1994 at the provincial level in textiles, apparel, machinery, electrical machinery, electronics, metal products, and rubber and plastic -- key sectors where localized intra industry scale economies may dominate and where agglomeration is highest. In general
the increased agglomeration reflects relative gains by coastal provinces, with the four dominant provinces (out of 30 provinces) having shares of 50- 60% of national gross output value in chemical fibres,
rubber and plastics, textiles, garments, electrical machinery and equipment, and electronics by 1994.
Note however that in many cases the name of the province with the highest share, which is listed
changes from 1985 to 1994. They interpret this growth in agglomeration as "self agglomeration" or
clustering promoted by FDI and trade policies that favored industrialization in certain coastal enclaves.
Guangdong province around Guangzhou (Canton) with its more freewheeling economics is a big
gainer in all of this. By 1994 Guangdong commands market shares in electronic products such as recorders and cameras of over 85%.
In this evolution, one trend at the city level is the development of services, especially business services in major cities. Also a strong positive correlation between prefecture city size and the ratio of
tertiary to secondary city activity has developed as the service sector has grown (Henderson 2002).
2.2.5.
Governance
The final key aspect of the urban system is governance. In general, especially in economic plans formulated in the 1980'
s, spatial hierarchy is a strong notion in China. Big (prefecture-level) cities "lead"
smaller (county-level) cities, and both lead rural counties. Politically large cities have some authority
over nearby township and county city governments. Higher-level units are favored in terms of tax policy, redistribution, and degree of autonomy. Planning of product lines favored higher level units,
granting state enterprises monopoly rights over product lines that rural enterprises were starting to
encroach on. This hierarchy notion is also played out in other dimensions -- the spatial allocation of
revenue and investment of FDI and trade initiatives, and of transport infrastructure investment (Henderson 2002).
2.3.
Housing and land markets in China
The profound transformation of the context within urban planning operates is the transition from a
centrally planned economy to a socialist market economy. Particularly relevant to urban planning are
the continuing decentralization of decision-making, establishment of housing and land markets and
increase in the number of actors and conflicts of interests in urban development.
2.3.1.
Establishment of housing market
Housing reform was launched after 1982. Because of the difficulty in the change from administrative
to market mechanism, the progress of housing reform is slow. The new policy under the title of
“commercialization of housing” is to reduce government subsidy on housing, to encourage individuals
15
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
to buy housing, to increase the source of income for constructing more housing and to solve nationwide housing shortage. Various programmes have been tested and the Special Economic Zones are the
pioneers in housing reform (Phillip and Yeh, 1987). The programmes attempt to increase individuals’
incentive to buy housing and to avoid decrease in living standard because of the reduction of subsidies.
Individuals could only pay one third of the price, while the enterprises they belong to and the municipality pay one third of the housing payment respectively. The incentive for buying housing was raised.
Old houses were also sold to individuals at discount prices. However, it was soon realized that the
government and enterprises could not afford to continue to subsidize the commercialization programmes. Thus, a comprehensive policy had to be devised (Yeh and Wu, 1999). With the rapid development of Chinese economy, more and more private owners emerged and the housing market scale
became bigger and bigger. Today, housing construction is the most active element of urban development. This means urban planning is facing multiple actors- the residents, developers (both foreign and
domestic real estate companies) and work units.
2.3.2.
Establishment of land market
Land reform lagged behind housing reform due to the difficulty in justification of land privatization.
Both housing and land reform can be viewed as the effort to privatize property ownerships. In the beginning, land reform was not intended to set up a land market in China. In 1982, the Constitution was
amended, which declared that all urban land belonged to the state and transactions of land ownership
were illegal. Before the amendment of the Constitution, land under the private housing was still
owned privately in name. Since the ownership did not bring any benefits to the owner, the abolishment of private ownership did not meet any objections. The purpose of land reform at the beginning
was to encourage more efficient use of urban land through economic incentives and to protect cultivated land, which was randomly occupied by urban constructions because of the free land use. Since
China faced a more serious shortage of cultivated agricultural land, this was an urgent task for the reformatory government at that time. So, in some cities like Shenzhen, a land use fee was levied. In
1988, the State Council promulgates the “Regulation on Land Use Tax Collection in Cities and
Towns” which enabled the city government to collect land use taxes. The era of free use of urban land
ended (Yeh and Wu, 1999).
In early 1990s, the legalization of land leasing finished after several pieces of legislation were enacted
and promulgated. Since Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour in 1992, the pace of land leasing has been
quickened. Now, land leasing does not only involve land parcels in the city proper, but also large
tracts of undeveloped land in the Economic and Technological Development Zones (ETDZs). The
characteristics of current land markets in China can be summarized into four aspects. First, land ownership is separated from land use right, and land use rights can be transferred through premium and
payment. Secondly, the state monopolizes all sources of land supply for urban development. In practice, the municipality decides which land parcel should be put into market. Thirdly, the land use system is a dual system that involves both market and non-market mechanisms. While most of the land is
still allocated to state enterprises and infrastructure projects through the administrative method, a
small portion of land is allocated through land leasing- i.e. the paid transfer of land use right. Fourthly,
there are two basic types of land markets. The primary land market refers to land use right from the
state to users, the so-called conveyance which is in fact land leasing. The secondary land market
refers to the transactions of land use rights among users (Institute of Finance and Trade Economics
and Institute of Public Administration, 1994). The difference between the ‘conveyance’ and the
16
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
‘transaction’ in this context was used to ensure that a parcel of land had conveyed from the state before it could be transacted. The policy enables the municipality to monopolize the supply of land leasing.
The establishment of land markets lead to a boom of real estate companies. Since 1992, the building
industries have undergone accelerating commercialization. More companies emerged. At the time,
speculation increased. The huge differences in land price between administrative allocation and land
leasing through negotiation, tender and auction lead to speculation. Some real estate companies engaged in the transaction of land without genuine development. To control rampant speculation, the
City Real Estate Management Act was enacted in 1994. At the same time, the State Council asked
local government to tighten up company registration. Development zones without proper approval
were shut down. Transaction tax was levied on the transfer of land use right without substantial development. Developers also had to turn in value-add tax if they obtain windfall income from the land
(Yeh and Wu, 1999).
2.3.3.
Impacts on urban growth
Localized urban management makes the municipality more powerful than before to regulate and intervene in urban development. No matter what kind of land users that development control deals with
state enterprise under the direct control of a supervisory sectoral department or foreign investors
urban planning system now has the right to require all developments to conform to urban plans.
the
Housing reform has freed the work units from direct provision of housing. Thus, the housing estate
can be developed at an economic scale and the municipality can prepare a comprehensive plan of
housing construction and service facilities. With the reduction in the power of sectoral departments,
service facilities begin to be provided by the municipal government rather individual work units. The
former pattern of self-contained development based on individual work units has been broken and has
been gradually replaced by overall planning and management by the city government.
Land reform has stimulated the development of property markets. Land leasing also brings about land
revenue and planning gain to city government. So, the infrastructure can be funded and urban environment improved. Because of the re-emergence of land prices, the dilapidated housing in the city
centre can be demolished and the residents compensated to the place where land is cheaper. The difference between the land prices can facilitate redevelopment and speed up restructuring of land uses
(Yeh and Wu, 1995; Wu, 1997).
One implication of the decentralization and establishment of real estate markets is the emergence of
new actors in the urban process. Previously, urban development was undertaken by state enterprises
and their supervisory departments. The state could control urban development through resource allocation. The interaction mainly took place between territorial and sectoral government departments.
The transition has brought multiple actors. First, real estate development companies have been set up.
They are different from previous state construction teams in that they are developers with independent
profit motivation. Particularly, after foreign investment joined the real estate markets, the previous
linear interaction has become more complicated. These new actors have different interests and goals.
This significantly transformed the role of municipality from a project coordinator to a planning authority that is using development control to intervene in development processes. The emergence of
17
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
new actors and changing role of previous state work units and local governments means a redefinition
of the rules-of-the-game in the planning process in which the conflicts and balance of interests are
inevitable. The change will require urban planning to undertake the role of a mediator and, more importantly, to make urban planning more statutory and urban growth more methodic (Yeh and Wu,
1999).
2.4.
2.4.1.
Urbanization and urban policy since 1978
Urbanization since 1978 in China
The procession of urbanization in China is unique because of the unstable policy on urban development that results in a long-term low level of urbanization. Since 1979, the urbanization level has increased (see Table 2-1), but there are obvious differences for the urbanization level among different
zones. Generally, from the viewpoint of history, the urbanization road in China presented unbelievable strong undulation. In this thesis, the review of the urbanization procession will focus on the period 1978-present.
The "four modernizations" in 1978 started to introduce market forces into China. Here we note three
key elements of the economical reform: The personal responsibility system was introduced into
agriculture, moving agriculture away from a commune system to a quasi-market system where increasingly individual farmers chose their own crops and inputs, and sold increasing portions of output
at free market prices. Compared to an annual growth rate of agricultural GDP of 1.4% from 19571978 (far less than the rural population growth rate), the annual growth rate for 1978-1984 is 7.3%,
which then levels off at 3.7% for 1984-1992 (Perkins, 1994). Further productivity advances in agriculture are limited by two items relevant to the urban sector -- continued restraints on rural-urban migration and continued diversion of capital away from the rural sector, as well as failure to enact full
property right reforms in the rural sector. While urban state-owned industry [SOE] was subject to
reforms attempting to introduce incentives for workers and managers, SOE'
s still faced soft budget
constraints, rigid employment, wage, and compensation policies, and constraints on production
choices (Jefferson and Singhe, 1999). Industrial reform really came through first the vast expansion of
the collective, mostly rural, industrial sector and then the expansion of private industry in the 1990'
s,
with the state-owned sector increasingly withering away. Reforms also altered the composition of
national output, away from heavy industry towards first lighter, consumer-oriented manufacturing and
then services, with both playing a role in urban policy. Nationally China'
s service sector accounted for
15-23% of GDP in 1978 (with the percent depending on whether domestic/historic (15%) or international 1990 (23%) prices are used). Today the share has risen past 30%. But it is still far short of the
42+% found in low-income countries or the 52+% found in low-middle income countries.
Since 1978, China’s urbanization has been speeded up. The number of cities increased from 193 in
1979 to 668 in 1999. Among these cities there are 37 extra-large ones with populations above one million; 48 large cities with populations between 500,000 and one million; 205 medium-sized cities with
populations between 200,000 and 500,000; and 378 small cities with populations less than 200,000.
The number of medium-sized cities has increased fairly rapidly, and that of small cities has grown the
most rapidly. In the eastern coastal areas, city groups (belts) with extra-large cities as the centres have
been formed, such as the Bohai Bay, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta urbanized areas. The
18
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
policies of reform and opening to the outside world have greatly strengthened the cities’ comprehensive strength. Between 1988 and 1996, the urban GDP grew by 18 percent on average annually, with
the cities’ centring status and role becoming more and more prominent.
According to the publication of the Department Research Centre of the State Council of P. R. China
(DRC), the urbanization level will be 60% in 2020. The latest statistic implies that the urbanization
level has reached 40.53% until the end of 2003. It implies that the urbanization level will increase
about 1.17% per year from now to 2020. It also implies most cities will have a large-scale development in the coming two decades and future, more attention to the research of their expansion is required.
Table 2-1: Urbanization levels in China, 1949-2003
Year
Total popu- Urban population
amount
Proportion (%)
lation
Rural population
amount
Proportion (%)
790.14
795.65
797.36
807.57
841.38
82.08
80.61
79.09
76.29
73.59
1949
1978
1980
1982
1985
1990
962.59
987.05
1008.18
1058.51
1143.33
172.45
191.40
210.82
250.94
301.95
10.60
17.92
19.39
20.91
23.71
26.41
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1158.23
1171.71
1185.17
1198.50
1211.21
1223.89
312.03
321.75
331.73
341.69
351.74
373.04
26.94
27.46
27.99
28.51
29.04
30.48
846.20
849.96
853.44
856.81
859.47
850.85
73.06
72.54
72.01
71.49
70.96
69.52
1997
1998
1236.26
1247.61
394.49
416.08
31.91
33.35
841.77
831.53
68.09
66.65
1999
1257.86
437.48
34.78
820.38
65.22
2000
1267.43
459.06
36.22
808.37
63.78
2001
1276.27
480.64
37.66
795.63
62.34
2002
1284.53
502.12
39.10
782.41
60.90
2003
1292.27
523.76
40.53
768.51
59.47
Resource: China Statistics Year Book 2002 and the Statistics Communiques 2003 of Chinese NBS
2.4.2.
Urban policy since 1978
There are implicit and explicit urban policies. The key implicit policy is that the Hukou system remains in place, so free migration with a permanent change of residence is still not a feature of China.
However China'
s urban population growth rate is 4.5% for 1978-1990 versus 2% in the previous 11
years. So migration policy as part of urban policy has changed.
As defined in part by the 1982 Sixth 5-Year Plan, as well as the Seventh 5-Year Plan, the period has a
set of initially defined urbanization policies that persist today. First urban population was to expand,
but through the rapid growth of smaller cities relaxing Hukou transfers at the level, while containing
19
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
the sizes of larger cities. The 1990'
s witnessed the rapid growth in number of cities, as many places
were recognized as having passed 100,000 urban population mark. General urban population expansion has also been fueled by rapid growth, particularly in coastal towns, of township populations, always pushing these towns towards (or past) the 100,000 mark to be a city (Ma and Fan 1994).
In the Sixth and Seventh 5-year plans there is a sense of hierarchy, played out both in governance
structures and in economic policy. Larger cities are to lead smaller ones and rural areas; the coast is to
lead the centre and west. "Leading" has many dimensions. Larger cities focus on newer production -initially high tech and light industry and then business service development in recent years. Large cities receive new technologies and hand-down traditional activities to their hinterlands, in particular
contracting-out parts and components production to small cities, towns, and rural areas, and relocating
heavy, polluting production to their peri- or exurban areas. This is not to say these changes are the
consequence of planning. Rather planning may have been consistent with natural market forces, and
helped ignite them. Many research revealed the move of industry from the urbanized city proper in
specific prefecture level cities to the ex-urban rural hinterland areas of these prefectures after 1990.
Suburbanization of manufacturing to lower wage cost ex-urban or fringe area with potentially more
readily available land is part of market driven urban spatial development. Mature manufacturing firms
in core cities typically suburbanize once their need for core city information spillovers, declines and
illustrates the existing ex-urbanizational industry achieved by 1990. Moreover, some research revealed the rapid growth of business services in all regions and showed their relatively high level in the
three traditional provincial cities -- roughly a 3-fold higher level than in the rest of the country in
terms of share of local GDP. More generally among prefecture level cities, as in other countries, a
negative correlation between city size and the ratio of secondary to tertiary sector activity has developed. By 1997 most major cities in China, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Changsha proudly
reported that they had passed the 50% mark -- over 50% of local GDP from the tertiary sector. Again
given China'
s low service production, expansion of this sector in response to market forces is not surprising.
Another aspect of urbanization policy, implicit and as part of big cities leading the rest, is played out
in the development of rural industry -- the town and village enterprise (TVE) sector. The rapid productivity growth in agriculture after 1978, coupled with prior restrained urbanization, meant a vast
surplus of labour in agriculture. Given the desire to continue to restrain urbanization (although at a
much higher rate after the 15 or so years before 1978), a policy of "leave the land but not the village"
was crafted. So the rural sector was to industrialize, but generally not spatially agglomerate. TVE development was constrained by under-capitalization, an inability to spatially agglomerate, and in the
1980'
s policies restraining its competition with SOE'
s (followers are not supposed to out-compete
leaders!). However, TVE growth was rapid: starting from an initial miniscule level, by 1997 VA in
the TVE sector was twice that in remaining SOE'
s (independent accounting units). TVE'
s had hard
budget constraints, fewer regulations, and greater ability to respond to input (hiring and promotion,
choice of sellers of intermediate inputs) and output (product demand) market conditions. By the early
1990'
s, Jefferson and Singhe (1999) document how TVE total factor productivity exceeded SOE'
s,
ascribing that to the greater operational freedom and hard budget constraint of TVE'
s, illustrated by
Murakami, Liu, and Otsaka (1996) in terms of buying and contracting-out decisions. Still TVE sector
development was constrained by the under-capitalization of the rural sector that has been a feature of
modern China. Based on micro data, Jefferson and Singhe show that the rate of return on capital in the
20
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
TVE sector in 1997 exceeded that of SOE'
s by 25%. Similarly Au and Henderson (2002) calculate
that, while the social marginal product of labor in prefecture level cities is only 7% higher than in the
TVE sector, the marginal product of capital in the TVE sector in 1997 is 40% higher than in prefecture level cities. In calculating social marginal products of labor in the urban versus rural sector another aspect of "leading", or bias in the urban-rural allocation of resources concerns education. The
higher wage and compensation returns to labor in the urban sector combined with college education
being the key to permanent migration from rural to urban areas, means the more educated population
is funnelled into cities. An area of investigation is the very high social returns to education in the rural
sector, improving township allocation decisions of resources between agricultural, animal husbandry
and TVE activities (Yang and Au, 1997; also Au and Henderson, 2002).
In addition to these policies governing rural-urban (and big city-small city) allocation of capital and
labour there are other much more explicit policies with a spatial bias (Chan, 1994; Yang, 1997;
Naughton, 2002; Fujita and Hu, 2001). While they have some big city-small city/town flavor, they
also have a coastal versus rest of the country flavor. Arguably the key element is initial policies that
directed FDI and trade to certain coastal cities. In the early (1979) reforms, 4 coastal special economic
zones, centered on 4 prefecture level cities were created to encourage free market experimentation, an
inflow of FDI, and development of international trade. In the mid-1980'
s, 14 more coastal cities were
declared as open cities to foreign investors, with 2 more coastal cities added by 1990. In addition 10
cities (half overlapping with open status) were given separately listed status -- economic decision
making powers equal to the provincial cities of Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Chongqing.
According to the research output of Fujita and Hu (2001), the 14 open cities and 4 spatial economic
zones accounted for 42% of national FDI from 1984-1994. In 1990, the 24 "special status" cities (special economic zones, open, and separately listed) plus Beijing accounted for 65% of all FDI in prefecture level cities, while accounting for only 36% of value-added in non-agricultural production of prefecture level cities. This initial advantage persists, despite opening of the entire economy. These 25
cities account for 63% of all FDI accumulated from 1990-1997 in all prefecture (or provincial) level
cities. It takes the upper quartile of all cities in terms of their ratio of accumulated FDI from 19901996 (in dollars) divided by their 1996 GDP (in RMB), and then divides that upper quartile into four
quartiles in terms of ranking of relative accumulated FDI. The cities in the top group are heavily concentrated along the coast, except for a few inland special cities. They also argued persuasively that the
agglomeration of electronics and light manufacturing in coastal areas such as the region around
Guangzhou is due to these initial policies promoting FDI and trade in these favored coastal areas. The
effect is reflected in the ratio of investment occurring in coastal versus interior regions: in 1984 the
ratio is 1.12 while 10 years later it is 1.93 (see also Naughton, 2002). These policies and their impacts
are deliberate spatial policies of the Sixth and Seventh 5-year plans, favoring development in a spatial
hierarchy of the coastal region. The expanding trade within these favored regions, tended to reduce
rural-urban income inequality, because trade helped the TVE sector in the urban fringe (rural) areas.
The final aspect of spatial bias involves governance and fiscal relations. Fiscal rules and intergovernmental relations in China are not well defined and transparent. Revenue redistribution contracts
send monies coming from the center back to provinces and cities; up to the mid-1990'
s these appeared
to favor bigger and richer cities. But much official public expenditure is extra budgetary -- local revenues retained within localities (Jin and Zou, 2002). What is retained and the specifics of a city'
s fiscal
21
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
allocations from above, whatever the rules, are in part the result of bargaining. And in the hierarchy of
big city versus small or coast versus interior, the bigger and the coastal have greater bargaining power.
Actual results depend on the personalities and power of local leaders, with an interesting literature on
China documenting this (Peter T.Y. Cheung, Jae Ho Chung, and Zhimin Lin, 1998). Bigger cities have
more effective fiscal autonomy and more control over key appointments (e.g., heads of local stateowned banks which become a source of funds and subsidies of local industries). Cities compared to
rural areas are favored with the ability to offer lower tax rates on FDI firms. The issue is a difficult
one and there has emerged no clear way to quantify the fiscal advantage of one city or set of cities
over others. But the spatial bias and lack of transparency is a key feature of China'
s urban sector.
2.4.3.
Current strategy for urban development
China’s current Five-Year Plan (2001-2005) projects a 1-percentage point increase per annum in the
urbanisation rate (the proportion of the population living in urban areas). This means that more rural
villages will become reclassified as towns and more towns will be reclassified as cities
(http://www.accci.com.au/urbdev.htm, 2004).
Perhaps of greater significance, with China’s current population growth rate, and with the projected
urbanisation rate, within the next 5 years China will have 87.3 million more people living in urban
areas.
If 20 per cent of this increase occurs from newly classified urban areas, then about 70 million people
will be added to existing urban areas. If another 20 per cent of this increase is attributed to the reclassification of towns into cities, then an additional 56 million people will be added to existing cities. We
cannot be certain that these percentages will occur, but it is nevertheless clear that the growth rate of
China’s cities will be much more rapid during the next 5 years than it was in the recent past. Similarly, we cannot be certain which of the existing cities will grow more rapidly, but the scale of the
growth is sufficiently large to justify a close monitoring of urbanisation patterns in China. The Chamber’s “key cities” approach is part of that monitoring process. It is expected to provide practical insights into business opportunities in China. These opportunities are likely to be substantial. The urban
development cost in China is estimated to be RMB 60,000 per capita. With the projections given
above, this translates into an expenditure of RMB 4.2 trillion for existing urban areas during the next
5 years.
China’s urbanisation strategy, as stated in the current Five-Year Plan, places emphasis on the following:
(1) Accelerating the development of small towns. This will focus on a small number of existing
towns with good infrastructure and generally good potential to enable them to grow into mediumsized cities.
(2) Developing international metropolises. Efforts will be made during the next 20 years to enable
cities such as Beijing and Shanghai to become internationally competitive and to be classified as
“global cities”.
(3) Upgrading cities as regional centres. This is sometimes referred to as the “constellation plan” for
urban development, through which regional cities are developed in conjunction with the outlying areas (smaller cities and towns) in such a way that they function collectively.
22
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
(4) Constructing and developing new cities. This is particularly relevant to China’s vast central and
western regions where the urban density is relatively low. It will allow greater attention to be placed
on new urban development, rather than on urban renewal. It is also consistent with the desire of the
central government to reduce the regional disparities in income and wealth.
(5) Designing and guiding areas with a high density of towns. The Pearl River Delta and the Yangtze
River Delta are the main focal points for high-density living, a high level of industrialisation, a large
number of relatively high-density towns and close economic links between the towns. The major task
is a combination of urban expansion and urban renewal that will allow these urban areas to absorb a
larger population in an effective and efficient manner (http://www.accci.com.au/urbdev.htm, 2004).
Some of the difficulties with this strategy are as follows:
China currently has a total of 18,800 established towns, for which the average population is 8,000.
Although it is desirable, for at least some of these towns, to plan infrastructure development that
would be consistent with a population of 20,000 by the year 2020 (slightly more than 5 per cent
growth per annum), the task of choosing the ones with the greatest potential is certain to be difficult.
Further development for the currently high-density urban areas is largely an administrative task.
Most of the cities and towns in the Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta are already adjacent to
each other. Some form of local government amalgamation is likely to be necessary in order to achieve
economies of scale in urban services and infrastructure for these areas.
The regional-centre approach, in comparison, conveys the Chinese tradition for local area identity
that existed for more than 2,000 years. It is likely to facilitate the selection of towns with the greatest
potential for rapid growth and it would distribute the development of the western provinces on a more
even basis (http://www.accci.com.au/urbdev.htm, 2004).
23
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3. Image data processing and
methodology
This chapter describes the main methodology used in this thesis, including the background of the relative technology, the image data processing and the main output for this study.
3.1.
3.1.1.
Introduction of the development of Satellite RS Technology
Landsat
The Landsat programme is the oldest Earth Observation programme. The series consists of 7 manmade satellites and it started in 1972 with the Landsat-1 satellite carrying the MSS multispectral sensor. After 1982, the Thematic Mapper (TM) replaced the MSS sensor. Both MSS and TM are whiskbroom scanners. Landsat 5 was launched in March 1984 and in April 1999 Landsat-7 was launched
was carrying the ETM+ scanner (see Table 3-1) (Bakker, 2001).
3.1.2.
Spot
Spot I was launched on Feb. 1986 and since then it has been transmitting high quality imagery of the
earth back to ground stationsand it has been in a near polar circular orbit, it has 10m panchromatic
pixel size off nadir viewing capacity, stereo-capability and ability to commission imagery for specific
areas and therefore we can say SPOT has characteristics which should be a boon to the cartographic
community. There are different cartographic applications for SPOT images for example topographic
map inspection, map revision and compilation and generation of digital elevation data. Image quality
and geometric accuracy of SPOT data are essential elements in cartographic applications.
SPOT data has been available since 1986. We should consider that mapping from SPOT is not simply
a matter of tracing off detail from the imagery into the map and the geometry of the new image is both
complex and dynamic. The SPOT HRV sensor has an array of 600 charged couple device (CCD) sensors which sample reflected radiation every few milli-seconds to create a digital image swath 10 m.
long and 60 Km. wide. Each swath has a perspective but off nadir view and a complete image is built
up swath by swath while the satellite rotates around its three axes. SPOT data are recorded by two
push-broom scanners abroad the satellite. These scanners can operate in two separate modes: multi
spectral (ms) or panchromatic (pan) with 20m and 10 m. spatial resolution respectively and it should
be noted that MS images provide relatively high spectral contrasts while the PAN images have much
more subtle contrasts and trade off between them should be taken. Also SPOT sensors can record either vertical or oblique image data and the oblique data can be corrected to produce rectified images.
SPOT has different processing levels for different applications. The most basic level is ISA, corrected
for sensor radiometric calibration but with no geometric correction. Level 1B data is additionally corrected for known geometric distortions including earth rotation, earth curvature, and sensor viewing
angle and satellite attitude variations. Level 2 is rectified for a map projection system using ground
control points and it does not take into account terrain relief distortions and level S is rectified to a
reference scene for multidate studies. There are also some auxiliary data including scene information,
24
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
sensor data and ephemeris data. There are limiting factors in SPOT data acquisition e.g. clouds, mist,
dust... make it difficult to obtain data when and where we want and the lack of ease in identification
requires more ground effort (http://www.spotimage.fr, 2004).
Nowadays, there is much concern to use SPOT Satellite data in topographic mapping especially for
those areas where these data are the best solution (like flat desert area with a few features). To do so
we should seriously consider to those factors that play some roles in effective use of SPOT data in
topographic mapping.
3.1.3.
Aster
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an imaging instrument that is flying on Terra, a satellite launched in December 1999 as part of NASA'
s Earth Observing System (EOS). ASTER is a cooperative effort between NASA and Japan'
s Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry (METI) and the Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC). It is used
to obtain detailed maps of land surface temperature, emissivity, reflectance and elevation. The EOS
platforms are part of NASA'
s Earth Science Enterprise, whose goal is to obtain a better understanding
of the interactions between the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere
(http://terra.nasa.gov, 2003). The ASTER instrument consists of three separate instrument subsystems:
the Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR), the Shortwave Infrared (SWIR), and the Thermal Infrared
(TIR). Each subsystem operates in a different spectral region, has its own telescope(s), and is built by
a different Japanese company. The ASTER Science Team is composed of members from the United
States and Japan, as well as from France and Australia (http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov, 2004). The ASTER instrument can be used to monitor urban changes and there have been already many practices of
this application.
Satellite remote sensing has revolutionized the process of monitoring and measuring urban land use
and urban form dynamics. The routine collection of imagery for most of the Earth’s land areas by satellites provides an invaluable historical record covering three10 decades. This revolutionary development makes it possible to conduct urban land use analyses in most regions of the world for this time
period. Satellite remote sensing offers a tremendous advantage in studying urban areas, as it provides
recurrent and consistent observations over a large geographic area, reveals explicit patterns of land
use (Schneider etal, 2003). In the past 30 years, the technology has developed very fast with more and
more countries began to launch their own relevant satellites. Today, we can get a mass of remote sensing images and apply them in many different fields.
3.2.
Description of the three images
To analyze the spatial-temporal changes of the urban area in Tianjin from 1993 to 2003, remote sensing images covering the same area (see Table 3-1) were obtained from the image library of ITC and
Chinese land surveying and planning institute to do the study.
Table 3-1: The source images
Platform
Landsat-5 (TM)
SPOT
Aster
Sensor mode
Multi Spectral
Pan+XS
Multi Spectral
Spatial Resolution
Amount
Year
30m
10m
15m
1
5
2
1993
2000
2003
25
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
In this thesis, three remote sensing images used to extract the urban area and exhibit the urban physical growth. Interestingly, the images were generated just by the three foregoing platforms. The image
in 1993 was Lansat-5 image with a Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor (see Figure 3-1 a). The Thematic
Mapper (TM) is an advanced, multispectral scanning, Earth resources sensor designed to achieve
higher image resolution, sharper spectral separation, improved geometric fidelity and greater radiometric accuracy and resolution than the MSS sensor. The images in 2000 were Spot images with a
HRV sensor (see Figure 3-1 b). They were acquired by SPOT Earth observation satellites. The information in a SPOT image gives an objective, reliable picture of the Earth’s surface. Both accurate and
all-encompassing, a single SPOT image covers a surface area of 3,600 km². In this research, the study
area covers 5 single images with 1: 30000 scale and 10m resolution. The image in 2003 was Aster
image with a VNIR sensor (see Figure 3-1 c). Aster is experimental instrument and allows imaging the
Earth surface in 14 spectral bands from visible to thermal infrared with spatial resolution from 90 up
to 15 m. In this research, the study area covers 2 single images with 15m resolution.
a
b
3.3.
c
Figure 3-1 the available image data
Image processing work flow
The steps of image processing in this paper are shown as Figure3-2. The Erdas 8.6 and ArcGIS 3.3
software are used for image processing.
3.4.
3.4.1.
Geometric correction of the images
Introduction to geometric correction
In remote sensing systems, the image of a stationary grid on earth is not perfectly reproduced by the
sensor. Instead, the geometric characteristics of the scene change as a function of geodetic and intrinsic properties of the imagery system, such as satellite orbit, position, attitude, and scan angle. The results from these imperfections contribute to the overall Geometric Distortion of the image, and are the
essential motivation behind the modelling of Geometric Correction algorithms.
26
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Landsat TM, Spot and Aster Images of Raster Format in Erdas
8.6 (Year 1993, 2000, 2003) and ArcGIS 3.3
Georeference images to one coordinate system
Define the boundary of the study area in
Land cover classification mainly using Visual Interpretation
(Year 1993, 2000, 2003)
Land cover maps (Year 1993, 2000, 2003)
Post-classification change detection (Year 1993-2000, 2000-2003)
Land-cover change maps (Year 1993-2000, 2000-2003)
Figure 3-2 Flow chart of image processing
3.4.2.
Steps of geometric correction
The '
warp'
, as the Geometric Correction process is also called in some literature, is divided into three
steps. They are Polynomial Model, Coordinate Transformation and Resampling.
Resampling is the final stage of the warp. After the coordinate transformation, pixels are pointed to
new locations, but their new DN values are yet to be determined. Pixels used as Ground Control
Points will be assigned the same DN values of the reference pixels, because they were used as points
during the polynomial fit derivation, and so they generate exact (integer) solutions. For all other pixels, the new calculated indexes are not necessarily integer values. In fact, their new locations may fall
between the pixels of the reference image. Therefore, their corresponding DN values must be interpolated amongst the values of the neighboring pixels.
Although, there is not an ideal way to resample an image, the three interpolation algorithms most
commonly used are: Nearest Neighbour, Bilinear and Cubic convolution. In this thesis, to correct the
distortions in different images, some well-distributed GCP (Ground Control Points) were selected
from the 2000 Spot image to georeference the other two images. Resampling is done before the pro27
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
cedure of classification, visual interpretation, and change detection. In the out-put map the method of
nearest neighbour method is selected to resample all data. After resample, all images are in the same
coordinate system.
3.5.
Definition of the boundary of the study area.
The exact boundary is guided by the data
availability. There are two important
reasons for the definition of the final
boundary here: One is that the three
satellite images were not recorded at the
same time by the same satellite sensors
so that they do not cover exactly the same
area, this is visible on the Figure 3-1;
another is that the spatial scope of the
area should correspond with the statistic
scope of the socio-economic data. For
example, the population data of Dongli
district implies all the people living in
this district namely includes people living
both in the city proper (part of it locates
Figure 3-3: The boundary of the study area
in this district) and in other towns and
villages of this district. Since the life style of the villagers in near suburb of big cities is very similar
as city in China, the villages can be taken as actually urbanized area. This indicates that the study area
should not cover too many exurbs; otherwise the socio-economic data will be very difficult to correspond with urban land in study area.
At last the defined area is a sub-image cut from the original image (see Figure 3-3). It covers 1759.10
square kilometres and includes 13 districts of Tianjin city, namely new 4 districts, 6 Central Districts
and 3 coastal districts. This area contains most of the urban area including city proper, New Seaside
Region and many towns etc.
3.6.
Land cover classification
To image the urban growth in Tianjin, land cover classification should be done first. It is necessary to
know some fundamental of image classification.
3.6.1.
Introduction to image classification
Image classification is the process of extracting thematic data from satellite imagery. A thematic map
is an informational representation of an image that shows the spatial distribution of a particular theme.
Themes can be as diversified as their areas of interest. In other words, image classification is the
process of the identification of features using digital records (Campbell, 1996). The overall objective
is to automatically categorize all pixels in an image into land cover classes or themes. It involves the
analysis of multi-spectral data and to determine the land cover identity of each pixel in an image (Wu,
1998, p.30).
28
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
There are two different processes in image classification procedure: spectral pattern and spatial pattern recognition. The spectral pattern recognition process determines the land cover value to each
pixel based on the spectral radiance observed on the image. In contrast, the spatial pattern recognition
processes classify the land use/cover based on the geometric shapes, sizes, textures, and patterns of
pixels present on the image (Wu, 1998, p.30). Supervised classification belongs to the spectral pattern
and visual interpretation belongs to the latter (see Appendix 1).
Supervised classification algorithms rely on user-defined training regions that represent pure samples
of a particular class (such as water). Several different types of supervised classification algorithms
exist, but the major types are minimum distance, parallelpiped, and maximum likelihood. Minimum
distance algorithms calculate a mean value in spectral space for each training region, and then compare each image pixel value to these means. The image pixel is assigned to whatever class mean it is
closest in value to. The parallelpiped algorithm constructs a class volume in data space to further constrain the identification of data points as a given class. Maximum likelihood algorithms assume a
Gaussian distribution of pixel values within each training class and tend to be somewhat more accurate in regions of high surficial variability. Image pixels that fall within some standard deviation of the
training class mean are assigned to that class.
In unsupervised classification, any individual pixel is compared to each discrete clusters to see which
one it is closest to. A map of all pixels in the image, classified as to which cluster each pixel is most
likely to belong, is produced (in black and white or more commonly in colors assigned to each cluster). This then must be interpreted by the user as to what the color patterns may mean in terms of
classes, etc. that are actually present in the real world scene; this requires some knowledge of the
scene'
s feature /class /material content from general experience or personal familiarity with the area
imaged. In supervised classification the interpreter knows beforehand what classes, etc. are present
and where each is in one or more locations within the scene. These are located on the image, areas
containing examples of the class are circumscribed (making them training sites), and the statistical
analysis is performed on the multiband data for each such class. Instead of clusters then, one has class
groupings with appropriate discriminant functions that distinguish each (it is possible that more than
one class will have similar spectral values but unlikely when more than 3 bands are used because different classes/materials seldom have similar responses over a wide range of wavelengths). All pixels
in the image lying outside training sites are then compared with the class discriminants, with each being assigned to the class it is closest to - this makes a map of established classes (with a few pixels
usually remaining unknown) which can be reasonably accurate (but some classes present may not
have been set up; or some pixels are misclassified. In an unsupervised classification, the objective is
to group multiband spectral response patterns into clusters that are statistically separable. Thus, a
small range of digital numbers (DNs) for, say 3 bands, can establish one cluster that is set apart from a
specified range combination for another cluster (and so forth). Separation will depend on the parameters we choose to differentiate. The image classification process can be summarized in 3 steps (Figure
3-4, http://aria.arizona.edu/courses/tutorials/class/html/class.html)
(1) Feature Extraction: This is an optional step on the classification process which serves only as a
low level pre-processing of the image to reduce its spectral, or spatial, dimensionality. It can be accomplished by using any type of spatial filters or spectral transforms to reduce the data and/or en29
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
hance its multispectral features, or even by simply selecting a subset of bands. In this stage, the multispectral image is transformed into a feature image.
(2) Training of samples: In this step, pixels from the image are extracted to train the classifier to recognize patterns which help differentiate the classes. Based on these patterns, the classifier creates discriminant functions to assign each pixel to a class in the feature space.
Supervised Training: it assumes some pre-determined knowledge about the spatial distribution of the
classes on the image. The training points for each site are selected prior to the application of discriminant functions in the K-D feature space. Themes are known at the time that the classes are labelled.
Classes are labelled before clustering.
During the process of training the pixels, the classes are separated using classification algorithms.
These algorithms can be distinguished into two different groups: parametric and non-parametric
methods.
(3) Labelling: In this final stage of the image classification process, the discriminant functions are
used to label all the pixels in the entire feature image. If the training of the pixels was supervised, then
a previous knowledge of the classes spatial distribution allows the labelling of classes to be carried
out upon the application of the discriminant functions to the feature space.
Figure 3-4 the image classification process
Resource: http://aria.arizona.edu/courses/tutorials/class/html/classtypep1.html
30
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3.6.2.
Image classification in this thesis
To monitor the urban growth, the supervised classification and visual interpretation were done deriving land cover information from the Landsat TM, Spot and Aster images in the scale of region level.
Depending on the application, band combinations other than true or false colour may be used. This
kind of band combination called pseudo-natural colour composites (Figures 3-5). The images were
separately composite into a pseudo image to make a further supervised classification and visual interpretation. In different images, different band combinations are used to get the best result of a pseudo
colour image. The purpose of composition is to get ready for visual interpretation that is going to extract urban area from the image.
a: Pseudo colour image Landsat TM (1993)
b: Natural Colour image Spot (2000)
c: Pseudo image Aster (2003)
Figure 3-5 Colour images of RS
The supervised classification was tried before visual interpretation. In this thesis, the process of supervised image classification includes two steps: Taking training pixels and assigning the land cover
value to each pixel. Furthermore, method of Maximum likelihood is adopted in the classification.
Maximum likelihood (ML) classifier considers not only the cluster centre but also its shape, size and
orientation. This method has the added advantage of weighting such that image pixels are less likely
to be classified as covers with low probability of occurrence in the scene. Maximum likelihood supervised classification is used for regions that have good ground truth data available.
31
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Before take training pixels, one sample containing the land-cover subclasses is defined. The land
cover sub-classes, which are going to be classified, are decided according to the reflection characteristics and the appearance of the surface features on the pseudo colour image (see Table 3-3).
Although urban land cover related to urban activities only, however, the sub-class “built-up area” here
includes the built-up area related to rural activities like cluster of farmer’s houses. It is difficult to
recognize the urban objects on the images by the shape and size except for the large ones like airports
(Polle, 1993). The sub-class of road here is referred to the highways and main roads that link the cities. The local knowledge of the study area and the existing land-use maps of city proper (1993, 2002)
can help to identify the different land cover and taking training pixels on the image.
Table 3-3 Appearance features of the pixels on the pseudo colour image
Land
cover
class
Land cover Feature descrip- Feature descrip- Feature descripsub-class
tion of TM image tion of Spot image tion of Aster image
Urban
Built-up land
area
Construction
site
Road
Nonurban
Water
body
Linear shapes, white
or purple
Dark purple,
Offwhite
Light purple
Offwhite
Linear shapes, white
or purple
Cultivated
land
Bare soil
Dark green
Green
Linear shapes, Bright
white, Dark cyan or
dark brown
Red, Cyan or lark
Light or Bright purple
Light pink
red
Forest
Bright green colour,
Green
White, along or surrounded by the water
body
Dark green
red
Light offwhite,
along or surrounded
by the water body
Bright offwhite,
along or surrounded
by the water body
Blue, Dark blue
Dark blue, some almost black
Bank of
river ,lake and
pool
Lake and pool
Purple, Dark purple
clusters
Bright white, near the
built-up area
River
Blue, with linear
shapes
Sea
Dark blue
Dark blue, almost
black ,Dark blue
Dark blue, almost
black, with linear
shapes
Blue, Dark blue
Saltern
Dark blue, almost
black
Mainly dark blue,
some almost black
Gray cyan, Bright
offwhite
Bright white
Dark blue, almost
black, with linear
shapes
Blue, Bright blue
Blue, some dark blue
Each image is classified into three classes: urban, non-urban, water body. The result of supervised
classification is shown as Figure 3-6, 3-7, 3-8. Method of Maximum likelihood is adopted in the classification.
32
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 3-6 Land cover map by supervised classification (1993)
Figure 3-7 Land cover map by supervised classification (2000)
Figure 3-8 Land cover map by supervised classification (2003)
From the figure 3-6, the city proper and coastal districts are clearly visual, but most of the middle area
between the two parts is defined into urban area also. Comparing with relative planar drawings, it is
not the case. Because of the low spatial resolution and not good sensitivity of the sensor mode, this is
the best one generated by supervised classification after many times of tries. The similar result oc33
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
curred in figure 3-8, the main cause of it is the original image consists of two images and they are
produced with several-month interval. This makes the color vision of the same class is different. At
last, the result of Aster image is the worst of the three images of supervised classification. The figure
3-7 shows the supervised classification result of Spot image is the best. Undoubtedly, the high resolution and natural color vision are very helpful to get a precise supervised classification.
3.6.3.
Visual interpretation
Based on the reflection characteristics, such as colours, sizes, textures and shapes of surface features
on the pseudo colour image, the image is visually interpreted through the supports of the local knowledge of the operator. Figure 3-9 shows the procedure of land cover classification by visual interpretation.
The minimum mapping unit of classification object is 2 hectares; it covers a square area about 5 pixels
by 5 pixels in TM image, 14 pixels by 14 pixels in Spot image and 10 pixels by 10 pixels in Aster image. Classification is generated through some GIS operations including screen digitising, polygonization of segment map, attribute data inputting and rasterizing polygon map (Figures 3-11). The area of
urban calculated from the results of visual interpretation is listed in Table 3-5.
Due to the Spot image does not cover the south part of Dagang district, the urban area can not be gotten to do analysis. Furthermore, comparing the Landsat TM image with Aster image can see little
physical growth, namely there is few new urban areas emerge during the past ten years. Here the thesis skips over the urban area change in this part.
Figure 3-9: Flow chart of the visual interpretation procedure (Wu, 1998)
34
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3-11 a: Urban area of 1993
3-11 b: Urban area of 2000
35
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3-11 c: Urban area of 2003
Figure 3-11: Urban area in Tianjin (results of visual interpretation)
ble 3-5: Area of urban with the method of Visual Interpretation in the study area
Ta-
Year
1993
2000
2003
Urban area (ha)
57969
74223
93530
Relative urban growth
1.00
1.28
1.61
Note: the area of urban in 1993 is set to 1 to show the relative urban expansion.
3.6.4.
Verification of Classification Accuracy
The accuracy of any classification must be assessed prior to use in scientific analysis because no classification is complete. Here “accuracy” means the level of agreement between labels assigned by the
classifier and the class allocations on the ground collected by the user as test data. Accuracy assessment involves the collection of ground truth data for the classified scene. This is done by establishing
a number of test pixels within the image for which the actual ground cover is determined by field inspection, use of aerial photographs, or use of some other dataset. An overall classification accuracy is
then determined by dividing the number of test pixels correctly classified by the number of total test
pixels. Due to the limitations on my fieldwork, there was no opportunity to collect ground control
points to testify the real land cover of the land surface in the study area. So no test data were available
to compare the classification results of the visual interpretation and supervised classification.
36
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3.6.5.
Concluding remarks on the comparison of visual interpretation and supervised classification
As far as the image classification methods are concerned, the general view is that visual interpretation
can produce more accurate result. In this research, this point is reflected on the following: Firstly, the
accuracy of supervised classification is impacted by the image resolution deeply. The respective resolution of the different images is Spot10m> Aster15m> TM 30m and correspondingly the accuracy of
the supervised classification result is Spot>Aster >TM. Secondly, the sensitivity of the sensor affects
the accuracy of supervised classification result. The pixels implying different classes maybe have the
same spectral value. One sample is some roads which is constructing within the built-up area have the
absolute same spectral feature as some bare soils. Thirdly, supervised classification is still influenced
inevitably by classifier’s judgement of what different spectral feature implies, especially on pseudo
colour images. Lastly, some other factors such as cloud on the image will bring effecting on the result.
Due to the aspects mentioned above, the accuracy of supervised classification needs improving. In the
land cover maps by supervised classification of this research, some agrarian land surfaces are classified into the category of urban land and it is obvious wrong if the operator has some basic local
knowledge about the study area. But there is another appearance that the supervised classification result of Spot image is much more satisfying than other two. This implies whether the image has good
resolution and natural colour or not will determine the accuracy of supervised classification to a
strong extent.
On the other hand, visual interpretation is truly time consuming and labour- intensive. Supervised
classification can spare much time and labour.
3.7.
Urban area change detection of the cities in the study area
Recording land cover change over time is perhaps one of the most important applications of digital
remote sensing data. For example, the conversion of non-built up area to built-up area, conversion of
rural to urban land cover can be detected using a temporal comparison of spatial change determined
from satellite or airborne data. The value of utilizing remote sensing data for change detection studies
is limited only by the imagination of the investigators and potential users.
3.7.1.
Introduction to change detection
Digital change detection methods have been divided broadly into either pre-classification by spectral
change detection or post-classification change detection methods (Nelson, 1983 and Singh, 1989). In
this thesis, only method of post-classification can be used to discover the spatial-temporal change of
the urban expansion because the sensor modes of the three images are very different. In postclassification change detection two images from different dates are independently classified and labelled. The area of change is then extracted through the direct comparison of the classification results
(Howarth and Wickware, 1981). The advantage of post-classification change detection associated
with the analysis of images acquired at different times of year or different sensors. The main disadvantage of the post-classification approach is the high dependency of the land cover change results on
the individual classification accuracies.
Spectral change detection techniques rely on the principle that land cover changes result in persistent
changes in the spectral signature of the affected land surface. These techniques involve the transformation of two original images to a new single-band or multi-band is highlighted. The spectral change
37
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
data must be fully processed by other analytic methods, such as a classifier, to produce a labelled
land-cover change product.
3.7.2.
Post classification change detection
This is the most obvious method of change detection, which requires the comparison of independently
produced classified images. Software of Arcview3.2 is used in the post change detection. The result of
the visual interpretation of two different times is overlaid to view the urban expansion and to calculate
the urban expansion quantitatively. In this study, the results of visual interpretation of the land-cover
map in 1993, 2000and 2003 are used to produce change maps (see Figure 3-12).
The urban expansion areas are calculated by using the overlay function of GIS, the result of the urban
expansion from 1993 to 2000 and 2000-2003 are shown in Table 3-6.
3-12 a: 1993-2000
38
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
3-12 b: 2000-2003
Figure 3-12 Urban area changes by post-classification
Table 3-6 The area of urban growth
3.8.
Period
1993-2000
2000-2003
1993-2003
New urban land (ha)
16254
19307
35561
Summary
In this chapter, techniques of remote sensing and GIS are implemented to detect the spatial-temporal
urban growth. The method of visual interpretation and supervised classification derived the information of the land-cover classes of each image successfully and the post-classification revealed the spatial-temporal urban changes in the same area. The physical changing patterns also can be seen from
the changing maps of the study area.
Three types of remote sensing images are used to be the main data source to monitor the temporalspatial urban expansion of the Tianjin city proper and extended urban region and to derive the urban
area by method of visual interpretation. There are big gaps between each other on the spatial resolution and the colour representation. The Spot image has the highest resolution of and natural colour
representation so that it is the easiest one to do the judgement about land cover. Conversely, the Landsat TM image is the most difficult one. Due to the high spatial resolution of Spot image, the main road
network including the railway line is classified accurately. But some minor ways are classified as urban in total.
39
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
4. Urban growth in Tianjin:
To make a comprehensive study of the spatial-temporal change of urban growth in Tianjin from 1993
to 2003 and assess the local urban policy, an analytical perspective has to be chosen. This chapter first
describes what has occurred on urban growth. The change includes two main parts: social economic
change and physical change of urban area. Then the chapter analyzes the temporal growth of both social-economic and physical changes in the same study period from the perspective of district level,
transportation influence, form character and urban land use efficiency respectively. Lastly, this chapter reviews the master plan and local urban policy of Tianjin city and provides a qualitative assessment on the local urban physical development policy.
4.1.
Urban growth in Tianjin from the socio-economic perspective
During the past decade, great changes have occurred in many socio-economic fields of Tianjin city.
Here several aspects will be focused on: GDP/Per capita GDP, Population, Foreign Direct Investment
and economic structure.
4.1.1.
Socio-economic growth of metropolitan
The national economy of Tianjin witnessed rapid development, economic strength gained strong improvement. The table 4-1 shows the development of different socio-economic factors from 1993-2003.
Table 4-1 the socio-economic development from 1993-2003
Year
Population (million)
GDP (billion Yuan)
Per capita GDP (Yuan)
FDI (million US $)
Urban area (ha)
1993
8.86
53.61
6075
541.2
57969
2000
9.12
163.94
17993
2560
74223
2003
9.24
238.70
25833
3513
93530
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003. All were compiled by
Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau (TMSB).
Due to the “one child” policy, the rate of natural growth of population is low in China, especially in
big cities. So the ingoing of people from many other small-size cities and rural area is an important
part of population growth in Tianjin. Figure 4-1 shows the population size kept smooth growing in
Tianjin from 1993-2003.
Figure 4-2 shows the strong and stable development of the GDP/ Per capita GDP from 1993-2003.The
gross domestic product (GDP) got 185.09 billion yuan of the value-added in 2003 comparing in 1993,
and the GDP in 2003 is more than fourfold that in 1993. The per capita GDP reached 25833 Yuan in
2003, also more than 4 times of that in 1993.
40
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-1 Growth of population
a: Increase of GDP from 1993-2003
b: Increase of Per capita GDP
Figure 4-2 The GDP/ Per capita GDP of Tianjin from 1993-2003
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003. All were
compiled by Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau (TMSB).
Figure 4-3 reveals that the three industrial sectors have made all-round development. At the end of
2002, the primary industry reached 84 billion yuan, and its share in GDP was 4.1 percent. The secondary industry developed rapidly and became the major factor to push forward the growth of economy,
and its share in GDP was 48.8 percent. The tertiary industry continued to develop and its share in
GDP was 47.1 percent.
41
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-3 Change of the different sectors of GDP from 1993-2003
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003.
Any urban construction needs investment. For example, today almost every city founds its Economic
Technology Developing Zone (ETDZ) in China, and the same primary purpose of them is absorbing
investment to promote local economic development. Now, there are 56 national ETDZs and their important aim is to get a mass of FDI to make its ETDZ a growth pole for urban development. Tianjin
ETDZ, which locates in Tanggu district is one of them. Figure 4-4 reveals the change of amount of
FDI from 1993-2003.
Figure 4-4 Change of FDI from 1993-2003
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003. All were compiled by
Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau (TMSB).
From the description above, we can find that the increase extent of the socio-economic factor differs
from each other. FDI is the one with the strongest development from 1993-2003, the amount of it in
2003 is more than 6 times of that in 1993. GDP/ Per capita GDP almost kept the same speed in the
past decade. Although the increase speeds of them are lower than FDI, they are much higher than that
of population. The urban land development is intervenient. Figure 4-5 shows the difference between
the growth extents of the five aspects.
42
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-5 Growth in Tianjin from 1993-2003
Note: The data of 1993 is set to 1 to show the extent of change of different factors.
4.1.2.
Socio-economic growth in each district of study area
Since the study area contains 13 districts and each district has its different situation, this thesis tries to
reveal the urban growth from the perspective of district level. Among the districts, Nankai, Heping,
Hongqiao, Hedong, Hexi and Hebei make up of the oldest part of the metropolitan. In this thesis, they
are called “6 Central Districts” (local appellation) as a whole. So the 13 districts are separate into 6
Central Districts, Beichen District, Xiqing District, Dongli District, Jinnan District (these 4 districts
are called the 4 New Districts in local appellation), Tanggu District, Dagang District and Hangu District (these 3 districts are called the 3 Coastal Districts in local appellation).
The population of study area takes 65% proportion of the total population which statistical range covers all the districts, counties and towns of Tianjin city. Figure 4-6 shows the population growth of
whole study area. The increase annual rate is 4.21 from 1993-2000 and 3.09 from 2000-2003.
Figure 4-6 Population growth in study area from 1993-2003
Figure 4-7 shows the population growth of each district. All the districts made smooth growth since
1993. More than 60% population gather in 6 central districts and now the increase speed is in a low
level. Because of the even and smooth change of the population per district, the GDP and per capita
GDP almost kept synchronal increase. Figure 4-8, 4-9 show the increase of GDP/per capita GDP of
each district.
43
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-7 Population growth in study area from 1993-2003 (unit: 10thousand)
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003. All were compiled by
Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau (TMSB).
Figure 4-8 GDP growth per district
Figure 4-9 Per capita GDP growth per district
Source: Tianjin Fifty Years 1949-1999; Tianjin statistic Yearbook 2000, 2003. All were compiled by Tianjin
Municipal Statistical Bureau (TMSB).
The 6 Central Districts have the biggest-size GDP but the lowest per capita GDP due to they have the
most population among all the districts. Dagang district and Tanggu District keep ahead of other districts on both GDP growth and per capita GDP growth except 6 Central Districts. This implies that the
ETDZ and Tariff-free Zone promote the economic development strongly because they are both in
Tanggu district. For Dagang district, the big/mid-size SOE (state-owned enterprise) of petrochemical
field is the key role which leads the local economic development. This is its traditional advantage.
Due to the lack of FDI statistical data per district, the change of it can not be visual in this thesis, it is
really a pity. However, FDI is an important driver promoting urban growth and this is confirmed in
the socio-economic development of the whole city. According to the local report on FDI, the coastal
districts which own Tianjin ETDZ Tianjin Tariff-free Zone and Tianjin new harbor have absorbed
more than 60% FDI of the whole city every year after 2000(appendix 4, 5). This corresponds with the
44
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
economic development and urban physical growth of Tanggu district where Tianjin ETDZ and Tianjin Tariff-free Zone locate.
4.2.
Urban growth in Tianjin from the physical change perspective
The further analysis could be done basing on the image processing that has been described in chapter
3. Results of analysis of the satellite-derived maps illustrate the emergence of several significant patterns during the period 1993 2003. The figure 4-10 shows the urban physical growth of study area.
Furthermore, the amount and its share of urban area of each district deriving from the figure 3-11 are
shown in this section. Basing on the result of each district, the three parts of study area also can be
visualized to realize their respective role in the actual urban physical growth.
Figure 4-10 Urban area increase in Tianjin
4.2.1.
District level analysis of urban growth
The new urban land can be gotten from the urban area images of different years. Figure 4-11 shows
the new urban area distribution in study area.
Except 6 central districts, the built-up area of other districts grew from 415.9 sq km to 762.68 sq km,
nearly two times its 1993 size. The districts developed at even faster rates, increasing from a few
square kilometres urbanized in 1993 to between 32 km2 and 142 km2 per local government unit in
2003. These rates and spatial patterns are significant because they indicate a trend toward more dispersed urban development, away from the city core. Much of this development is outside of the third
ring road. Furthermore, the annual increase rate and the percent of each district presents different
change (see figure 4-12, 4-13, 4-14 and 4-15).
45
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-11 the new urban area from 1993-2003
A remarkable change is the proportion of 6 central districts declines from 28% in 1993 to 19% in
2003. This implies that most of the urban physical development happened elsewhere. Since they locate in the core area of the city proper, they have been already developed in the past and no space
maintains for them to expand urban area now. The main work they can do in the future should be improving the land use level, such as enhancing the economic efficiency of land use, renewal of old city
area, improving environment etc. Another good thing is the proportion of their population in the total
of study area also declines from 62.71% in 1993 to 62.15% in 2003 and the population density declines from 22304 persons/sq km to 21387 persons/sq km; this trend will be helpful to improve the
land use in the 6 central districts.
46
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-12 Amount of urban area per district (sq km)
Figure 4-13 increase extent of urban area per district
Note: The data of 1993 is set to 1 to show the urban area increase.
Figure 4-14 change of the position according to the share of urban area per district
47
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-15 the share of urban area per district
From the above, the change of the 6 Central Districts, the 4 New Districts and the 3 Coastal Districts
can be imaged (see figure 4-16). The 4 New Districts increased most quickly and they contribute the
biggest part in the total urban physical growth. Another noticeable thing is the 3 Coastal Districts. Although all of them made a strong increase on the size of urban area, the percent is almost unaltered,
even slightly declined.
a: urban area increase of each part
b: the percent of each part in total urban area
Figure 4-16 urban area change from the perspective of three parts
Table 4-2 (appendix 6) shows the amount of new urban area of each district and the relative proportion of total new area, as well as shows count of three parts. The most proportion of the urban physical growth occurred in 4 districts namely Dongli, Xiqing, Beichen and Tanggu from 1993-2003. The
new urban area that belongs to them makes up 72% of the total. Figure 4-17 reveals the annual increase rate of each district during the period of 1993-2000, 2000-2003. Except 6 Central Districts,
there is a same trend that the annual rate from 2000-2003 is much higher than from 1993-2000; especially the annual rate from 2000-2003 of Beichen district even is three times of that from 1993-2000.
So, this part makes us aware of that the main urban physical growth appears in the 4 New Districts,
they are ahead of other districts on almost every aspect including the amount, proportion, annual rate.
Contrarily, everything of 6 Central Districts is on the lowest position relating to the urban physical
growth.
48
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Table 4-2 Count of new urban area per district
District
1993-2000
2000-2003
1993-2003
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
Beichen
Xiqing
6 Central District
Dongli
20.08
34.01
10.73
22.88
12.35
20.92
6.60
14.08
42.11
30.93
1.1
45.52
21.81
16.02
0.57
23.58
62.19
64.94
11.83
68.4
17.49
18.26
3.33
19.23
Jinnan
19.21
11.82
24.28
12.58
43.49
12.23
Tanggu
31.73
19.52
29.64
15.35
61.37
17.26
Dagang
19.78
12.17
11.58
6.00
31.36
8.82
Hangu
4.12
2.53
7.91
4.10
12.03
3.38
Total
162.54
100.00
193.07
100.00
355.61
100.00
4 New Districts
96.18
59.17
142.84
73.98
239.02
67.21
6 Central District
10.73
6.60
1.1
0.57
11.83
3.33
3 Coastal Districts
55.63
34.23
49.13
25.45
104.76
29.46
4-17 a
49
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
4-17 b
4-17 c
Figure 4-17 Annual rate of the urban area increase per district
4.2.2.
Analysis of urban growth from the perspective of transportation
Transportation is an important factor which can affect the urban expansion process. There are 12 main
roads radiate from the centre of the city proper. Most of them connect with the second ring road directly. Here author focuses on the zone that is situated in 500m depth of each side of them (see figure
4-18).
In Chinese standard of transportation planning, the distance between two main roads is defined from
800m-1200m when planning the road net in a new urban area to be developed, and the distance be50
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
tween secondary road and main road should be 400m-600m. So, the block which is within about 500m
depth from the main road side can be considered it is impacted by the road deeply.
Table 4-3 shows the result of the count of the relative new urban area. The amount of the new urban
land which is along these 12 roads and the third ring road is respectively 46.97 square kilometre in
1993-2000 and 45.55 square kilometre in 2000-2003, and takes up 28.90% and 23.59% of the total
new urban area. So, one-fourth new urban area emerges in this zone from 1993-2003.
Table 4-3 Count of new urban area along main roads
Road
1993-2000
2000-2003
New urban
area (sq km)
Third Ring Road
Road_1
Road_2
Road_3
Road_4
Road_5
Road_6
Road_7
Road_8
Road_9
Road_10
Road_11
Road_12
Total
14.67
1.69
1.26
2.57
3.53
1.52
1.53
3.64
1.12
4.63
5.44
3.53
1.84
46.97
Proportion
(%)
9.03
1.04
0.78
1.58
2.17
0.94
0.94
2.24
0.69
2.85
3.34
2.17
1.13
28.90
New urban
area (sq km)
13.59
1.22
1.14
1.40
1.38
1.75
4.07
3.69
3.70
4.54
3.30
3.43
2.34
45.55
1993-2003
Proportion
(%)
7.04
0.63
0.59
0.72
0.71
0.91
2.11
1.91
1.92
2.35
1.71
1.78
1.21
23.59
New urban
area (sq km)
28.26
2.91
2.40
3.97
4.91
3.28
5.61
7.33
4.82
9.17
8.73
6.96
4.18
92.53
Proportion
(%)
7.95
0.82
0.68
1.12
1.38
0.92
1.58
2.06
1.36
2.58
2.46
1.96
1.18
26.02
Note: the proportion here is the share of the total new urban area of study area.
Except the third ring road, there are most new urban area developed during 1993-2003 along the road
9, which connects the city proper and Tanggu city area. Road 10, 11 and road 7 also own relatively
more new urban area among these main roads. Moreover, the least new urban area emerges in the
zone along road 2 (see figure 4-19, 4-20). Road 5, 6, 8, 9, 12 are found that the amount of relative new
urban area during the period 2000-2003 is more than period 1993-2000, but only road 6, 8 enhance
their proportion in the total new urban area. This implies that much more new urban area emerge
elsewhere from 2000-2003.
51
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-18 the main roads
Figure 4-19 proportion of new urban area along each main road from 1993-2003
52
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-20 amount and relative proportion of new urban area along each main
road
Here this study does not count the new urban area emerges along the 12 roads within the third ring
road and core area of Tanggu, Dagang and Hangu District. In fact, a mass of new urban area was developed in these areas. If the zone enlarges to the 1000m depth of each side of these main roads, the
proportion will increase greatly. This indicates that transportation is a positive factor promoting urban
physical development for a certainty.
4.2.3.
Form analysis of urban growth
This section describes the character of urban growth from the perspective of physical form. Commonly, the new urban area does not appear evenly in different directions from the urban core. There
always exist some main directions for the urban physical growth. This thesis divided study area into 8
zones according to the orientation from the city proper (see figure 4-21). As a coincidence, there are
3-4 main roads crossing in each zone. Figure 4-22, 4-23 show the growth of new urban area in different zones.
53
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-21 the zone partition according to orientation
Figure 4-22 amount of new urban area per zone
Quite a number of conversion from non-urban area to urban area occurred within the third ring road in
the both two periods and the proportion in the total new urban area reaches 19% (see table 4-4). If
adding the growth around Tanggu/ Dagang/ Hangu city area, the proportion will reach 45.5%. This
indicates that the rounding expansion of the old urban area still plays an important role. Moreover, the
east zone and the south zone in fact consist of the middle region between city proper and Tanggu/ Dagang district and about one third urban growth happened here. The urban growth on north orientation
is more than that on west orientation slightly.
54
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-23 proportion in total new urban area per zone
Table 4-4 Count of new urban area per zone on different orientation
zone
1993-2000
2000-2003
1993-2003
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
West zone
41.63
13.79
17.57
25.61
8.48
10.81
26.22
28.92
16.49
13.58
14.97
8.54
67.85
42.71
34.06
19.07
12.01
9.58
East zone
22.71
13.97
56.47
29.25
79.18
22.27
South zone
Around Tanggu
15.64
27.66
9.62
17.02
22.24
24.03
11.52
12.45
37.88
51.69
10.65
14.54
Around Dagang
19.42
11.96
10.79
5.59
30.21
8.50
Around Hangu
4.12
2.53
7.91
4.10
12.03
3.38
162.54
100.00
193.07
100.00
355.61
100.00
within ring road
North zone
Total
Figure 4-24, 4-25 show two types of the abstract of the urban physical form. They are obtained by extracting the main character of the allocation of the new urban area from 1993-2003.
55
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-24 spatial pattern of urban growth-1
Figure 4-25 spatial pattern of urban growth-2
56
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
One type is that as a whole, the urban area presents radial shape from the city proper and three segments respectively around Tanggu city area, Dagang city area and Hangu city area. It emphasizes the
urban expansion towards different orientations and the relationship with outer space. Another is that
the urban area presents three rounding shape respectively encircling the city proper/ Tanggu city area/
Dagang city area and the link between each other. The three parts consist of a triangle. Interestingly,
there exists remarkable urban growth in the central place of the triangle and three linear urban developments from this spot to each part. This type just likes an atom and emphasizes the interrelationship
between different parts of the urban area.
From the centre-periphery model, four distinct stages are recognised defined according to the percentage which industry contributes to the Gross National Product: (1) Pre-industrial, 0-10 percent; (2)
Transitional, 10-25 percent; (3) Industrial, 25-50 percent; (4) Post-industrial, declining (Herbert and
Thomas, 1990). According to this theory, Tianjin is in the transitional status from industrial stage to
post-industrial stage (see figure 4-26).
Figure 4-26 the GDP structure of Tianjin from 1993-2003
Relatively, there is another model from the perspective of the relationship between the citydistribution and the process of development, namely the three stage “industrial” model. This model
also offers insight into the dynamic spatial interrelationships between cities and their hinterlands
(Herbert and Thomas, 1990). The types of urban regions with stylised functional inter-relationships
are shown in figure 4-27, 4-28. Although this model is much more suitable for a more macro area than
the study area in this thesis, it still can provide a reference to understand the urban system in Tianjin.
From the figure 4-27 a, the urban growth of Tianjin witnesses an exhibition according with the model
of industrial stage from the perspective of physical change, namely the new urban land emerges to
enlarge the city proper along the radial roads. Furthermore, the figure 4-27 b confirms that Tianjin
already has some character of post-industrial stage. There are strong connections between city proper
and Tanggu city area/ Dagang city area. However, the relationship between Tanggu and Dagang city
area is less appreciable. At present the interaction between each other of these three parts is becoming
the most critical factor which determines the future urban physical form of Tianjin city. The indications are that the change of urban area in Tianjin corresponds with the transition from urbanized area
to city region and the pattern of urban physical growth reflects this transition.
57
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
a: industrial stage – urbanized area
b: post-industrial stage-city region
c: conurbation, metropolitan complex, urban
field
Figure 4-27 types of urban regions with stylised functional inter-relationships
One major goal of this study is to understand the spatial patterns of urban development. This thesis
brings forward the urban growth corridor; here the corridors are defined mainly by extracting the extending form of the new urban area jointing the transportation influence. The relationships with outer
space and between each inner parts of the urban area are considered in this pattern. The initial line of
the corridor was defined by the track of the new urban lands which trend to joint each other to present
linearity (Figure 4-28). Results of the analysis show that the amount of urban land has increased in all
seven corridors, with a faster increase speed after 2000 (Figure 4-29 and table 4-5, 4-6). Overall, the
trends indicate that the majority of growth occurred along corridor1, 2, in the next place, occurred
along corridor 3, 4. But the proportion of the later is much less than the former. Here the former is
defined as main corridors, and the others are minor ones. The characteristics of the two main corridors
are discussed in the following sections.
58
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-28 indicative image of the corridors
Figure 4-29 urban growth within each corridor
Corridor_1: Tanggu-city proper-Beijing
As a part of the famous Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan Region, as well as Rounding Bohai Sea Economy
Zone, Tianjin is the most important harbor serving for North China at all times, especially for Beijing,
the capital of the country. There are great deals of cargo transmitted between Beijing and Tianjin harbor everyday. Expressway, railway and other main roads were built linking them (see table 4-7). Corridor 1 contains the largest amount of both urban land and land growth of any of the corridors, primarily due to the presence of three district-level EDZ: Beichen Development Zone, Tanggu Development
59
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Zone and Industrial Zone which locates at the middle/lower reaches of Haihe River. All these zones
are associated with the industry transmitted from city proper. Secondly, Tianjin ETDZ, Tianjin Tarifffree Zone and Tianjin new harbour all are situated in this corridor; they absorbed more than 50% FDI
of Tianjin city and a great number of infrastructure investment since their foundation. This promotes
the strong development of urban construction and then the improvement of the infrastructure stimulates estate development and so on. With the deepening of the regional cooperation, the relationship
between Beijing and Tianjin will get much closer and this corridor could be foreseen increasing
strong.
Table 4-5 Count of urban area per corridor
Corridor
1993
2000
urban area
(sq km)
Proportion
(%)
2003
urban area
(sq km)
Proportion
(%)
urban area
(sq km)
Proportion
(%)
corridor_3
97.04
72.35
8.31
16.74
12.48
1.43
133.77
112.27
13.39
18.02
15.13
1.80
192.15
145.15
18.33
20.54
15.52
1.96
corridor_4
4.04
0.70
10.86
1.46
16.20
1.73
corridor_5
corridor_6
9.07
13.61
1.56
2.35
12.96
19.44
1.75
2.62
16.47
26.75
1.76
2.86
corridor_7
10.26
1.77
17.34
2.34
24.59
2.63
214.68
37.03
320.03
43.12
439.64
Note: the proportion here is the share of the total urban area of study area.
47.01
corridor_1
corridor_2
total
Table 4-6 Count of new urban area per corridor
corridor
1993-2000
2000-2003
1993-2003
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
Proportion
(%)
New urban
area (sq km)
corridor_3
36.73
39.92
5.08
22.60
24.56
3.13
58.38
32.88
4.94
30.24
17.03
2.56
95.11
72.8
10.02
26.75
20.47
2.82
corridor_4
6.82
4.20
5.34
2.77
12.16
3.42
corridor_5
corridor_6
3.89
5.83
2.39
3.59
3.51
7.31
1.82
3.79
7.4
13.14
2.08
3.70
corridor_7
7.08
4.36
7.25
3.76
14.33
4.03
105.35
64.81
119.61
61.95
224.96
Note: the proportion here is the share of the total new urban area of study area.
63.26
corridor_1
corridor_2
total
Proportion
(%)
Corridor_2: Dagang-city proper-Wuqing district town
Both urban land and land growth of this corridor follow Corridor_1 closely. It contains ETDZ of
Xiqing district and the Oceanic-Petrochemical Technology Park in Dagang district. Dagang district
has many SOE about Oceanic-Petrochemical and Petrochemical. Although the reform of SOE does
not be determined succeed until now, the fast economic growth ensures the strong need of Petro-
60
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
chemical and makes the SOEs here still keep energy today. In fact, this corridor could be taken as a
good complementarity of Corridor_1.
The other corridors include the following: Corridor_3 and Corridor_4: SW to Jinghai County, Corridor_5: NE to Ninghe county town, Corridor_6: city proper-Xianshuigu Town-Tanggu and Corridor_7:
city proper-Xianshuigu Town-Dagang.
Table 4-7 transportation lines along each corridor
Corridor
District passed through
Transportation lines along the corridor
Expressway
Main road
Railway
Tanggu-Dongli-Beichen- Wuqing,
North to Beijing
Dagang-Jinnan-Xiqing-Beichen,
North to Wuqing District
Jing-Jin-Tang;
Jin-Bin
Jing-Jin; Jin-Tang
Jing-Shan
Li-Gang
corridor_3
Xiqing, to Southwest
Jing-Hu
Jin-Gang; Jin-Zi;
Jing-Fu
Jin-Lai
corridor_4
Xiqing, to Southwest
Jin-Yang; Jin-Jing
Jin-Hu
corridor_5
Dongli-Beichen, to Northeast
Jin-Han; Jin-Yu
City proper-Xianshuigu TownTanggu city area
City proper-Xianshuigu TownDagang city area
Jin-Jin; Jin-Gu
corridor_1
corridor_2
corridor_6
corridor_7
4.3.
Jin-Jin; Xian-Qi
Urban land use efficiency
Basing on the understanding of the socio-economic development and urban physical growth, a further
analysis can be done integrating the two aspects. As known, the amount of urban land conversion relative to unit increase in population or economic growth (GDP) sheds light on urban land-use efficiencies. Two indices were developed for this purpose: urban land-use change per additional person (a
standard measure used in China) and urban land-use change per additional unit of GDP. High urban
land-use efficiency signifies that a small amount of land is converted per unit increase in population
or GDP. Conversely, low land-use efficiency indicates that the urban land requirement per person or
unit of economic activity is high (Schneider etal, 2002).
Table 4-8 shows the result about urban land use efficiency of each district and the whole study area.
Distinct information is for the average; the conversion to urban land-use per additional person gets
much lower but to urban land-use per additional unit of GDP gets slight higher.
Comparing the district results to the average by population, Xiqing and Jinnan present greater than
average ratios from 1993 to 2000 and their indexes are 3-4 times of the average ratios. Moreover,
Hangu exhibits greater than average ratios from 2000 to 2003. In other words, 1.79 ha of land was
converted for urban uses for each additional person from 1993 to 2000 in Hangu, as compared to the
study area mean of 1.01 ha per person. This figure jumps to 7.91 during the period 2000–2003, indicating that far more land was converted to urban uses per person than average.
61
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
On the other hand, 6 Central Districts and Dagang have urban lower than average land conversion to
population increment ratios during the two periods, indicating efficient non-urban to urban land conversion despite increasing populations. In the case of 6 Central Districts, it is clear from Table 4-2,
figure 4-12 and 4-13 that land conversion has been minimal. For Tanggu, population growth has been
substantial, but has not required significant land conversion from 1993-2000, and it reaches the average by population from 2000-2003.
Table 4-8 ratio of change in urban land to change in population and gross domestic product
Change land/change pop
Change land/change GDP
(ha/person)
(m2/ Yuan)
District
1993-2000
2000-2003
1993-2000
2000-2003
Beichen
3.09
2.11
0.0048
0.0110
Xiqing
3.91
-3.44
0.0082
0.0083
6 Central Districts
0.13
0.01
0.0014
0.0001
Dongli
2.49
0.78
0.0065
0.0148
Jinnan
3.20
0.43
0.0064
0.0108
Tanggu
1.41
0.35
0.0102
0.0032
Dagang
0.91
0.07
0.0053
0.0026
Hangu
1.79
7.91
0.0040
0.0184
Total study area
1.01
0.35
0.0053
0.0054
Finally, it is important to note the inefficient land conversion to population change ratios of Xiqing in
the 2000–2003 period. Although land has been converted uses in these districts, the number of urban
inhabitants has declined. Expansion in this area is clearly not population driven, but is instead attributable to others.
In terms of changing levels of GDP, urban land-use efficiency per GDP is high, namely that for every
one Yuan increase in GDP, a small quantity of land is converted to urban use, especially in the 6 Central Districts, Dagang district and Tanggu district. Low rates of land conversion relative to GDP increments reflect rapid economic growth. This growth is based partially on efficiency gains that have
increasingly resulted in more effective use of existing urban infrastructure, and enabled construction
of more land-conserving urban features, such as high-rise buildings (Schneider etal, 2002). So, basically the urban land use efficiency is good although the urban land requirement per additional person
is a little high.
4.4.
Master plan and local urban policy
With the more emphasis from citizens and urban government, master plan has become a key factor
which influences the urban growth in Chinese cities. Furthermore, most of cities’ governments have
made their clear strategy on local development including urban growth.
4.4.1.
Urban master planning
Two Master Plan of Tianjin city have been made since 1978, in 1989 and in 1995.
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URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
The Master Plan of Tianjin City (1984-2000) was finished in 1985 and approved by the State Council
in 1986. From then on it guided the development of Tianjin city until the later master plan was approved and started to implement. It summarized the designated function of Tianjin: “the comprehensively economic centre of North China, a modern seaport, and an industrial base of high-technology”.
In order to avoid continued expansion of the central urban area and control the size of city, it suggested developing several satellite towns surrounding the central urban area. Finally the urban system
consists of the central urban area, the coastal districts, and satellite industrial town in suburb.
The principle of city development was
“to renewal the central urban area,
move the industrial districts to the east
of city, emphasis the development of
the coastal districts and encourage the
growth of the satellite industrial towns
surrounding the central urban area”,
which was visualized as “picking up
two parts-- the central urban area and
the coastal districts with a shoulder
pole” (see Figure 4-30).
Figure 4-30: Master Plan (1984-2000)
The preparation of the second time
master plan of Tianjin city was started
in 1993 and the plan was finished at
the end of 1996 (see Appendix 7). On 23 July 1999, it was approved by the State Council. The planning horizon is from 1995 to 2010. The plan summarized the designated function of Tianjin as: “the
economic centre of China'
s Bohai rim, a modern port city and a major economic centre in Northern
China”. Based on the urban system planned in the Master Plan of Tianjin City (1984-2000), the new
plan defined the principle of city development in the future: “to renewal the central urban area continuously and improve its environment; to emphasize the development of the coastal districts, especially the Tianjin Port, the Tianjin Economic and Technological Zone, the Tariff-free Zone as well as
the built-up area of Tanggu to make the coastal districts a new pole of economic development of Tianjin city and an important part to implement the strategy of “moving the industrial to the east of Tianjin
city”. Furthermore, speed up the growth of the satellite industrial towns in suburb for avoiding the
expansion of the central urban area”.
4.4.2.
Local urban policy
As there has never been any special document of description on how the Tianjin city’s physical form
should develop, the main urban policy of the local government can be concluded from the master plan
of the city. The main reason is the perspective of urban development in the plan has been approved by
country and endued with force adeffect.
There were some important common grounds in the two master plans: control the expansion of city
proper, adjust its function and improve its environment; move industry to eastern area of city proper;
develop the coastal districts strongly. In the master plan (1995-2010), a new notion was brought for63
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
ward: peripheral urban conglomeration in zone nearby city proper, the word “peripheral” here means
peri-city proper, not relating to the city area in coastal districts. According to the plan, there are 8
places of this kind (see figure 4-31, 4-32, appendix 8) and most of them is planned to be developed
basing on existing town.
Synthetically, the local urban policy on the physical development of the city includes these basic aspects as following: (1) To city proper: limit its land expansion not exceed third ring road, focus its
main function on residence, commerce, culture and other service industries; (2) To industry: move
most of industries away from city proper and concentrate them on the eastern zone of the city; (3) To
coastal districts: emphasize their development especially on Tanggu District, focus its function on
high-tech industry and port. Furthermore, the other two districts’ main function is petrochemical industry; (4) Encourage developing peripheral urban conglomeration in zone nearby city proper; (5) To
the form of the urban system: interdict the coupling of the urban land of different parts, hold the green
open space between each other, keep each part relatively independent.
Figure 4-31 the urban area of official expectation in 2010
Note: the 8 peripheral urban conglomeration:
Shuangjie;
Yangliuqing;
Dasi;
Junliangcheng;
Shuanggang;
Xinli;
Xiaodian.
64
Xianshuigu;
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Figure 4-32 indicative image of urban physical development policy
4.4.3.
Comparing policies and actual urban physical growth
This section discusses the relationship between actual urban physical growth and the local policy on
urban physical development. In the foregoing description about the local policy, the future urban
physical growth is expected to obey 5 main arrangements set by local government; here the thesis tries
to analyze the reality and the expectation from the perspective of each these 5 aspects. Figure 4-33
shows the actual urban physical growth from 1993-2003 and the expectant development from 19952010 defined by local government.
(1) The local urban development policy emphasizes to limit the urban area of the city proper within
third ring road and tries to retain some natural open space between the urban area fringe and the third
ring road However, the real situation is that about one fifth of urban growth happened within the third
ring road and the urban area almost fills the zone. It is noteworthy that the new urban development
from 1993 to 2003 contains little green open space, and so there is an urgent need to protect the remaining open space of this policy is to be achieved. Furthermore, it is the last hope to improve the
natural environment of Tianjin city proper.
(2) Moving most of industries away from city proper and concentrate them on the eastern zone of the
city is the main spatial policy reacted to economic activity. Here the eastern zone mainly includes 3
Coastal Districts, as well as Dongli district, Jinnan district. Due to the same statistic standard, this sec65
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
tion chooses the amount change of enterprise and the growth of industrial product per district or zone
in 1999-2002 to judge whether the designed movement actually happened. Although it can not reflect
all about the change of the spatial allocation of the industrial land since 1995, to some extent it can
confirm if the policy makes effective on the real allocation of the industrial land use.
Figure 4-33 actual urban physical growth and expectation of local urban development
policy
Under this policy, several district-level ETDZs were founded. From the amount of industrial enterprise (figure 4-34, 4-35), it is clear that the amount of enterprise and industrial product declined in 6
Central Districts and increased in Beichen& Xiqing and eastern zone. Basically, it is difficult to determine whether the “transmitting to east” policy is on the designed way because the amount and
product of industry in the west zone namely Beichen& Xiqing also made strong growth during the
same period. But it is certain that the industrial enterprise is moved out of city proper and this also can
be confirmed partially by the fast growth of almost all the district-level ETDZs, such as Shuangjie and
Dasi, where Beichen district ETDZ and Xiqing district ETDZ respectively locate. Since the lack of
the statistic data, it is unaware of the relevant economic efficiency, investment and urban construction.
(3) A very important policy emphasizes the development of the 3 Coastal Districts, especially on
Tanggu District. In fact, Tanggu district is the main reason for the favourable performance of Tianjin
ETDZ. The average index of Tianjin ETDZ always keeps the front rank among all the national ETDZs
since its foundation in authoritative research reports such as blue book of city competition. Due to its
fast development and strong push, Tianjin’s economy holds some competitive power. In the foreseeable future, further development of Tianjin ETDZ, Tianjin TFZ, Tianjin new harbour and other devel66
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
opment zones in 3 Coastal Districts is envisaged. In the past decade, the real situation corresponds
with the policy. Although the amount of urban physical growth is less than the 4 New Districts, the
urban land use efficiency is much better than that of 4 New Districts basically, especially after 2000.
Figure 4-34 amount of industrial enterprise
Source: Tianjin statistic Yearbook 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002. All were compiled by Tianjin Municipal Statistical
Bureau (TMSB).
Figure 4-35 growth of industrial product
Note: The data of 1993 is set to 1 to show the growth.
(4) Almost all the peripheral urban conglomerations show actual growth. Because they are developed
on the base of an original town, they have quite a good condition to get further development. For example, Shuangjie is situated along the corridor_1, it is benefited by the predominant transportation;
Yangliuqing has the biggest motor-making SOE namely Chinese First Auto Company a preferential
industry in the state manufacture policy; Xianshuigu lies at the centre place of the city proper-TangguDagang triangle region, it is close to the three parts which consist of the main urban area and there are
main roads to connect each part. Even it is possible for Xianshuigu to become the future city centre if
the three parts inosculate inescapably at last. A noteworthy case is the zone on the northeast of Tianjin
Binhai International Airport. It was originally not planned as peripheral urban conglomeration but due
67
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
to its good location for development, the plan had to be modified to meet the actual need. The biggest
new urban development site emerged here in 2000-2003.
Generally, the places chosen to form peripheral urban conglomeration are suitable for development,
and strong urban growth occurred in these places.
(5) The last important item is defined for the form of the urban system. Official policy wants to interdict the coupling of the urban area of different parts, hold the green open space between each other
and keep each part relatively independent. This policy implies most of other towns which were not
decided to be developed as peripheral urban conglomeration lose opportunity on urban growth. But
the evidence shows it is not the case. From the foregoing figures, tables, at least 40% urban growth
happened in the places not closing to any main urban area (city proper, Tanggu city area, Dagang city
area and Hangu city area). In other word, quite a lot of urban growth scatters in various orientation
and sites and is occurring in the numerous towns and villages. This suggests weak regulation and control urban periphery. Furthermore, with the increasing consciousness of self-protection on land-use
right and belongings of common people, it will become more and more difficult to implement the policy forcibly. This is the biggest challenge to the relevant policy.
4.5.
Summary
The socio-economic field of Tianjin has made rapid development, economic strength gained strong
improvement. Population keeps a smooth increase while the GDP/per capita GDP grow fast. The Foreign Direct Investment also keeps a high- level amount and with its strong push, Tianjin ETDZ and
Tianjin TFZ have made large expansion. But it is hard to perfectly combine the physical change with
the socio-economic statistical data published by the government which is classified according to the
division of municipality boundary. For example, the statistical scope of Tanggu district should be as a
whole to get the data of population, GDP/per capita GDP etc, but so do only some items of the original data and other items separate the data into several parts such as Tanggu, Tianjin ETDZ, Tianjin
TFZ, even Tianjin harbour. This makes big puzzle to obtain the data corresponding with the same spatial scope.
The urban physical growth of Tianjin is strongly suggesting that the city is in the transitional status
from “industrial” stage to “post-industrial” stage. The exhibition of the urban physical growth in the
past decade tallies the description of spatial form and city-hinterland relationships of relative stage in
the model.
Urban physical growth is primarily occurring in the middle zone between city proper and Tanggu city
area/ Dagang city area. Before 2000, development was more balanced and multidirectional in orientation. It contradicts official physical plans for the study area, which advocate controlling the physical
development except a few spots in the middle zone, and especially keeping interval between each
main urban development spot along the line from city proper to Tanggu city area.
Urban physical growth has been and continues to be radial in orientation, extending outward from the
urban core of city proper along main roads. The main cause is the influence of transportation. Among
the twelve main roads from urban core of city proper, the road 1, 2, 3, 4 lead to west and road 5, 6, 7
68
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
lead to north. The others all lead to east and south, namely to Tanggu district and Dagang district.
This is an important driver which results in one third new urban area emerges in the middle zone. Furthermore, growth corridor
There are growth corridors gotten by extraction of the character of the allocation of the new urban
land since 1993 extending the sites of the most land conversion to urban uses. They define a framework of the spatial pattern of the urban area in a foreseen future. Especially, the corridor Tanggu-city
proper-Beijing will be an important element effecting the regional development of Beijing-TianjinTangshan region. In study area, it is the most crucial factor which leads the evolvement process of
urban physical form.
In terms of local policy, five crucial aspects were extracted from the master plan to reflect the policy
expectation of urban development. Generally, the policy affected the urban physical growth deeply
such as the development of 3 Coastal Districts and peripheral urban conglomeration. On the other side,
the tendency of the growth occurred in city proper and the middle zone contradicts the relevant policy
and suggests that now the policy needs some adjustment to follow the actual situation which involves
fast change.
69
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
5. Conclusions and recommendations
This chapter presents a summary of the major findings of this research.
5.1.
5.1.1.
Conclusion
Urban growth
The main findings of the urban growth can be summarized as follows:
(1) The urban physical growth of Tianjin is strongly suggesting that the city is in the transitional
status from “industrial” stage to “post-industrial” stage. The exhibition of the urban physical growth
in the past decade tallies the description of spatial form and city-hinterland relationships of relative
stage in the model.
(2) Coastal Districts will play more and more important pole with rapid development and better land
use efficiency in Tianjin metropolitan under the policy favour. The interaction between them and city
proper is the decisive element on the urban physical form in the future. In another word, how to deal
with the fast growth of some places that have not been planned in the middle zone is the most crucial
thing to form a fitting urban system in the future.
(3) Urban physical growth in the Tianjin extended urban region is primarily occurring in the middle
zone between city proper and Tanggu city area/ Dagang city area. Before 2000, development was
more balanced and multidirectional in orientation. Notably, the current pattern of growth directly contradicts official physical plans for the study area, which advocate controlling the physical development except a few spots in the middle zone, and especially keeping interval between each main urban
development spot along the line from city proper to Tanggu city area. Another noticeable finding is
that the new urban area within the third ring road makes up about 20% of the contemporary total new
urban area, and contradicts the local urban policy for this area. The official expectation is to retain
plenty of land between urban fringe and the third ring road for constructing open green space. Now
urban land almost fills the zone within third ring road.
(4) Urban physical growth has been and continues to be radial in orientation, extending outward from
the urban core of city proper along main roads. The main cause is the influence of transportation.
Among the twelve main roads from urban core of city proper, the road 1, 2, 3, 4 lead to west and road
5, 6, 7 lead to north. The others all lead to east and south, namely to Tanggu district and Dagang district. This is an important driver which results in one third new urban area emerges in the middle zone.
(5) There are two main corridors and five minor corridors extending the sites of the most land conversion to urban uses. These provide a clue to the spatial pattern of the urban area in the foreseeable future. Especially, the corridor Tanggu-city proper-Beijing will be an important element effecting the
regional development of Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan region. In the study area, it is the most crucial factor which leads the evolvement process of urban physical form.
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(6) Three modes of the urban physical growth can be found. First is the rounding growth of the main
existing urban area such as city proper, Tanggu city area and Dagang city area. About 45% urban
growth occurred in the zone encircling them. It is all around expansion. Then is linearly-outspread
growth, it basically implies the urban development along each important transportation line including
spread towards outer space. Last is connective growth namely the amalgamation of several close urban areas. In the middle area, the linearly-outspread growth along main roads absorbs our attention
easily, but the connective growth also plays noteworthy role because there are much higher density of
punctuate urban area than in other zones and they trend to joint each other. In fact, the urban physical
growth occurred between city proper and Tanggu city area/Dagang city area also can be considered an
amalgamation tendency of the different parts.
(7) Some towns in the study area are important anchors of urban physical growth. However, other key
drivers of development have joined these towns to shape peri-urban structure. In particular, main
roads connecting these towns to Tianjin city proper (and recently to each other) drive physical growth,
and create corridors alongside them. Xianshuigu Town is the best example. The airport encourages
physical development so strongly that the official plan has to be modified to meet the need of investors. Moreover, the attraction caused by fast development of some industrial zone such as Tianjin
ETDZ and Tianjin Tariff-free Zone has played a considerable role in driving the connective development from city proper to Tanggu district and Dagang district.
5.1.2.
The local urban policy and its effectiveness on urban growth
Here the local policy mainly means the city’s master plan, which set by the local government. In this
thesis, only the master plan in 1995 was discussed and compared with the real development of the city.
Although the master plan is not fully implemented, there is evidence that it has had some influence on
Tianjin’s growth.
The local urban policy contains the official expectation on development of city proper, coastal districts, peripheral urban conglomeration, the physical form of urban system and the spatial allocation
of industrial land use. There is clear blue print of each aspect respectively from the expectation of local government.
The analysis in chapter 4 shows that the master plan has a great influence to the city’s development,
especially to the aspects of spatial structure, development orientation. It can lead to a great change of
the city’s development, for example, the fast development of peripheral urban conglomeration in the
study period. But there is also big gap between the actual development tendency and the policy expectation on some aspects such as the physical form of urban system. The connective growth pattern suggests that many of the policies for spatial development are under pressure and may in time prove to be
unrealistic.
5.1.3.
The use of remote sensing image
Remote sensing image provides a useful method to do this research. They cover enough large area and
this is very useful to have a general view of the urban expansion at a regional level. They also cover
the whole urban system of Tianjin city and make this research relatively easy to carry out. Furthermore, the SPOT is very useful due to its high spatial resolution and natural colour representation. On
the other hand, there also have some negative disturbances of the images due to the different resolu71
URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
tion, appearance of each image caused by different satellite platform, for example, the same surface
has different spectral response due to their different sensor. To eliminate this kind of disturbance utmost, it is better to select the same type image in the same season to do research or to build interpretation keys season-by-season and region-by-region. The spatial resolution is another crucial factor. Low
spatial resolution will make it very hard to do more detailed classification of the land-cover types just
like the Landsat TM image in this thesis. Anyway, it is enough for the use of monitoring the urban
growth in a city scale.
Two methods of classification were adopted in the image data processing of this study, they are visual-interpretation and supervised classification. Generally speaking, visual-interpretation can produce
a more accurate classification results compared with supervised classification. It can classify the landcover types not only by the spectral characteristics but also can do classification based on shapes, colours, textures, and positions of the land surface. With the local knowledge of the interpreter, the classification result may be more accurate. The process of human interpretation also enables some generalization to be made where as supervised classification classifies all pixels and may lead to “noisy”
results with many small clusters of pixels and great spatial variation. But main disadvantage is that
human interpretation is labour-intensive and time-consuming. Supervised classification is less accurate compared with the classification result of visual interpretation. Classification results are mainly
by the spectral characteristic the image. The advantage of this method is that with this method large
amount of images cam be dealt in a relatively short time compared with the visual interpretation. It
also needs less labour force.
Remote sensing provides an important and independent data source for monitoring the urban growth
in a city scale. The technique of GIS and Remote sensing data interpretation and change detection
make the urban planners detect the changes quantitatively and qualitatively. For effective monitoring
it is however advisable to have additional local knowledge and where possible, GIS data sets that provide a possibility for increased control of the data extraction.
5.2.
Recommendations
Basing on the main finding of the urban physical growth, some recommendations to Tianjin municipality about the future urban physical development are come into being.
The freight traffic in Tianjin kept fast increase since 1990, as well as the volume of freight handled
in ports (appendix 9). Since the Tianjin harbour serve for the North China region, especially for Beijing, it could be considered that the transportation between Tianjin and Beijing will grow fast in the
foreseen future. On the other hand, coastal districts will keep high development speed due to the local
policy favourite. These two points indicate that the all kinds of the communication activities along the
Tanggu-city proper-Beijing will get stronger and stronger. Basing on this, making a considerate transportation plan is a pressing task for Tianjin metropolitan today. An advanced traffic system should be
formed including various transport way and enough affiliated infrastructure. On the other hand, to
regulate the land use along the transportation lines is also very important. For example, now the light
railway is constructing, it can stimulate the flourish of the estate along it and the municipality must be
open-eyed on this. Otherwise, the connective growth will be more unmanageable.
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URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
Enhance the integration of city proper, coastal districts and peripheral towns from both physical
and socio-economic perspective. Strengthen the urban specialization and manufacturing agglomeration in the metropolitan. For example, focus the main function of city proper on residence, commerce,
culture and other service industries; make each peripheral urban conglomeration has different pole
industry and so on. Combining this aspect, enhance the regulation of the land expansion of each part.
For example, in the area within the third ring road, we could regulate the land expansion with the
growth of other city area such as absorb some population to the big residential zone developed in peripheral towns. Tianjin’s urban physical structure could be not the same Beijing’s if the integration
deepens, it need not to develop many ring roads for the city proper under the suitable control of the
urban land expansion. Otherwise the fourth ring road maybe appears quickly if just let it be. Furthermore, the Wuqing district town should be taken as a more important part along the growth corridor
Tanggu-Beijing. It will play relatively important pole in the growth on the North orientation to Beijing
because of its good location.
Make clear plan aiming at different urban growth mode in different zone in Tianjin metropolitan.
To the rounding growth, make controlling it for city proper; make planned and great expansion for
coastal district; make suitable development for peripheral towns. To the linearly outspread growth,
make relative controlling since there will present some disturbance between the daily activities of the
people living along the lines and the transportation under the condition today in China. To the connective growth, since it is based on the rounding growth of the adjacent sites, making clear layout with
more consideration of these sites is a comparatively good way at present.
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URBAN GROWTH IN TIANJIN, 1993-2003
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Appendix 1
Developed level of Tianjin
Appendix 2
Population and population density of Tianjin
Source: Tianjin Statistical Yearbook 2003, Compiled by Tianjin Municipal Statistical Bureau
(TMSB).
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Appendix 3
Supervised and unsupervised classification
Appendix 4
Amount of the FDI in 2002 in Tianjin metropolitan
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Appendix 5
Proportion of coastal districts on main indicators
Appendix 6
Amount of the new urban area per district of two periods
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Appendix 7
Mater plan (1995-2010) of the Tianjin municipality region
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Appendix 8
Mater plan (1995-2010) of the Tianjin city proper and peripheral urban conglomerations
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Appendix 9
The freight traffic in Tianjin from 1978-2002
82